LOCATING SOUNDINGS
The basic element of a hydrographic survey is defined by the implemented sounding operation. In order
that measurements of the depth of water may be useful, it is important to know the accurate location of
the point at which the depths were measured. The process of determining the horizontal position of a
measured depth with respect to an established system of horizontal control is called position fixing. The
principles involved are similar to those employed in topographic surveys.
There are various methods used for locating soundings. The method to be used is usually dependent on
the size of the body of water, the number of sounding to be taken and located, and the desired accuracy
and economy of the survey. Hydrographic survey methods used in determining and locating soundings
are varied in number. The following are the principal methods employed.
1. Time Interval Along a Range Line
2. Range Line and an Angle from Shore
3. Intersecting Range Lines
4. One angle and Stadia Distance from Shore
5. Two Angles from Shore
6. Two Angles from Boat
7. Distance Along a Cross Rope or Wire
8. Direction and Vertical Angle
1. Time Interval Along a Range Line
This is generally used when the required accuracy of the survey is not high. This method is simple and
economical to undertake. However, it should be understood that any variation in the speed of the boat
during sounding work will make the positions of the soundings inaccurate. The boat’s speed should be
kept uniform and the measurement of depths taken and plotted.
2. Range Line and an Angle from Shore
This commonly used on small lakes or where range lines extend only to relatively short distances
towards the water from the shore area. A series of connecting base lines on shore may be established if
there is need to extend the limits of the area to be surveyed. The boat is steered along a number of
parallel ranges. It is constantly kept on a range line as defined by signals established on shore. As each
sounding is taken, a transit or theodolite at one end of a base line on shore is used to measure the angle
between the base line and the reference sight on the boat. The range lines are fixed either by two flags or
signals on shore or by one flag on shore and a marker buoy set in position at some distance offshore.
3. Intersecting Range Lines
The fixed range lines are located on shore and so laid out to intersect at approximately right angles. In
this method the boat proceed to the intersection of any two range lines and soundings are taken. The
shape and size of the body of water and the topography of the shore are important factors to consider
when adapting this system.
4. One angle and Stadia Distance from Shore
This is performed in a manner similar to that of stadia surveying. It is convenient for surveys of small
bodies of water. The theodolite or transit is set up on shore and the stadia rod carried in a heavy flat-
bottom boat. The instrumentman observes the stadia interval on the rod at the instant the sounding is
taken and also reads the corresponding bearing or azimuth angle.
5. Two Angles from Shore
A common method of locating soundings is to observe directions to the boat simultaneously from two
instrument stations. This method is adapted when it is difficult to establish range signals on shore. Such
conditions exist when the shore is surrounded by cliffs or is heavily forested. At times it may also be a
problem to keep the boat accurately on an established range due to strong currents and waves.
6. Two Angles from Boat
Two angles need to be simultaneously observed from the boat to three fixed points on shore. These
selected points usually are part of an established horizontal control system. This method of locating
soundings is an application of the three point problem. A sextant is normally used since a boat is not
stable and steady enough to support a transit or a theodolite.
7. Distances Along a Cross Rope or Wire
This method is suitable for surveying detailed cross-sections of rivers and channels. The procedure,
which is sometimes called the “tag-line” method, is very accurate but is more expensive to undertake as
compared to locating soundings along range lines. Both ends of the rope (or wire) are fixed by reference
to detail on the banks. The rope is graduated into convenient units and stretched across the stream or
between marker buoys. Sounding are then taken at each marked graduation along the rope.
8. Direction and Vertical Angle
A convenient methods of locating soundings where there is a cliff or high bluff is by observing vertical
(depression) angles with a transit or a theodolite. This method, which is also known as the “Norwegian
Method”, is particularly useful when the instrument used can be set up at stations having a commanding
view of the lake. Sounding are located by observing the azimuth of the boat and reading the vertical
angle to a reference mark on it at the instant depth measurement is taken by the boat party. The
horizontal distance from the instrument to the boat is the product of the difference in elevation between
the instrument and boat target and the cotangent of the vertical angle.
