Pragmatics — Expanded Study Chapter
1. Pragmatics — Definition
Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that studies how context affects meaning. While
semantics focuses on the literal meaning of words and sentences, pragmatics asks how
speakers and listeners use language in real situations to convey and interpret meanings
beyond the literal content.
Simple view: Semantics = what words mean on their own. Pragmatics = what people
mean by using words in context.
Example:
- Sentence: 'Can you pass the salt?'
Semantics: a question about the listener's ability to pass the salt.
Pragmatics: a polite request for the listener to pass the salt.
Key thinkers: J. L. Austin (speech act theory), H. P. Grice (conversational implicature),
John Searle (speech acts), Geoffrey Leech (politeness).
2. Invisible Meaning (Implicature)
Invisible meaning refers to meanings the speaker intends but does not state directly. Grice
called many such meanings 'implicatures'.
An implicature is what is suggested, implied, or meant, even though it is not directly
expressed. Implicatures depend on the Cooperative Principle and maxims.
Example:
- A: 'Will you come to the party?'
- B: 'I have to work.'
B's reply implicates that B will not come, though B did not say 'I won't come.'
Grice's Cooperative Principle: 'Make your conversational contribution such as is required,
at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange.'
From this principle come four maxims: Quantity, Quality, Relation (Relevance), and
Manner.
Short explanation of the maxims:
- Quantity: Give the right amount of information (not too little, not too much).
- Quality: Do not say what you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence.
- Relation: Be relevant.
- Manner: Be clear, orderly, and brief; avoid ambiguity.
When speakers flout a maxim, listeners search for an implicature. Example: 'Some of the
students passed the exam.' (Quantity) → implicature: Not all students passed.
3. Context and Deixis
Context is everything outside the literal sentence that helps determine meaning. Context
includes who is speaking, where, when, cultural assumptions, and prior conversation.
Deixis (deictic expressions) are words whose interpretation depends on context: 'I', 'you',
'here', 'there', 'now', 'then', 'this', 'that', 'today', 'tomorrow'.
Examples of deixis:
- Person deixis: 'I' (speaker), 'you' (addressee)
- Place deixis: 'here', 'there'
- Time deixis: 'now', 'then'
- Discourse deixis: 'the following', 'the previous'
- Social deixis: forms of address (Mr., Mrs., Sir) showing social relationships.
Example in context:
- If Ali says 'I am here now' in Lahore at 3 PM, those words point to Ali, Lahore, and 3
PM. If Sara says the same sentence elsewhere, the referents change.
This is why context matters for deixis.
Practical note: language learners must learn how deixis links words to speakers, place,
and time in each conversation.
4. Reference, Inference, Anaphora
4.1 Reference
Reference is the relation between linguistic expressions (like nouns, pronouns, names)
and the actual entities they pick out in the world.
Examples: 'the President', 'the red car', 'my sister' refer to specific people or things in
context. Proper names usually have direct reference to persons or places.
Types of reference:
- Definite reference: 'the dog' refers to a particular dog known to the speaker and listener.
- Indefinite reference: 'a dog' introduces a new, non-specific dog.
- Generic reference: 'Dogs are loyal' refers to dogs as a class.
Example:
- 'A man entered the room. The man sat down.' 'A man' introduces, 'the man' refers back
to him (anaphoric reference).
4.2 Inference
Inference is the process by which listeners draw conclusions from what is said plus
context and background knowledge. Many pragmatic meanings are the result of
inference.
Example: 'She didn't come to the lecture because she was ill.' Listener infers: illness
prevented attendance; perhaps she is unwell now.
Inference depends on general knowledge, context, and Gricean reasoning. It is often
automatic for competent speakers.
4.3 Anaphora
Anaphora is when a word (usually a pronoun) refers back to another word or phrase
mentioned earlier (the antecedent). Pronouns like 'he', 'she', 'it', 'they' often function
anaphorically.
Example: 'Fatima bought a book. She read it on the bus.' 'She' refers to Fatima, 'it' refers
to the book.
