Chapter 9: Lifespan Development

While the process of growth and development is more obvious in infancy and childhood, does
development continue throughout the lifespan? Y N . In this chapter, we will study physical,
cognitive, and psychosocial development from womb to the tomb.

9.1 What is Lifespan Development?

Developmental psychologists seek to understand the question of how humans change and grow
from ___conception____ through childhood, ___adolescnence______, and adulthood.
Specifically, they study three developmental domains. Physical development involves growth
and changes in the ___body and brain_____, the senses, _motor skills_____, and __health and
wellness_______. Cognitive development_ involves learning, attention, memory, language,
___thinking____, reasoning, and ___creativity____. Finally, psychosocial development
involves, __emotions___, personality, and social ___relationships______.

What is a normative approach? An approach that asks “__What is normal development_”?

Although children develop at slightly different rates, these age-related averages are general
guidelines to compare children to their peers to determine the approximate ages they should
reach specific normative events called ____developmental milestones___ (e.g. crawling,
walking, writing, etc.) Are all normative events universal? Y N . Biological events tend to be
universal, but what about social milestones? Y N . One example of this is the age at which
children begin school.

ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

There are many different theoretical approaches regarding human development. One way in
which these theories differ is whether they believe development is continuous or
discontinuous.

Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?

Continuous development views development as a __cumulative process_______, gradually
improving on existing skills. With this type of development, there is ____gradual change___.
In contrast, some theories view development as ____discontinuous_______. They believe that
development takes place in unique stages. Change is __sudden__.

Is There One Course of Development or Many?

Another issue in developmental psychology is the question of whether development is
essentially the same, or _universal____, for all children, or does a child’s specific
environment__ and __culture_______ influence the course of development? Which theories
hold that the sequences of development are universal? ___Stage theories____. For example,
cross-cultural studies of language development have found children around the world reach
language milestones in a similar sequence. Although the sequence of these milestones seems
to be universal, is there variation in the timing of these milestones? Y N . Timing of the
milestones seems to be influenced by multiple contexts.

How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development?

Another important question in developmental psychology is the question of nature vs. nurture.
Are we who we are because of nature (__our biology and genetics__) or are we who we are
because of _nuture___ (our environment and culture)? The nature-nurture debate is a
longstanding one in psychology. While we are all born with specific ___genetic traits___
inherited from our parents, there is a deep _interaction______ between our genes and our
environment. There is a ___complex interplay between_______ between nature and nurture
and both shape who we will become.

9.2 Lifespan Theories

PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVEOPMENT

here are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop. Sigmund Freud
believed that personality develops during __early childhood____. For Freud, childhood
experiences shape our ____personalities and behaviors as adults____. He viewed
development as ___discontinuous___; he believed each of us must pass through a series of
____stages_____ during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during
a stage, we may become stuck or __fixated__. What are these stages called?
____Psychosexual stages____ Have most of Freud’s ideas found support in modern research?
Y N . However we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of
psychology. In particular, his idea that personality is shaped in some part by experiences we
have had in childhood has remained influential.

PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Who took Freud’s theory and modified it as a psychosocial theory? ____Erik Erikson_______.
Erikson’s theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature.
He also proposed that personality development takes place _across the entire lifespan_______
and that how we interact with others is what affects our ego identity. According to
psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan. At each
stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each
developmental task results in a ___sense of competence______ and a __healthy
personality__. Failure to master these tasks leads to ______ feelings of inadequacy___. What
is the basis of our development during infancy? __Our caregivers___. Therefore, the primary
task of this stage is trust vs. mistrust. Responsive and sensitive caregivers will foster a sense of
trust, while caregivers who are unresponsive will engender feeling of __anxiety__, __fear____,
and mistrust. Erickson’s psychosocial stages are presented in the table below.
 Stag Age Developmental Task Description
e
1 0-1 Trust vs. Mistrust Trust (or mistrust) that basic
needs, such as nourishment and
affection will be met
2 1–3 Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Develop a sense of independence
in many tasks
3 3-6 Initiative vs. guilt Take initiative on some activities
– may develop guilt when
unsuccessful or boundaries
overstepped.
4 7 – 11 Industry vs. guilt Develop self-confidence in
abilities when competent or
sense of interiority when not.
5 12 – 18 Identity vs. role confusion Explore and develop a sense of
self

