Lebanese International School Ltd

GEOGRAPHY
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

CHANGING RIVER ENVIRONMENTS

The hydrological (water) cycle (Diagram B, page 78)

This is the constant recycling of water between the land, the atmosphere and the sea. It is
said to be a closed system because it goes round and round and nothing can be added or
taken away
Store
A store is a place where water is held or kept. The three main stores in the hydrological cycle
are the sea, land and atmosphere.
Flows or transfers
Flows or transfers take water from one place to another around the hydrological cycle. The
following processes are examples of flows: evaporation, evapo-transpiration, condensation,
precipitation, run-off or overland flow, interception, infiltration, through flow, percolation,
groundwater flow etc.

 Evaporation: Water is stored in the seas as a liquid. High temperature and warm
winds change the liquid water into gas (water vapour) which rises into the atmosphere.
 Evapo-transpiration: Vegetation not only intercepts rainfall but also take it up through
the leaves, stem and roots.
 Condensation: As water vapour is blown towards mountain by the prevailing wind it
is forced to rise, cools and condenses to form clouds. These clouds melt and fall as
water droplets.
 Precipitation: All form of water released from clouds/atmosphere such as rain, snow,
hail etc.
 Interception: Some rainfall is intercepted by plants and trees before reaching the
ground.
 Surface run off/Overland flow: Upland streams flow downhill and join at confluences
to form slower – moving wider, deeper rivers which eventually discharge the water into
lakes or the sea.
 Infiltration: The soaring down of water into the soil.
 Through flow: The flow of water through the soil.
  Percolation: The transfer of water down into rocks and aquifers.
 Ground water flow: The movement of water underground through the rocks and soil.

DRAINAGE BASIN/RIVER BASIN (Diagram C, page 79)

The drainage basin is the area of land drained by the river and all its tributaries. Another name
for it is the catchment area. It involves stores and transfers. The drainage basin is an open
system and it has external inputs and outputs. The amount of water in the basin varies from
time to time.

Inputs and outputs of a drainage basin

 The inputs include: energy from the sun, precipitation and water from other tributary
drainage basins.
 The outputs include: the river’s discharge, evaporation and transpiration.

Physical features of a Drainage Basin

 Watershed: Is an area of higher land which serves as the boundary of the drainage
basin.
 Source: Is where the river starts.
 Tributary: Is a small river joining the main one.
 Confluence: Is a place where two or more rivers meet or join.
 Mouth: Is a place where the river flows into the sea or sometimes a lake.
 River channel: Is the route through which a river flows.
 Channel network: Is the whole collection of channels in the drainage basin.

River characteristics
 All rivers have long and cross-profiles
 Each river's long and cross profiles are unique but they do have some characteristics
in common
 These profiles show changes in river characteristics from the source to the mouth.

The Bradshaw Model

The Bradshaw model is a geographical concept illustrating how a river’s characteristics
change along its course from source to mouth, typically showing an increase in discharge,
channel width and depth, along with a decrease in load particle size, bed roughness and
gradient. This model uses triangles to represent these variables, with widening triangles
indicating an increase downstream and narrowing triangles showing a decrease.

Long profile
The long profile of a river shows the changes in the river gradient from the source to the
mouth.
Most long profiles have a concave shape with similar characteristics:
 The source is usually in an upland area.
 The upper course of the river includes steep areas with uneven surfaces.
 In the middle course, the gradient decreases.
 In the lower section, the gradient decreases further until it becomes almost flat.

Cross profiles
 The cross profiles of a river are cross-sections from one bank to another.
 Cross profiles of the upper, middle and lower courses show the changes in the river
channel.
Courses/stages of a river
The course of the river can be divided into three parts:
1. Upper course/mountain stage
2. Middle course/valley stage
3. Lower course/plain stage

Upper course
This is where the river begins. Several streams join up to form a river. The river in this course
flows along the steep gradient but the volume of water is small.
The characteristics include:
 Shallow
 Steep valley sides
 Narrow
 Low velocity
 Large bedload
 Rough channel bed
 High levels of friction
 Vertical erosion
Middle course
River starts to meander. Many tributaries join the river. Middle-course river processes are
dominated by lateral rather than vertical erosion and by sediment transport. The majority of
sediment is transported as suspended load, and it’s finer. Coarser cobbles and pebbles
derived from upland erosion are largely deposited. The valley is wider than in the upper
course, the sides are less steep, and the channel is bordered by a floodplain.
The characteristics include:
 Deeper than upper course channel
 Gentle valley sides
 Wider than upper course channel
 Greater velocity than upper course channel
 Material in river decreases in size
  Smoother channel bed
 Lower levels of friction than upper course channel
 Lateral erosion
Lower course
Meanders and distributaries are common. River flows towards its mouth and enters the sea.
Delta may form at the river mouth. Lower course river processes are dominated by sediment
deposition and floodplain building.
 Deeper than middle course channel
 Flat floodplains
 Wider than middle course channel
 Greater velocity than the middle course channel (apart from where the river enters the
mouth)
 Material carried are mainly sediment and alluvium
 Smooth channel bed
 Lowest friction
 Deposition is dominant
River Processes
1. River Erosion
River erosion is the wearing down of the banks and bed of a river by the action of gravity and
flowing water.

A river can erode materials in four main ways:

 Hydraulic action: Refers to the action of the flowing water that hits against the river
banks and river bed.
 Abrasion/Corrasion: Refers to the process whereby the river uses its load to
constantly scrape and grind against the channel’s banks and bed.
 Attrition: This is the process whereby rock fragments carried by the water knock
against each other. The sediments rub against one another and become smaller,
smoother and more rounded.
 Corrosion/Solution: This process occurs when water in the river reacts chemically
with the minerals in the rocks and dissolves them to form a solution.

2. River Transportation
Eroded material is carried by the moving water down the river course. This material
transported is known as the river load.

A river can transport its material in the following four ways:

 Traction: This process occurs when large boulders roll and slide along the river bed.
 Saltation: This process occurs when pebbles or gravel bounce along the river bed.
  Suspension: This is when lighter materials are kept from settling down on the river
bed by the flow of water.
 Solution: This takes place when rocks such as limestone dissolve in water.

3. River deposition
A river may deposit its load anywhere along its course when the volume, energy and speed
of flow are decreased.
The causes of reduced energy include:
 Reduced discharge due to a lack of precipitation
 Decreased gradient
 Slower flow
 When the river enters a sea, ocean or lake
 The heaviest material is deposited first; this is known as the bedload
 The lighter materials, gravel, sand and silt, are known as alluvium and they are carried
further downstream
 The dissolved materials are carried out to sea

Landforms and features

1. Erosional Landforms
 V’ shaped valleys: These valleys come into existence in the upper course of the river
due to its downward cutting. The river valley becomes deep.
 Interlocking spurs: In the upper course of the river, the channel starts to meander.
Erosion happens on the outside of the bend. In the upland areas this forms interlocking
spurs.
 Pot holes: These are circular depressions found on the bed of a river. They are formed
as traction materials (boulders) roll on the bed of the river.
 Rapids and cataracts: Rapids are a stretch of a river where the water flows fast and
usually over or around rocks. A cataract is a rapid of higher height, especially one
containing great volumes of water rushing over a steep cliff.
 Waterfall (Diagram C, page 83: Creating waterfalls. Also, see figure D, page 83:
The making of Niagara Falls)
A water fall is a sudden drop along the river course. It is formed when there are
horizontal bands of resistant rock (hard rock) positioned over exposed, less resistant
rock (soft rock). The soft rock is eroded quicker than the hard rock and this creates a
step. As erosion continues, the hard rock is undercut forming an overhang (cap rock)
and a vertical drop. The drop gets steeper as the river erodes the soft rock beneath
and over time this gets bigger. The size of the overhang increases until the hard rock
is no longer supported and it collapses.
 Gorge: A gorge is a narrow valley with steep sides found at the back of the waterfall.
  A plunge pool: Is the depression formed at the base of the waterfall.
 Canyon: A canyon is a deep narrow valley with steep sides, usually wider and longer
than a gorge.

