Practical Crime Scene

Processing and Investigation

Chapter 2: Understanding the

Nature of Physical Evidence
Understanding the Nature of Physical Evidence
● Physical evidence has greater power and ability than
testimonial evidence in defining what happened at any
crime

● Physical Evidence is what it is, it is tangible.

Understanding the Nature of Physical Evidence
● We do not exclude testimonial evidence, however we seek
corroboration of testimonial evidence through some objective means.
That means is called Crime Scene Analysis, which is the end result of
any effort directed at crime scene processing.

● The more physical evidence recovered, the more likely a functional

and objective theory of what transpired during the crime will be
forthcoming.
Understanding the Nature of Physical Evidence
● CSIs are the “jack of all trades and master of none”
● Before the crime scene technician can expect to process a scene for
evidence, he or she must have a working knowledge of the nature of
physical evidence, what a crime lab can do with it, and how best to
collect it.

● CSIs should join organizations such as International Association for

Identification (IAI) or local divisions such as Florida Division of IAI
(FDIAI) to remain current in the field.
Physical Evidence

• Class Characteristics - describe traits or characteristics of evidence

that allow the item to be compared with a group
• Examples: Glass, Fibers, Tape, Fingerprint Pattern Types (Loops, Whorls,
Arches), etc.

• Individual Characteristics - allow the item to be compared with a

specific object or person and include or exclude it as having
originated from that object or person
• Examples: Fingerprints (specific minutia), wear patterns of tires and soles
of shoes, DNA.
Physical Evidence

• Individualization is a major goal of forensics

• It is powerful evidence to conclusively state that this blood, or

this fingerprint came from this individual.

• Of course, the power of this evidence is directly related to the

context in which the crime scene technician finds it.
 Locard’s Principle of Exchange
• Edmond Locard, a French Criminalist, considered to be
the father of the modern crime laboratory.

• States: “every contact leaves a trace”

• Believed that when two objects came in contact with one

another, material from the first would be transferred to
the second, and material from second would be
transferred to the first.
Cross
Contamination
• Unintentional Exposure of one item of
evidence to another

• Caused by the inappropriate handling of

evidence

• By exposing one item of evidence to

another, evidence from the first is passed
to the second.

• It is the responsibility of the crime scene

investigator to isolate evidence and use
validated collection techniques to
prevent cross-contamination issues.
Mechanical Fit
• Also known as “fracture matching”
• Unique form of evidence where an item is
damaged and pieces are deposited in the scene.
These pieces, when collected, are preserved in
their original shape and condition. When the
source object is located and examined, it may be
possible to see exactly where the piece broke off
from the original object. Because the breakage is
accidental, it is also random, which makes it
possible to individualize a specific piece to a
specific item.
TRACE EVIDENCE
Hair, Fibers, Glass, Soil, Paints/Polymers, GSR
 Hairs
• Hairs most often allow class
characteristics and in some rare cases
allow individual
• Hairs are first distinguished by species,
then race, then location of body
removed from
• Species → Race → Location of body
removed from
 Fibers
• Fibers also allow class characteristics
typically
• Fibers are classified by their
originating source
• Natural
• Manufactured
• Synthetic
 Hairs and Fibers Collection
● Hairs and fibers will disappear quickly,
they must be collected as soon as
observed
● Most common methods of collection
are:
○ Sterile Forceps / Tweezers
○ Taping
○ Vacuuming
 Glass Evidence
• Examination of glass is directed at one of three
determinations:
• Glass Type
• Direction of Force
• Sequence of Force
Glass Evidence – Type Determination
• Compare known glass to the unknown to determine if it can be
excluded or included as coming from the same source

• Example: Hit and Run. (Broken Head light)

• Refractive Index (RI)- optical property of glass, specifically how light

passes through. (Class Characteristics of Glass)

• Mechanical Fit – can provide Individual Characteristics of Glass.