6 19-29 Intimacy vs. isolation Establish intimacy and

relationships with others
7 30 - 64 Generative vs. stagnation Contribute to society and be
part of a family

8 65 - Integrity vs. despair Assess and make sense of life and

meaning of contributions

COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

___Jean Piaget______ is another stage theorist who studied childhood development. What did
Piaget focus on? ____Cognitive development_______. He believed___ thinking_____ is a
central aspect of development and that children are ____active learners___. However, did he
think children thought and reasoned like adults? Y N . His theory of cognitive development
holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages and that as we progress to a
new stage, there is distinct shift in how we __think and reason_____. According to Piaget,
children develop mental models____to help them understand the world. What are these?
___Schemata__ (_conceptual frameworks___) that are used to help us categorize and
interpret information. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata
through two processes, assimilation and accommodation. When children assimilate new
information or experiences in terms of their current schemata this is called
__ assimilation____. What is it called when they change their schemata based on new
information? ___ accommodation____. What is the first stage of cognitive development?
_ Sensorimotor stage___. This stage lasts from birth to about two years old. What do children
develop around 5 – 8 months of age? _Object permanence__ What is this? The understanding
that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched_. According
to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight.
Around this time, children also begin to exhibit _________________________, or a fear of
unfamiliar people. What is Piaget’s second stage? _______________________. What ages does
this stage cover? _____________________ During this stage, children can use
__________________ to represent words, images and ideas. This is why children engage in
____________________________. They begin to use language, but can they understand adult
logic or mentally manipulate information? Y N . Children at this stage have not mastered
_____________________, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of
something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added. Children also
display _____________________, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective
of others. Piaget’s third stage is the ____________________________ which occurs from
about 7 to 11. Can children think logically about real (concrete) events during this stage? Y N
They can perform mathematical operation and understand transformations. Have they also
mastered conservation? Y N What is reversibility?
_______________________________________________________________ Piaget’s final
stage is the _____________________________which is from about age 11 to adulthood.
During this stage children can think logically about abstract ideas and phenomenon. Does a
renewed egocentrism emerge during adolescence? Y N

Beyond Formal Operational Thought

More recently, researchers have proposed a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the
____________________________. In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on
________________and circumstances, and _________________ is integrated with
_______________________ as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. Does it
appear that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change? Y N We tend to
think more deeply and broadly as we attempt to solve problems.

THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

A major task beginning in childhood and continuing into adolescence is discerning
______________________________. Kohlberg believed that
_____________________________________, like cognitive development, follows a series of
stages. How did he develop his theory? ____________________________________. He then
analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of
_________________________________. He was interested in the reasoning behind a person’s
answer to the moral dilemma. According to Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning, an individual
progresses from the capacity for _____________________ morality (before age 9) to the
capacity for __________________ morality (early adolescence), and towards attaining
__________________________ morality (once formal operational thought is attained). While
many psychologists agree with Kohlberg’s theory, do they also point out that moral reasoning is
very different than moral behavior? Y N Kohlberg also believed woman are less likely than
men to progress past stage 4 and that they are deficient in their moral reasoning abilities.
Needless to say, this did not go over well with female researchers! Carol Gilligan criticized
Kohlberg’s theory because it was based only on
_________________________________________________. She argued that women are not
deficient in their moral reasoning, but that males and females __________________________.
Girls and woman focus more on _______________________and the importance of
_________________________________.

9.3 Stages of Development

Now we turn our attention to prenatal development. Prenatal development is divided into
three stages ________________, embryonic, and __________________.

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Germinal Stage (Weeks 1 – 2)
The germinal stage (weeks 1 – 2) begins at the moment of conception (when a sperm fertilizes
an egg and forms a ________________). Are the genetic makeup and sex of the baby set at this
point? Y N During the first week after conception, the zygote divides and multiplies. How
many zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks? _____________________________. As the
cells divide, they are also becoming more specialized, forming different organs and body parts.
Has the zygote attached to the uterine wall at this point? Y N

Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3 – 8)

Upon implantation, the developing organism is referred to as an ________________. The
embryonic stage last from weeks _______________. The placenta forms during this stage. The
placenta is the structure that provides _________________________________ from the
mother to the ________________________ via the _______________________. During this
stage, basic structures and systems begin to develop and function.