2. Depositional Landforms
 Flood plain and Levees (Figure C, page 85: Creating Floodplains and Levees):
An area of low relief created by a river during flooding, and which is covered in alluvium
or sediments.
Levees are also formed during flooding. The finer particles are carried over long
distances but the larger sediments are deposited along the banks of the river. Thus,
these sediments will continue to accumulate to for high banks known as levees.
 Meanders and Oxbow lakes (Diagrams A and B, page 84): Meanders occur when
a river twists and turns, and form hoop-like bends. The river usually bends and turns
to avoid obstacles and find the easiest route down the slope. Generally, meanders are
bends created by rivers.
Ox-bow lakes are formed as the outer banks of a meander continue to be eroded
through processes such as hydraulic action. The neck of the meander becomes
narrow and narrower. Eventually due to the narrowing of the neck, the two outer bends
meet and the river cuts through the neck of the meander.
Deposition gradually seals off the old meander bend forming a new straighter river
channel. Due to deposition the old meander bend is left isolated from the main channel
as an ox-bow lake. The water now takes its shortest route rather than flowing around
the bend.
When the water dries up, the feature left behind is known as a meander scar.

 Alluvial fan: Where a river is heavily loaded with sediment, deposition will occur which
blocks and diverts the channel to form an alluvial fan.
 Delta (Figure D, page 85: Making the Ganges Delta): A delta is a triangular or fan-
shaped deposit of sediment that forms at a river’s mouth where that river flows into an
ocean, lake, or slower river. There are a variety of delta formations, such as cuspate,
arcuate and bird’s foot.

Storm Hydrograph
Storm hydrograph is a diagram that shows how a river responds to heavy rainfall at a
particular point. It also shows how the river discharge changes throughout the year.

The discharge
This is the amount of water carried by a river at a given point in time. It is measured in cumecs
(cubic metres per second).
 The horizontal axis: Is the time in hours.
  The rainfall: Is in bars and the change in discharge is a smooth curve.
 Base flow: Is the level of water that is coming from the source and stays fairly level.
Or it is the normal flow of the river.
 Storm flow: Is the additional discharge of the river directly related to the passing of
the rainstorm.
 Peak rainfall: Is a point at which the rain is heaviest.
 Peak discharge: Is the time at which the discharge is greatest.
 Lag time: Is the difference in time between peak rainfall and peak discharge.
 Rising limb: Shows the rate at which water is entering the river channel.
 Falling limb: Shows the rate at which the water is leaving the river channel.
 Bank flow discharge: Is when the river water level reaches the top of the channel
and any further addition of run-off into the river will lead to flooding.

The steeper the rising limb, the higher the water entering the river per second; and the gentler
the rising limb, the lower the water entering the river.

Factors influencing the shape of the hydrograph (Figure B, page 88)

 Rocks (Permeable and impermeable)
 Vegetation (thickly forested and thin grasses)
 Soil (thin and thick soil, e.g. sandy and clay)
 Slopes (gentle and steep)
 Land use (rural and urban)
 Rainfall (heavy and low rainfall)
 Drainage density (few and more streams)
 Temperature (low and high)

Opportunities/benefits of rivers
 Water for domestic use
 Water for industrial use
 Water for irrigation
 Water for transport
 Water for generating electricity
 Water for leisure and tourism
 Fertile soils from flooding for farming
 A flat straight transport route for roads
 Transporting goods and people

Hazards of living near a river

The main river hazards are flooding and erosion.
Flooding
Flooding occurs when the amount of water exceeds the capacity of the river’s channel. The
excess water over flows the banks and spills out across the floodplain causing damage to the
environment, people and their property.

Causes of Flooding
This can involve both natural (physical) and human factors. In many cases, natural flooding
is made worse by people and their activities.

1. Physical factor
 Weather: Intense and prolonged rainfall leads to the runoff being greater than
infiltration capacity of the ground. Snow starts to melt as temperatures rise above
freezing.
 Rock: Impermeable rocks limiting percolation and encouraging rapid surface
runoff/over land flow.
 Soil: Low infiltration rate in certain soils e.g. clay, leads to fast runoff.
 Relief: Steep slopes cause fast runoff.
 Drainage Density: High drainage density means there are many tributary streams
that carry the rain water quickly to the main river.
 Vegetation: Low density vegetation absorbs little water and does not impede runoff.
 Temperature and evaporation: cooler air can hold less water. Lower temperatures
lead to less evaporation, which means more water in the river.

