DGCA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics (Detailed Notes – Simple English) 1.
Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
Air is a fluid that has mass, weight, and elasticity. It can be compressed and expanded.
The three main properties of air are pressure, temperature, and density. When
temperature or pressure changes, the density also changes. The relationship between
them follows the Gas Law: pressure × volume = constant × temperature.
Bernoulli’s Principle says that when air speed increases, its pressure decreases. This
principle helps explain how lift is produced on a wing. The Continuity Equation means air
moving through a smaller area must move faster to maintain mass flow.
2. Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
Four main forces act on an aircraft: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Lift acts upward, weight
acts downward, thrust moves the aircraft forward, and drag resists motion. Lift and drag
depend on the shape of the airfoil and the angle of attack. The ratio of lift to drag (L/D)
shows how efficient a wing is.
The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the direction of
airflow. The center of pressure is the point where all lift acts.
3. Airfoil Terminology and Types
An airfoil is the cross-section shape of a wing. Important terms are chord line, camber,
leading edge, trailing edge, and thickness. A cambered airfoil is curved and produces lift at
zero angle of attack. A symmetrical airfoil has equal upper and lower surfaces and needs a
positive angle of attack to produce lift.
High-lift devices such as flaps and slats increase lift at low speeds for takeoff and landing.
4. Lift Generation
Lift is created because air moves faster over the top of the wing and slower underneath.
The pressure on top is lower and pressure under the wing is higher, creating an upward
force. Newton’s third law also explains lift: the wing deflects air downward, and the
reaction pushes the wing upward. Factors affecting lift are air density, velocity, wing area,
and angle of attack.
5. Drag and Its Types
Drag is the resistance of air against motion. Parasite drag includes form drag, skin friction,
and interference drag. Induced drag is caused by the production of lift and increases when
angle of attack increases. The total drag is the sum of parasite and induced drag. The best
efficiency occurs at the point of maximum lift to drag ratio.
6. Flight Mechanics
In steady level flight, lift equals weight and thrust equals drag. In climbing flight, lift is less
than weight and thrust is more than drag. In descending flight, lift is more than weight and
thrust is less than drag. Turning flight introduces extra load factor. The tighter the turn, the
higher the load factor and stall speed.
7. Stability and Control
Stability means the aircraft’s ability to return to straight and level flight after disturbance.
Longitudinal stability is controlled by the horizontal tailplane, lateral stability by the dihedral
of the wings, and directional stability by the fin and rudder. Static stability is the initial
tendency to return, and dynamic stability is the behavior over time.
8. Control Surfaces
Primary controls are ailerons, elevator, and rudder. Ailerons control roll, elevator controls
pitch, and rudder controls yaw. Secondary controls include trim tabs, servo tabs, and
balance tabs, which reduce pilot effort and maintain steady flight.
Adverse yaw happens when the upward aileron causes more drag; it is corrected with
rudder coordination.
9. High-Speed Aerodynamics
At high speeds, air compressibility becomes important. When airflow reaches near the
speed of sound, shock waves form. The Mach number is the ratio of aircraft speed to the
speed of sound. The critical Mach number is the speed when airflow first reaches Mach 1.
At this point, wave drag and Mach tuck can occur. The area rule is used in aircraft design
to reduce wave drag.
10. Flight Performance and Airspeeds
Aircraft performance depends on thrust, drag, lift, and weight balance. The power required
curve shows how much power is needed for steady flight. The best range and endurance
depend on the L/D ratio and engine performance.
Airspeed terms: Indicated Airspeed (IAS) is what is read on the instrument, Calibrated
Airspeed (CAS) is corrected for position error, Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) is corrected for
compressibility, and True Airspeed (TAS) is the actual speed through the air.
Summary:
Aerodynamics explains how aircraft fly using forces of lift, weight, thrust, and drag.
Stability and control keep the aircraft balanced, and high-speed aerodynamics introduces
compressibility effects. Understanding these helps engineers maintain, troubleshoot, and
ensure safe flight performance.