Fetal Stage (Weeks 9 – 40)

The final stage of prenatal development is called the _______________ stage. It lasts from
week 9 to week 40. Early in this stage ___________________ begin to differentiate. At what
point does a fetus born prematurely have a chance to survive outside the womb?
_______________. During the fetal stage, the brain continues to grow and develop rapidly
during this stage, as does every major system (reproductive, gastrointestinal, respiratory, etc.).
At what point are all the fetus’s organ systems developed enough so it could survive outside the
mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth? ______________.

Prenatal Influences
Can genetic and environmental factors affect development during each prenatal stage? Y N .
Routine prenatal care is important because it can reduce the risk of complications to the
mother and the fetus during pregnancy. Does most everything the mother ingests travel
through the placenta to the fetus? Y N . What is a teratogen?
________________________________________________________. What are some
examples? __________________, smoking, illegal and legal drugs, radiation, and
__________________. Each organ of the fetus develops during a specific period in the
pregnancy, call the _______________________________________.

INFANCY THROUGH CHILDHOOD

The average newborn weighs approximately ________________. All healthy babies are born
with newborn reflexes, which help the newborn survive until it is capable of more complex
behaviors. One of these reflexes is the ________________________. In this reflex, a newborn
will naturally turn his or her head towards a touch on the cheek. Sucking is another very
important reflex. Other reflexes include the ___________________ reflex and the
___________ reflex. While a newborn’s sensory abilities are significant, are they fully
developed at birth? Y N . Newborns prefer to look at faces over other patterns and also
prefer human voices, especially those involving speech. They also appear to recognize their
mother’s voice. Do they also have a strong sense of smell? Y N .

Physical Development
Physical development is quite rapid during the first few years of life. Does growth occur at a
steady rate? Y N . At about what age does a girl’s growth rate outpace that of a boy’s?
______________. How long does this growth spurt continue? _______________________.
While we are born with about 100 – 200 billion neurons, does the nervous system continue to
grow and develop? Y N Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during
infancy and toddlerhood. What is this period of rapid neural growth called?
______________________. This period is then followed by a period of ________________,
where neural connections are reduced to cause the brain to function more efficiently and to
allow for mastery of more complex skills. The size of our brains increases rapidly during the
first few years of life. Motor development occurs in an ________________________ as infants
move from reflexive reactions to more advanced motor functioning. As motor skills develop,
there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve. Each
milestone has an average age as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be
reached. If a baby is not reaching a milestone, they are said to have a _________. If the child
is displaying delays on several milestones, is it a reason for concern? Y N Some
developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.

Cognitive Development
In addition to rapid physical development, young children also exhibit significant development
of their __________________________. While Piaget was right about a lot of things, have more
recent researchers found fault with some of his ideas? Y N It appears Piaget underestimated
the age at which children grasp certain cognitive [Link] are also cognitive milestones
as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. Such milestones
include object permanence, being able to think symbolically, decision making, basic time
concepts, a blossoming curiosity, and a theory-of-mind (when children come to understand that
people have thoughts, feelings and beliefs that are_____________________ from their own).
Thought processes become more logical and organized during middle and late childhood. They
can understand more complex concepts (such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect
relationships). However, their _____________________________ tend to be very limited until
they are around ________________.

Even before birth babies begin to develop __________________________________ skills.

Before they are able to talk, do children communicate information through gestures? Y N As
mentioned earlier, the sequence of language acquisition seems to be universal (cooing,
followed by babbling, followed by first words). Language development is quite rapid during the
childhood years. How many new words do children learn per week? ________________. B.F.
Skinner thought children acquired language through reinforcement and feedback. Noam
Chomsky disagreed, and proposed what we are all born with an innate capacity to learn
language. What did he call this mechanism? __________________________________. It
appears they were both right! Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially
_________________ and partially learned through our
__________________________________________________.