Electronic Positioning System
Electronic positioning systems are designed to measure the time of transit or difference in transit times
of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere. A typical system consists essentially of transmitting on a
fixed frequency an unmodulated radio wave from the ship to three triangulation stations of known
position. It requires a relay unit on shore which must be equipped with transmitter, receiver, and an
amplifier. A reference transmitter station is also employed on shore to transmit a continuous wave
signal. By applying the known velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves in air, the time required
for the wave to travel to a target and back can be converted into the corresponding distance between the
ship and the targets. To be able to locate a sounding vessel the distance from the ship to two established
ground stations must be known.
1. Short-range Navigation (Shoran)
This method of electronic positioning was originally developed for blind bombing by military aircraft
and aerial photographic reconnaissance. It is usually employed when a rapid determination of position is
required even under adverse weather conditions. Shoran operates on low frequencies and has a working
range of from about 80 to 120 kilometers depending largely on the height of antennas used. With precise
Shoran equipment distances can be determined to hundredths or even thousandths of a kilometer.
2. Long-range Navigation (Loran)
The principle employed in long-range navigation is similar to that of short-range navigation, except for
the use and transmission of high pulses of electromagnetic energy. High frequency waves are employed
in the Loran method since these waves allow the measurement of greater distances. Also, the waves
follow the curvature of the earth better than low-frequency waves and are thus more suitable for
extensive hydrographic and geodetic measurements.
3. Electronic Position Indicator (EPI)
It combines some of the principles and techniques used in long-range and short-range navigation. The
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys developed this system in order to increase the measurement capability
of the two systems developed earlier while still maintaining a comparable degree of accuracy. By using
EPI method a survey ship can be located with an accuracy similar to that of Shoran and for distances of
from 500 to 800 kilometers.
4. Radio Acoustic Ranging (RAR)
It calls for the measurement of two or more distances which are derived from the accurate measurement
of times required for a subaqueous sound to reach two or more established receiving stations. The
transmitted sound originates from the position of the vessel and the receiving stations used must have
known geographic positions. By measuring the travel time and multiplying it by the effective velocity of
sound, the distance from the sound source to each receiving station is determined. A distinct advantage
of RAR is its independence of the conditions of visibility, thus making it functional even at night or
during times of low visibility.
Echo Sounding
Echo sounding is a type of sonar used to determine the depth of water by transmitting acoustic waves
into water. The time interval between emission and return of a pulse is recorded, which is used to
determine the depth of water along with the speed of sound in water at the time. This information is then
typically used for navigation purposes or in order to obtain depths for charting purposes. Echo sounding
can also refer to hydro acoustic "echo sounders" defined as active sound in water (sonar) used to study
fish. Hydro acoustic assessments have traditionally employed mobile surveys from boats to evaluate fish
biomass and spatial distributions. Conversely, fixed-location techniques use stationary transducers to
monitor passing fish.
The word sounding is used for all types of depth measurements, including those that don't use sound,
and is unrelated in origin to the word sound in the sense of noise or tones. Echo sounding is a more rapid
method of measuring depth than the previous technique of lowering a sounding line until it touched
bottom.
Distance is measured by multiplying half the time from the signal's outgoing pulse to its return by the
speed of sound in the water, which is approximately 1.5 kilometres per second [T÷2×(4700 feet per
second or 1.5 kil per second )] For precise applications of echo sounding, such as hydrography, the
speed of sound must also be measured typically by deploying a sound velocity probe into the water.
Types of Echo Sounders
A fathometer is an instrument used for determining the depth of water by echo sounding. Portable and
non-portable types of fathometers are generally used.
1. Portable Fathometers – this type may be mounted on a small boat or suspended over the side.
2. Non-portable Fathometer – many sounding vessels are equipped with permanently fitted sounding
gear, and in most cases the transmitter and detector are attached to suitable places on the hull. These
models are considered part of the navigation or survey equipment of the sounding vessel.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS uses signals from satellites to pinpoint a location on the Earth’s surface. In addition to transmitting
information about location, GPS can provide data about velocity and time synchronization for various
forms of travel.
Unlike conventional techniques, GPS surveying is not bound by constraints such as line-of-sight
visibility between survey stations. The stations can be deployed at greater distances from each other and
can operate anywhere with a good view of the sky, rather than being confined to remote hilltops as
previously required.