2. Human Factors
 Deforestation: Cutting down trees reduces interception and speeds up surface runoff.
 Urbanization: Concrete and tarmac surfaces together with drains mean quicker
delivery of rain water to the river.
 Agriculture: The risk of flooding is increased by leaving the soil bare; overgrazing,
monoculture and ploughing down rather than across slopes can expose the soil.
 Climate change: Increasing temperature, partly due to the burning of fossil fuels,
causes more melting of ice sheets and glaciers. It is also causing more rainfall and
frequent storms.

River bank erosion

 Erosion of the riverbanks is another hazard.
 This may be exacerbated (made worse) by flooding.
 River bank erosion leads to the loss of farmland, housing, transport routes.
 This leads to displacement of populations.
 It is estimated that 2400km of riverbanks in Bangladesh are vulnerable to erosion.
  In 2019, the homes of 8,000 people in the north of Bangladesh were destroyed due to
riverbank erosion.
Hazards/Consequences of flooding and erosion
 Loss of life and property
 Disruption of transport and communication
 Loss of water supply
 Loss of jobs
 Landslides
 Soil erosion
 Crops and animals are destroyed
 The cost of replacing what has been lost and damaged
 The challenge of removing the huge silts deposited by the flood waters
 Insurance claims (HICs)
 Wide spread famine
 Water borne diseases (LICs).
 Lower house prices
 River bank erosion
 Erosion of the riverbanks is another hazard
Flood Management Strategies

Hard engineering techniques

 Channel straightening and Deepening
 Man-made levees and embankment
 Dams and Reservoirs
 Flood relief channels
 Spillways or overflow channels