Attachment
Psychosocial development occurs as children form ___________, ________________ with
others, and _____________________________________. What is attachment?
__________________________________. Researchers have been very interested how and
why these bonds form. Who did a series of experiments in the 1950s on monkeys?
________________________. Infant monkeys were separated from their mothers and raised
by two “surrogate” mothers. Which surrogate did the monkeys prefer, the one who dispensed
milk or the one who was soft and covered with cloth? _____________________________. It
appears feelings of _____________________________are critical components to the bonding
process. Building on the work of Harlow, John Bowlby proposed that the attachment bond is
very powerful and _______________________________. What is a secure base?
________________________________________________________. Two things are needed
for a healthy attachment: caregiver responsiveness and engaging in
____________________________________. Ainsworth’s work demonstrated that there are
different form of bonds or attachment styles. Using the __________________________
procedure to study attachment, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments:
__________________, avoidant, and _______________ (sometimes called anxious-
ambivalent). Later researchers identified a fourth style, called disorganized. In a secure
attachment, the toddler uses the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore. They don’t
like it when their caregiver leaves and are happy to see them when they return. With avoidant
attachment, the child is _________________ to the parent. Do they care when the caregiver
leaves? Y N When the parent returns, they aren’t terribly happy to see them. In resistant
attachment, the children are _____________ in the strange situation. Do they explore their
environments? Y N They are extremely upset and angry when the caregiver leaves, and are
difficult to comfort when they return. Does temperament seem to have a strong influence on
attachment? Y N
Self-Concept
Self-concept (as demonstrated by the mirror test) seems to develop around ________ months.
Once children have established a self-concept, they display a great increase in social behavior (2
– 4 years). Success in cooperating with other children, sharing, autonomy, initiating tasks and
carrying out plans helps contribute to a child’s positive sense of self. Development of a positive
self-concept is important to _________________. Parenting style may play a role in nurturing a
healthy self-concept. One style is called ________________________. This style is
characterized by reasonable demands and consistent limits, warmth and affection, and listening
to the child’s point of view. Children raised by authoritative parents tend to have
__________________________ and __________________. What parenting style places a
higher value on conformity and obedience? ____________________________. Parents are
often very strict and closely monitor their children. This style can create_______________,
___________________, and unhappy kids. However, are there cultural variations about which
style might be most effective? Y N Finally, for parents who employ the ______________style,
kids run the show and anything goes. They make few demands and rarely use punishment.
Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack _____________________. Is it also
negatively associated with grades? Y N It may also contribute to other
________________________ and increased display of disruptive behavior. However, do they
also tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and lower levels of depression? Y N
Uninvolved parents are indifferent and uninvolved. They provide for their child’s basic needs,
but little else. Children raised in this style are usually emotionally _______________,
____________, anxious, perform poorly in school and are at an increase risk of
____________________________.

__________________ refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts
with the environment. Children with an __________ temperament are happy, adaptable, and
able to regulate their emotions. Conversely, children with a difficult temperament are cranky,
have difficulty __________________________ and regulating their emotions. Is is reasonable to
assume that a child’s temperament will influence parenting style.

ADOLESCENCE
Adolescence is the period of development that begins at ______________________ and ends
at __________________________. The typical age range is from ____________ years.

Physical Development
In terms of physical development, the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable,
however the __________________________of puberty vary widely. Several changes occur
during puberty, such as the maturation of the adrenal glands and sex glands, the development
of primary sex characteristics (organs needed for reproduction) and secondary sex
characteristics (maturation which do not directly involve sex organs). When do girls experience
menarche? ___________ When do boys experience spermarche? _____________. Both sexes
experience a rapid growth spurt during and prior to puberty, with girls going through this
growth spurt a couple of years earlier than boys. The wide range of ages at which these
physical changes occur can be a source of pride, awkwardness, and/or embarrassment. Early
maturing boys seem to enjoy many benefits (more popular, confident, and independent)
however they are also at a greater risk for _______________________ and early sexual activity.
Early maturing girls might feel _________________________ about their developing bodies
and are at a higher risk for ____________________, substance abuse, and
________________________. Late maturing boys and girls may also feel self-conscious,
although the negative feelings seem to be more intense for boys (higher risk for
____________and __________________________________). One reason for the increased
risk-taking and emotional outbursts that characterize adolescence might be the fact that the
frontal lobe (which is responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning) is still maturing
and will continue to do so into early adulthood.