 Glass Evidence – Direction of Force
• Evaluate the radial fractures present in the first concentric
ring of glass fractures in an effort to determine in which
direction force was applied to the pane of glass

• Method to evaluate is referred to as the 4R Rule:

Ridge lines on Radial fractures are at Right angles to the Rear

Glass Evidence – Direction of Force
 Glass Evidence – Direction of Force
Ridge lines on Radial fractures are at Right angles to the Rear
Glass Evidence – Sequence Determination
Evaluate situations where multiple projectile defects in glass
are arranged in close proximity to one another and their radial
fractures meet
Paints and Polymers
• Class Characteristics: Color of paint or
its basic type (enamel, latex, etc.),
ingredients, chemical makeup, thickness
and layering are all components that
help discriminate paint.
• Mechanical fit of paint chips may also
be done to Individualize
• When collecting paint, the CSI should
try and cut beneath the transfer to get
the full thickness
Trace Evidence Collection
Proper Packaging Methods:
● Druggist / Pharmacist Folds
● Petri Dish
● Coin Envelopes
● Glycine Envelopes

● Smaller container should then be

placed in larger envelope or evidence
paper bag.
 Pharmacist’s
Fold
The pharmacist’s fold is an effective way to
collect samples of small substances (e.g.
dried blood, paint chips, etc.). It is produced
by folding the outer thirds of a paper in
toward the idle, but at a slight angle. This
results in a fold where one end is slightly
larger than the other. The folded paper is
then folded in thirds again, but this time
lengthwise. The smaller of the two ends is
then inserted into the larger. The
pharmacist’s fold prevents particles from
escaping the fold. This is then sealed inside
another appropriate container.
Trace Evidence
Collection
• Three Step Process:
• Visible (White Light / ALS)
Collection (Tweezers)

• Trace Tape Lifts

• Trace Vacuum
Soil Evidence
• Soil is a complex mixture of inorganic and organic substances,
and it can vary significantly, even across a single backyard.

• Environmental contamination can lead to variations

• Pollen is easily identifiable and the presence or absence may

help exclude samples

• When trace soil is found the CSI should not remove the soil
from the article.
Soil Evidence - Collection
• Placed in clean, pint-sized paint cans
• Minimum of ½ -1 cup of soil.
• Collect from a variety of likely areas.
• Entrances/Exit ways to area

• Next to body

• Underneath body
 Gunshot Residue (GSR)

•
•

•
Biological
Evidence
Biological Evidence

• Biological evidence provides class and

individual characteristics
• Class Characteristics: Blood Types (A, B, AB, O);
Rh factor (+/-); Species Determination;
• Individual Characteristics: DNA
Biological Evidence - Types

• Blood • Nasal and ear secretions

• Bone • Saliva

• Hair* • Semen

• Feces • Sweat

• Fingernails and Fingernail • Urine* (limited potential

Scrapings to provide a DNA profile)

• Particulate flesh, skin, • Vaginal Secretions

and/or organs
 What is DNA?
• DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
• DNA is found in the nucleus of cells on the
chromosomes.

• DNA made up of billions of paired nucleotides

• Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Adenine (A), and Thymine (T)

• A-T and G-C. (AT Gotham City)

• DNA can distinguish all individuals except identical twins

• In blood, only white blood cells contain DNA.
 1984 - Alec Jefferys found a mapping
mechanism that allowed DNA to be compared

Further development led to Restrictive

Biological Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

Evidence
RFLP allowed for individualization

RFLP however relied on large undegraded

samples
 A new technique known as Polymerase
Chain Reaction (PCR) allowed scientists
to make copies of DNA

Biological This alleviated many of the issues with

Evidence RFLP

PCR however had very low statistical

results
 To resolve the low statistical issues with PCR, a new
technique known as Short Tandem Repeat (STR) was
found

STR is the technique the most commonly used.

Biological
Evidence STR increased the statistical results and led to the
testing of touch DNA

Touch DNA has allowed for much smaller samples to

be tested however cross contamination issues have
increased dramatically
DNA Profiling
Mitochondrial DNA
(mDNA)

• Inherited singularly from the

mother
• mDNA is found in the
mitochondria in the cells, not the
nucleus.
• mDNA is used for the analysis of
hair and missing person cases
 Biological Evidence
• Biological evidence is found in two volumes:

• Large volume - stains, tissues, or fluids

• Trace amounts - touch DNA

 Preserving DNA Evidence

Proper Collection Methods: Proper Packaging Methods:

• Swabbing • Swab boxes / Envelopes
• Petri Dish
• Cuttings / Scrapings • Druggist / Pharmacist Fold
• Liquid Samples** • Butcher Paper / Paper Evidence
Bags
• MVAC Filters • Vials (liquid samples)
• NEVER USE PLASTIC BAGS!!!
Biological Evidence - Collection
• Wet articles are transported by any means to the lab for drying and
proper submission
• Trace amounts of biologicals must first be recognized
• Recognition may be done through sources such as alternative light
sources (ALS)
• Swabbing is preferred method.
• Enhanced Tool technique such as M-VAC. (Microbial Vacuum)
 Butcher
Paper

Sometimes, larger articles of

clothing are needed to be
packaged in order to preserve
the DNA and possible
bloodstains on items.
To avoid the item being folded
in on itself, place item on to
large sheet of butcher paper
and fold.
 A presumptive test will allow investigators to determine
if the suspected sample is most likely blood. However,
false positives still exist.

Examples:

▪ Phenolphthalein (Kastle-Meyer)

Presumptive Testing ▪ Leuchomalachite Green,

▪ Luminol,

▪ Hemastix,

▪ Hemident

▪ Bluestar
 • Reacts with the heme molecule in
blood.
Phenolphthalein • Not specific for human blood
Testing • A positive reaction gives a pink
color.
• A positive and negative control
must be conducted
Phenolphthalein • Procedure:
Testing • Using a sterile cotton swab, collect a
sample of the suspected stain. If sample
is dry, apply a drop or two of distilled
water to cotton swab prior to swabbing
stain.
• Apply two-three drops of Alcohol to
swab.
• Apply two-three drops of
Phenolphthalein solution to swab.
• Apply two-three drops of Hydrogen
Peroxide
Friction Ridge
Evidence
Friction Ridge Evidence
• Friction Ridge are the most
common form of evidence sought
in a crime scene
• Friction Ridge evidence provides
individual characteristics.
• An analyst can identify or exclude
an individual print by comparing
ridge details and their associated
minutiae in the questioned print
with a known inked fingerprint of
an individual.
Friction Ridge Evidence
• Friction ridge develop in the fetus at about 12 weeks.
• Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
• There are three basic patterns:
• Loops - 65% of all patterns (Radial Loops and Ulnar Loops)
• Whorls - 30 % of all patterns (Plain Whorls, Central Pocket Loop Whorls,
Double Loop Whorls, Accidental Whorls
• Arches - 5% of all patterns. (Plain Arches and Tented Arches)
Fingerprint Patterns
 Sub-Patterns of Fingerprints
LOOP (65 %) WHORL (30%)
ARCH (5%) Radial Loop Plain Whorl
Plain Arch Ulnar Loop
Central Pocket Loop Whorl
Tented Arch (Right/Left
Slanted) Double Loop Whorl
Accidental Whorl
 Friction Ridge /
Fingerprint
Evidence
• Friction Ridge Examination is
based on both the ridge details
and the minutiae present within
the patterns produced by the
ridges.

• The three basic ridge

characteristics the forensic
examiner looks at are:

• Dots; Ending ridges; Bifurcations

• There are no minimum points
needed to make a “match”
Friction Ridge Found at Crime Scenes

• The friction ridge found deposited in the crime scene consist of

approximately 98% water.
• The remaining 2% is a combination of grease, oil, salts, and amino
acids
• Three forms of prints found on scenes:
• Latent Prints
• Patent Prints
• Plastic Prints
 Latent Prints

• Invisible prints created by the deposit of normal body secretions.

Must be developed by physical or chemical process.
 Patent Prints

• Visible prints caused by deposit of contaminants (e.g. bloody or

greasy finger marks).
 Plastic Prints

• Print impressions left in soft substance creating a 3D impression.

 Crime Scene Prints
Three considerations when processing a scene for prints:
1. Methods for processing on scene are a fraction of
what can be done overall
2. Fingerprints endure
3. No way to predict when a print was deposited
 Factors Affecting Print Deposition
● Substrate Characteristics (texture, presence of contaminants,
etc)
● The amount of pressure between the friction ridge surface and
the substrate
● The duration of contact and nature of the contact (e.g. static
contact and movement between the surfaces)
● Depositor Characteristics (e.g. age, gender, diet, washed or
unwashed hands and fingers)
 Friction Ridge Collection / Packaging
• Proper Collection Methods:
• Tape Lifts / Fingerprint Cards
• Photography
• Gel Lifters / Mikrosil Castings