Types of anaphora:
- Pronoun anaphora: he, she, it
- One-anaphora: 'One should be careful.' (general)
- Cataphora (forward reference): 'When he arrived, John sat down.' (less common)
Practice: Identify antecedents in 10 short sentences (exercise section below).
5. Presupposition
Presuppositions are assumptions the speaker makes that the listener accepts as true for the
sentence to make sense. If presuppositions fail, the sentence may be odd.
Example: 'John's brother is tall.' This presupposes that John has a brother. If John has no
brother, the statement is problematic.
Common triggers of presupposition:
- Definite descriptions: 'the king of Spain' presupposes there is a king of Spain.
- Factive verbs: 'know', 'regret' presuppose truth of their complement ('She knows that the
meeting is today' presupposes the meeting is today).
- Temporal clauses, change-of-state verbs ('stop', 'start').
Presuppositions are often backgrounded; speakers can cancel implicatures but not
presuppositions easily without special phrasing.
6. Pragmatic Markers
Pragmatic markers are small words or phrases that organize discourse or indicate the
speaker's attitude without changing core truth-conditions.
Examples: 'well', 'so', 'you know', 'I mean', 'actually', 'okay', 'right'. They help manage
interaction and signal relationships between utterances.
Examples and functions:
- 'Well' can introduce a response ('Well, I don't know').
- 'You know' invites shared knowledge ('It's cold today, you know').
- 'Actually' signals correction or contrast.
- 'So' can signal result or return to topic.
Note: Pragmatic markers vary by language and culture and are essential for natural
speech.
7. Politeness and Face
Politeness in pragmatics studies how speakers show respect, avoid offence, and manage
social relationships. Brown and Levinson's politeness theory is influential.
They introduced the ideas of 'face', 'positive face', and 'negative face'.
Positive face: the desire to be liked, appreciated, and approved by others.
Negative face: the desire to be autonomous, free from imposition.
Speakers use politeness strategies to protect both kinds of face.
Politeness strategies:
- Bald on-record: direct and clear (e.g., 'Close the window.'). Used when urgency or
power allows.
- Positive politeness: shows friendliness and camaraderie (e.g., 'Could you, mate, close
the window?').
- Negative politeness: shows deference and minimizes imposition (e.g., 'Could you
possibly close the window?').
- Off-record (indirect): hints or indirect requests (e.g., 'It's cold in here.').
Examples of cultural variation: what counts as polite varies across cultures — e.g.,
directness can be polite in some contexts and rude in others.
8. Speech Acts
Speech act theory, from J. L. Austin and John Searle, studies what we do with words.
Saying something can be an action: promising, ordering, apologizing.
Austin distinguished locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts:
- Locutionary act: the act of saying something (the words and their literal meaning).
- Illocutionary act: the intended action performed in saying something (e.g., promising,
ordering).
- Perlocutionary act: the effect the utterance has on the listener (e.g., persuading,
frightening).
John Searle classified illocutionary acts into types: representatives (assertions), directives
(requests), commissives (promises), expressives (thanks, apologies), and declarations
(e.g., 'I now pronounce you husband and wife').
Examples:
- 'I apologize.' (illocutionary = apologizing)
- 'I promise to call you.' (illocutionary = promising)
- 'Could you open the window?' (illocutionary = request/directive)
8.1 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts
A direct speech act says exactly what it means, usually with literal form matching the
function: 'Close the door!' is a direct command.
An indirect speech act uses one form but another function: 'Can you close the door?' is a
question about ability on the surface but often functions as a polite request.
Indirect speech acts often rely on context and politeness strategies. They help speakers be
polite or diplomatic.
9. Pragmatic Competence and Development
Pragmatic competence is the ability to use language appropriately in social situations. It
includes knowing conventions, politeness, implicatures, and how to interpret indirect
speech. Children gradually develop pragmatic abilities; cross-cultural learners need
explicit teaching of pragmatics.
Examples of pragmatic failure: using a literal 'Yes' to a polite request 'Could you pass the
salt?' may seem rude. Learners must learn not only grammar and vocabulary but also
pragmatic norms.