Cognitive Development
More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Adolescents are able to think
abstractly, consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and
opinions, and _________________________. Cognitive empathy relates to the ability to
______________________________and feel ___________________________. It appears to
begin rising in girls around _______and in boys around ________.

Psychosocial Development
Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson called this
task identity vs. role confusion. As adolescents work to form their identities, they
_________________________________, and the _______________________ becomes very
important. Do most teens report positive feelings towards their parents? Y N In fact, do most
adolescent seem to have major conflicts with their parents? Y N Most conflicts occur over
day-to-day issues (homework, clothes, chores, etc.) and tend to decrease as teens develop.

Emerging Adulthood
A relatively new stage of development is __________________________. This is a relatively
newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from _______________________.
While you are legally considered an adult in the U.S. at 18, are there other definitions of
adulthood? Y N Moreover, these definitions and milestones vary widely from person to
person and from culture to culture. Is independence taking longer to achieve in Western
cultures? Y N This phenomenon seems to be both a product of Western culture and our
_______________________. People are living longer, experiencing changes in the workforce
(requiring a college degree), and taking longer to finish a college degree. Additionally, are many
young adults returning home due to difficulties finding a job? Y N

ADULTHOOD
Adulthood begins around _________years old and has three distinct stages: ______________
(20s to early 40s), ________________ (40s to the 60s) and ______________ (60s on).
Physical Development
Our physical abilities (muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, cardiac functioning) are
at their peak during early adulthood. Physical decline during middle adulthood is
______________________. When do most women experience menopause? ______________.
Late adulthood brings about continued physical change (skin continues to lose elasticity,
reaction time slows further, muscle strength diminishes). Sensory abilities decline considerably
in late adulthood.

Cognitive Development
Cognitive changes in adulthood are numerous and complex. Do our cognitive abilities remain
steady through early and middle adulthood? Y N Crystalized intelligence (information, skills,
and strategies we have gathered throughout our lifetimes) tends to __________________ as
we age. In fact, it may even improve. However, in late adulthood we begin to experience a
decline in our fluid intelligence. What is this?
_____________________________________________. These processes become slower.
What seems to play a role in delaying the onset of these cognitive declines?
__________________________________________
What is dementia? __________________________________________. Perhaps the best know
form of dementia is __________________________ disease. Does Alzheimer’s disease have a
genetic basis? Y N . In this disease, plaques in the brain cause neural cells to die, leading to
extreme forgetfulness. The memory loss includes not only names, and people, but also how to
_______, _________, and even _______.

Psychosocial Development
Some aspects of healthy psychosocial development include activities,
_____________________________, and the role of a person’s culture. According to Vaillant,
we need to have and continue to find ________________throughout our lives. In early and
middle adulthood, meaning is found through ___________ and _______________________.
Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years (especially spouses, children, and
parents) have been found to contribute to a state of well-being. Another aspect of positive
aging is believed to be __________________________ and _______________________.

9.4 Death and Dying

Death is the end of your life story. Views of death vary tremendously from culture to culture
and from person to person. What is the aim of hospice? _______________________________
and pain management in a ______________________________________________. Often
times this care is provided at home. Has research found hospice care to be beneficial for
patients and their families? Y N Both the patient and the patient’s family members report
increased _______________________________, and ____________________________ while
receiving hospice services.
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross described the processes an individual must go through when accepting
their own death. There are five stages of grief: Denial, _______________, bargaining,
_________________, and acceptance. There is a lot of variation in how a person experiences
these stages (and if they even experience all of them). Moreover, not everyone facing death or
the loss of a loved one experiences the negative emotions outlined in the Kubler-Ross model.
Might religious or spiritual beliefs help some individuals better cope with death? Y N Many
individuals have created meaning through death and live their final years and months with joy
and hope.