• Proper Packaging:
• Paper Bags
• Paper Envelopes
Firearm
Evidence
Firearms
• Firearms have both class and individual characteristics
• Firearm Analysis considers the weapon and any expended
cartridge cases, bullets, or unexpended cartridges in an effort
to associate these items to one another.
• Firearm Analysis is also directed at examining GSR on objects
and making distance determinations when GSR patterns are
present.
Firearm Categories
• Handguns- short-barrel, intended to be shot from 1 or 2 hands

• Pistol

• Revolver
Pistols
• Pistols contain magazines that are inserted into the lower
receiver of the weapon
• Each time the weapon is fired a cartridge casing will eject and
a new cartridge will reload the weapon
Revolvers
• Revolvers contain a cylinder that contains a cylinder gap - a
space between the cylinder and the barrel that allows the
cylinder to rotate freely. Once fired the casings remain in
the cylinder
Firearm Categories
• Long-Barrel Firearms: intended to be shot from shoulder using 2 hands.
• Rifle – rifled bore

• Shotgun – smooth bore

Bore
Rifling
• Refers to a series of grooves
manufactured in the barrel of the
weapon that give the projectile spin

• Made up of projections known as lands

and depressions known as grooves that
will twist either right or left
 Firearm Evidence - Ammunition

Primer + Casing + Gun Powder + Projectile

Cartridge
 Firearm Evidence - Ammunition
• Modern shotgun ammunition consists of:
• Cartridge/Shotgun Casing
• Pellets/Projectile (slug)
• Wadding
• Shotshell Cup
• Gunpowder / Primer
Firearm Evidence - Ammunition
 Firearm Evidence – Class Characteristics
• Caliber of Weapon (9mm, 40 S&W, .45 Auto, 12 gauge, etc.)
• Shape of Firing Chamber (circular, elliptical, etc.
• Location of Firing Pin
• Shape of extraction/ejection mechanisms
• Number of lands, grooves, and twist direction
Firearm Evidence – Individual Characteristics
• Microscopic comparisons of test fired projectiles / fired casings may
allow for exclusion or individualization of projectiles to the weapons
that fired them

• Shotgun Pellets do not hold individual characteristics

 Firearm Evidence – Packaging
• Firearm evidence should be packaged separately.
• Firearms must be UNLOADED, MADE SAFE, and ATTACHED FIRMLY to
firearm boxes

• Each fired casing; each projectile should be packaged separately

 Firearm Evidence – Packaging
• Glassine Envelopes (Fired Casings)
• Paper Envelopes/Bags (Live Cartridges)
• Firearm / Rifle boxes (Firearms/Magazines)
Impression
Evidence
Impression
Evidence
• Present at a crime scene in the form of shoe
and tire marks, bite marks, tool marks, and
plastic fingerprints.

• Tire and shoe wear evidence is an

independent discipline that evaluates both
three-dimensional impressions and two-
dimensional patterns

• Forensic Odontologist (Forensic Dentist) –

evaluate bite marks
Impression Evidence
• Examiners evaluate both 3-D impressions and 2-D impressions

• Shoe Wear and Tire Impressions offer both class and individual characteristics.
 • Class characteristics:

• make/model of tire (tread design)

• size/rim of tire,
Tire Marks
• wheelbase, turning diameter….

• Individual characteristics of tire marks....

Impression Evidence
• Class characteristics of
shoe marks:
• Make / Model of shoe
(tread design)
• Size, sole shape
• Individual characteristics
of shoe marks.....
Impression Evidence – Collection / Packaging
Proper Collection Methods:
• Photography
• Static Lifts
• Gel Lifts
• Castings

Proper Packaging Methods:

• Envelopes / Cardboard Boxes
 Tool mark evidence has both class and
individual characteristics

Typically, tool mark evidence is examined

by firearms examiners.
Toolmark
Evidence Whenever possible the entire tool mark
should be recovered:
• If this is not possible a casting may be made

Restoration of Serial Numbers

Toolmark
Evidence
 Other Categories of Evidence
• General Chemical Evidence (Ex. Drugs / Accelerants, Etc)
• Document Evidence (Ex. Threatening notes, etc.)
• Handwriting analysis; forgery analysis;
• Computer and Cell Phone Forensics
• Forensic Pathology
• Cause / Manner of Death; Injuries; Stages of Decomposition, etc.