Soft engineering techniques

 Flood Warnings
 Preparation
 Flood-Plain Zoning
 Afforestation
 Catchment management plans
 Sand bagging
 Wetland conservation
Detailed Specific Example: Flooding in the Ganges/Brahmaputra
 The Ganges is 2,510 km long.
 It flows through India and Bangladesh, where it becomes the River Padma and joins
with the Brahmaputra River
 The drainage basin covers 1.2 million km
 The Brahmaputra River is 3,969 km long
 It flows through Tibet, India and Bangladesh, where it joins with the River Padma
 The drainage basin covers 651,334 km
 Both rivers have their source in the Himalayan Mountains
 Waters enter the sea in the Bay of Bengal
Causes of flooding in Bangladesh
Human causes of flooding
 Deforestation in the upland areas
 Human-induced climate change
 Urbanisation
 Agriculture
Natural causes of flooding
 Low-lying land
 Monsoon climate
 Tropical cyclones bring heavy rainfall
 Melting snow and ice from the Himalayas
Impacts of flooding in Bangladesh
 The Ganges/Brahmaputra drainage basin regularly experiences floods, including
most recently in May -July 2024 impacting approximately 40% of the population.
 In July 2019, approximately one third of the country was underwater
 More than 360,000 homes were destroyed
 Approximately 5 million people were directly affected
 Landslides damaged roads and infrastructure
 Waterborne diseases such as malaria increased
 Cox's Bazaar was severely affected displacing over 6,000 refugees
 'Normal' floods are vital to provide fertile soil and irrigation, but increasingly flooding
is becoming more unpredictable and extensive
Strategies to manage flooding in Bangladesh
Bangladesh is a Low Income Country (LIC). The country lacks the money for large schemes
to reduce the impact of flooding.
The World Bank and several high-income countries (HICs) funded the Flood Action Plan
(FAP).
The proposal included the following measures:
 Monitoring of flood levels
 Construction of levées/embankments
 Building 5000 flood shelters
 Creating floodwater storage systems
 A more effective flood warning system
 Building of dams to store water
 Reducing deforestation
The FAP was not seen as a success because many parts of the project were never
completed, including the dams and floodwater storage areas, due to inadequate funding
and corruption.
River Pollution
Human causes of river pollution
Human activity is the main source of river pollution. River pollution occurs when harmful
substances contaminate the water.
Agriculture
Pollutants from agriculture enter the water in several ways:
 Wastewater from silage and slurry
 Fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides dissolve in rainwater
 Soil erosion
 Traces of medicine from those used to treat animals
Industry
Industry pollutes water in several ways, including:
 Spillages of oil
 When water is used as a coolant and returned to rivers at higher temperatures
 Toxic substances from industrial processes being released into rivers
Domestic
Domestic premises also discharge polluted water into rivers through:
 Untreated sewage
 Water which has been used for washing clothes and bathing
 Water which has been used for leisure may be treated with chlorine
 Traces of medicines taken by humans
Impacts of river pollution
Agriculture
Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilisers entering the water lead to the following:
 Death of fish and other river wildlife which introduces bacteria into the water
 Eutrophication
 Poisoning fish and other wildlife
 More sediment entering the river which increases turbidity
Industry
The impacts of industry on the water quality are that:
 Wildlife and plants become coated in oil and cannot eat/move/fly
 Animals and plants within the water system cannot survive in higher temperatures
 Toxins enter the food chain and are harmful to wildlife and humans
Domestic
Sewage and water used in cleaning or that has been treated with chlorine may:
 Increase the levels of nitrogen in the water and introduce bacteria
 Be harmful to wildlife
 Causes chemical burns
 Medicines in the water are harmful to humans or wildlife
Management of river pollution
There are three levels of pollution management:
 Changing human activity
 Regulating and reducing quantities of pollutants
 Cleaning up the pollutants and restoring the ecosystem
Reducing human activities that produce pollutants
Alternative practices and technologies:
  Identifying and adopting alternatives to fertilisers and detergents (e.g. the use of
organic fertilisers and eco-friendly detergents).
 Public awareness and education: This includes promoting sustainable agricultural
practices, responsible waste management, and water conservation
Reducing the release of pollution into the environment
 Wastewater treatment:
 Implementing effective wastewater treatment systems to remove pollutants
 Enforcing strict regulations and standards for industries to control and reduce the
release of pollutants into water bodies
Removing pollutants from the environment and restoring ecosystems
 Introducing strategies to remove pollutants from contaminated sites and restore
ecosystems.
 Dredging to remove accumulated sediment
 Re-establishing native vegetation and aquatic species
 Adopting holistic approaches to manage ecosystems and their water quality
Detailed Specific Example: Pollution in the Nairobi River
Causes of pollution in the Nairobi River
The Nairobi River is 390 km long. Its source is in the Ondiri swamp to the west of Nairobi;
flowing through Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya.
Over 50% of the state's population lives on the banks of the river. Much of the pollution in
the river comes from the informal settlements such as Kibera and Mathare which do not
have sewage or sanitation systems.
The city does not have an effective waste management system
The river contains various types of pollutants as well as sewage, including: plastics,
petrochemicals, heavy metals, disinfectants, detergents.
Solid waste
 It is estimated that 2475 tonnes of waste is produced in the city every day
 Much of this is disposed of in the river
Industrial waste
 Many industries such as cloth manufacturers and tanneries dispose of waste directly
into the river; these include heavy metals and toxins
 Mining waste is washed into the river and its tributaries by rain
Agricultural waste
 Pesticides and fertilisers used on agricultural land are washed into the river
Impacts of pollution in the Nairobi River
 The Nairobi River is the only source of water for many people living in Nairobi
 It is used for cleaning, bathing, washing and watering
 People are consuming the river water, which leads to a range of diseases such as
typhoid, cholera and dysentery
 Heavy metals and toxins lead to an increase in rates of cancer
 The polluted water is used to irrigate the market gardens, which also increases the
risk of diseases
 Fertilisers have increased eutrophication
 The oxygen levels in the water are reduced
 Aquatic life and habitats are destroyed and damaged by the pollutants in the water
Strategies to manage pollution in the Nairobi River
Past efforts to clean the Nairobi River have failed due to a lack of:
 Funding
 Education regarding the impacts of polluting the water
 Enforcement
 Data regarding the levels of pollution
 Effective waste management
 Employ over 12,000 people to clean the river and plant trees
 Introduce a plastic tax to help reduce plastic pollution
 Educate local people so they have an understanding of the impact their waste has
on the river
 Regulation industries through the National Environment Management Authority
(NEMA) to remove waste before discharging into the rivers.
 Monitoring and fines have helped reduce toxic waste levels
 Organises regular river cleaning activities
 Educates residents about proper waste disposal practices
 The Nairobi River Regeneration and Engineering Works Programme was introduced
in March 2025, which aims to build sewage pipes and treatment plants to prevent
untreated wastewater entering the river