GPS is especially useful in surveying coasts and waterways, where there are few land-based reference
points. Survey vessels combine GPS positions with sonar depth soundings to make the nautical charts
that alert mariners to changing water depths and underwater hazards. Bridge builders and offshore oil
rigs also depend on GPS for accurate hydrographic surveys.
Dredging Operations
Dredging is the excavation of material from a water environment. Possible reasons for dredging include
improving existing water features; reshaping land and water features to alter drainage, navigability, and
commercial use; constructing dams, dikes, and other controls for streams and shorelines; and recovering
valuable mineral deposits or marine life having commercial value. In all but a few situations the
excavation is undertaken by a specialist floating plant, known as a dredger.
Dredging is carried out in many different locations and for many different purposes, but the main
objectives are usually to recover material of value or use, or to create a greater depth of water. Dredges
have been classified as suction or mechanical.
Dredging has significant environmental impacts: it can disturb marine sediments, leading to both short-
and long-term water pollution, destroy important seabed ecosystems, and can release human-sourced
toxins captured in the sediment.
Scow Measurements
The quantity of material dredge from any body of water can be determined either by sounding or scow
measurement. Depth measurements are obtained before and after dredging when soundings are used.
The spacing of the soundings will depend upon the smoothness or irregularity of the bottom and upon
the difficulty of excavating the material. Sounding taken in tidal waters or in rivers at different stages of
the stream must be reduced to a common datum. Where cross sections are used in the average end-area
method of computing the volume, the areas of the cross sections may be computed or the cross sections
may be plotted to scale. The areas are then determined by planimeter or by counting the unit squares
enclosed by the drawn outline of the cross section.
Another method commonly employed in determining volume of dredge material is to measure the draft
of a scow before and after loading. An estimate is made of the volume of water displaced during the
loading process since any floating body, such as a scow, will displace a volume of water of the weight as
the body. The change in displacement provides an accurate measure of the load. The weight density of
the excavated material and the specific weight of the water in which the scow floats are essential
quantities used in the computations.
Reservoir Sedimentation Survey
The construction of dams and reservoirs require extensive topographic and hydrographic surveys. Dams
are barriers which are built to hold hack or impound water. the impounded water forms an artificial lake
or pond, called a reservoir, in which water is collected and stored usually for purposes of irrigation,
water supply, and hydroelectric power production and transmission. A survey is made to the reservoir
site to determine its capacity at various stages of the water surface. Series of soundings are taken at the
site in order to plot the reservoir map. The prepared map should portray primarily underwater or depth
contours of the reservoir.
Marine Construction and Maintenance Survey
The involvement of a civil engineer during the early stages in the planning and development of ports,
wharves, harbours, and other marine structures is highly essential. His task usually includes the
preparation of plans and designs, supervision of all new marine constructions, the execution of related
hydrographic surveys, and the subsequent maintenance of existing marine structures.
Data concerning the underwater topography and the character of the bottom material are necessary for
the design of marine structures. Tidal information is also necessary when planning for marine
constructions along the coast. Taking of soundings at periodic intervals to detect and record any changes
in navigational depths is an important task and responsibility to provide adequate maintenance. Such
surveys are important for the safety of docking vessels. Hydrographic surveys are also made to
determine the extent of sedimentation in some reaches of navigable rivers and channels. Such surveys
are executed to determine the need for any remedial dredging work.
Problem. A rectangular deck scow 30.50 m long, 6.10 m wide, and 3.66 m high has a draft of 1.22 m
when light and a draft of 3.05 m when loaded. The bottom length of the scow is 23.15 m. The waterline
is 29.26 m long when the scow is loaded with rocks and 25.60 m long when light. If sea water weighs
1026 kg/cu.m and the loaded dredged material weighs 3208 kg/cu.m, determine the following:
a. volume of water displaced when unloaded or light
b. displacement loaded
c. weight of the water displaced by the load
d. volume of the loaded rock
SOLUTION
a. Solving for the volume of water displaced when unloaded or light
Formula:
b. Solving for the displacement loaded
Formula:
c. Solving for the weight of the water displaced by the load
Formula:
d. Solving for the volume of the loaded rock
Formula: