PRIME CENTER MITHI

PROFESSOR DLEEP SOOJANI CHEM XI 2NDCHAPTER

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

· 1909: Robert Andrews Millikan, through his oil drop experiment, determined that the charge on
an electron is an integral multiple of 1.6×10−19 Coulomb.
· 1911: Ernest Rutherford proposed that an atom has a central, positively charged nucleus where
most of its mass is concentrated, with electrons revolving in the extra-nuclear part.
· By 1920: Scientists understood that most of the atom's mass resides in the central nuclear core.
· 1932: James Chadwick discovered the neutron, a third subatomic particle that is neutral and
located within the nucleus.
SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES OF ATOM

Electron Proton Neutron

Goldstein (1886 James Chadwick
Discoverer J.J. Thomson (1897 A.D.) A.D.) (1932 A.D.)
Revolves in orbits/shells outside the Located in the
Location nucleus nucleus Located in the nucleus
Charge Negative charge Feature No charge (neutral)
The mass of an atom's
nucleus is almost
Nearly 1836 times less than a proton Nearly equal to the entirely due to the
Mass and 1839 times less than a neutron mass of a neutron protons and neutrons
Keeps moving around the nucleus
due to electrostatic force of Together with Together with
attraction with protons. Their neutrons, they form protons, they form the
Role in the arrangement affects atomic stability, the central core central core (nucleus)
atom melting points, etc. (nucleus) of an atom. of an atom.
Equal in magnitude
Charge Equal in magnitude to the positive to the negative
Magnitude charge of protons charge of electrons N/A

Other particles of atoms

here are the key points about other particles of an atom:
Positron:
 Discovered by C.D. Anderson in 1932.
 Has a unit positive charge.
 Its mass is equal to that of an electron, and is considered negligible.
 When it merges with an electron, it emits electromagnetic radiation.
 It is denoted by −1​ e0.
Meson (π):
 Discovered by Yukawa in 1935.
 Belongs to the "meson family," with different types found in an atom.
Neutrino (e0):
 Discovered by Pauling in 1927.

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 It does not bear any charge, making it an electroneutral particle.

Antiproton:Discovered by Segre in 1956.
 It bears a unit negative charge.
 Its mass is equal to that of a proton
Properties of Cathode rays
(i) Cathode rays travel in straight line.
(ii) Cathode rays produce mechanical effect, as they can rotate the wheel placed in their path.
(iii) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles known as electron.
(iv)Cathode rays travel with high speed approaching that of light (ranging between 9 10 to 11
10 cm/sec)
(v) Cathode rays can cause fluorescence.
(vi)Cathode rays heat the object on which they fall due to transfer of kinetic energy to the object.
(vii) When cathode rays fall on solids such as X Cu, rays are produced.
(viii) Cathode rays possess ionizing power i.e., they ionize the gas through which they pass.
(ix)The cathode rays produce scintillation on the photographic plates.
(x) They can penetrate through thin metallic sheets.
(xi)The nature of these rays does not depend upon the nature of gas or the cathode material used in
discharge tube.
(xii) The e/m (charge to mass ratio) for cathode rays was found to be the same as that for an
ELECTON. Thus, the cathode rays are a stream of electrons.
Properties of anode rays

(i) Anode rays travel in straight line.

(ii) Anode rays are material particles.
(iii) Anode rays are positively charged
(iv) Anode rays may get deflected by external magnetic field.
(v) Anode rays also affect the photographic plate.
(vi) The e/m ratio of these rays is smaller than that of electrons.
(vii) Unlike cathode rays, their e/m value is dependent upon the nature of the gas taken in the tube.
It is maximum when gas present in the tube is hydrogen.
(viii) These rays produce flashes of light on ZnS screen.
Introduction
Bohr Atomic Model

 Rutherford's atomic model, which compared electrons revolving around the nucleus to planets
orbiting the sun, had a major flaw.
 This comparison was defective because electrons are charged particles, while planets are not.
 According to classical physics, an orbiting electron would continuously lose energy and
eventually spiral into the nucleus.
 However, this does not happen, nor is a continuous spectrum formed. Instead, a line spectrum is
observed.
 These issues were explained by the Danish physicist Neil Bohr in 1913 A.D.
 Bohr's atomic model was based on Planck's quantum theory.
Postulates of Bohr's Theory
Postulate (i): Electrons revolve around the nucleus in specific circular orbits that are located at a
fixed distance from the nucleus.
Postulate (ii): As long as an electron stays in its appropriate orbit, it neither gains nor loses energy.
Each orbit has a fixed energy level, and the energy of these orbits increases as their distance from
the nucleus increases.
Postulate (iii): When an electron is excited, it absorbs a specific, quantized amount of energy.
This absorption causes it to jump from a lower energy orbit to a higher energy orbit.
When the electron returns to its original lower energy orbit, it emits the same quantized energy.
This energy change (ΔE) is described by the equation: ΔE=E2​ −E1​ =hν
In this equation, 'ν' is the frequency of the radiation and 'h' is the Planck constant.

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Postulate (iv): Electrons are only able to move in specific orbits where their angular momentum
(mvr) is an integral multiple of h/2π.
The formula for this is: mvr=2πnh​
Here, 'm' is the mass of the electron, 'v' is its velocity, 'r' is the radius of the orbit, and 'n' is an
integer (1, 2, 3, ...).
Advantages & Key Points of Bohr’s Atomic Theory
(i) Explanation of Spectra
Successfully explains the spectra of single-electron species like:
Hydrogen (H), Helium ion (He⁺), Lithium ion (Li²⁺)
These are species where Z-electron = 1.

(ii) Radius of Bohr’s Orbit

Formula:

⚡ (iii) Velocity of Electron

Formula:

(iv) Energy of Electron in Bohr’s Orbit

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(v) Energy Emission During Transition

(vi) Frequency & Wavelength of Emitted Radiation

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the defects of Bohr's theory or Bohr's atomic model:

Defect (i): Bohr's model is only applicable to hydrogen and other species that have a single
electron revolving around the nucleus, such as He+, Li2+, and Be3+. It fails to explain the spectra
of multi-electron systems like He, Li, and Be.
Defect (ii): Bohr's model proposes that electrons revolve in circular orbits on a single plane.
However, it was later proven that electrons move in three-dimensional space, not just on a single
plane.
Defect (iii): According to Bohr's concept, an electron's location and velocity in an atom can be
precisely known. This directly contradicts the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which states that
it is impossible to simultaneously determine both the exact position and momentum (and thus
velocity) of a particle.
Defect (iv): Bohr's theory only accounts for the particle nature of the electron. It does not explain
the wave nature of the electron, as proposed by de Broglie's hypothesis.
Spectrum and Hydrogen Spectrum

Monochromatic light: A light composed of only one type of ray or wavelength.

Polychromatic light: A light composed of more than one type of ray. Examples include sunlight
and light from a bulb.
Spectrum
 When a beam of polychromatic light passes through a glass prism, it disperses into several colors.
 These colors are arranged in order of increasing or decreasing wavelengths.
 The resulting band of colors is called a spectrum.
TYPES OF SPECTRUM
Continuous Spectrum
 This is a spectrum that contains a continuous band of different colors.
 In a continuous spectrum, all colors are diffused into each other, and there are no marked
boundary lines between them.
 A common example is sunlight passing through a prism, which splits into a continuous band of
seven colors (VIBGYOR).
 Red light is the least deviated and has a high wavelength (7000 Å).
 Violet light has the maximum deviation and a low wavelength (4000 Å).
 A rainbow is a natural example of a continuous spectrum.
Line Spectrum
 It is a spectrum of distinct lines separated by dark spaces.
 It is produced when light from electrically or thermally excited atoms passes through a prism.
 The number and distance of the lines are unique to each element, making it a "fingerprint" for
identification.
 It confirms that electrons in an atom have definite energy levels (E1​ ,E2​ , etc.).
 Electrons jump to a higher energy level (E2​ ) after absorbing energy and emit energy when
returning to a lower level (E1​ ).
 The energy difference (E2​ −E1​ ) equals the energy absorbed or emitted.
 Types of Line Spectra

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Absorption Line Spectrum:

 A continuous spectrum of light is passed through a gaseous sample.
 The sample absorbs specific wavelengths.
 The resulting spectrum consists of a series of dark lines against a bright background.
 Emission Line Spectrum:
 Produced by light emitted from excited sources like sodium or mercury vapor lamps, or electrical
discharge tubes.
 The spectrum consists of bright lines on a dark background.
Did You Know?
The word "spectroscopy" comes from the Latin word "spectrum" (image) and the Greek word
"skopia" (observation). Spectroscopy is the study of the absorption and emission of light by matter.

Hydrogen Spectrum:
 Hydrogen is a simple atom: It has one electron revolving around a single, positively charged
nucleus.
 Ground State: At ordinary temperatures, the electron resides in the lowest energy level (n=1),
known as the ground state.
 Excitation: When hydrogen gas is excited (e.g., in a Crookes tube), the atoms absorb energy and
the electron jumps to higher, unstable energy levels (excited states).
 Emission: The excited electron then falls back to lower energy levels, directly or in stages, by
emitting energy in the form of photons.
 Line Spectrum: When these emitted radiations are passed through a prism, a line emission
spectrum is produced, not a continuous one. This spectrum consists of several sharp, fine lines.
 Spectral Series: The wavelengths of these spectral lines are grouped into five series, named after
their discoverers. These series lie in the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared regions.
 Wave Number Formula: The wave number (νˉ) of each spectral line can be determined by the
following equation:

RH​ is the Rydberg constant, which is approximately 1.09678×107m−1.

n1​ is the lower energy level.
n2​ is the higher energy level.

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Series Transition Region Wavelength Range (Å)

Lyman n2=2→∞ TO n1 = 1 Ultraviolet < 4000 Å
Balmer n2=3→∞ TO n1=2 Visible 4000–7000 Å
Paschen n2=4→∞ TO n1=3 Near Infrared > 7000 Å
Bracket n2=5→∞ TO n1=4 Mid Infrared Infrared
Pfund n2=6→∞ TO n1=5 Far Infrared Infrared
Planck's Quantum Theory:

Origin: The theory was proposed by German physicist Max Planck in 1900 to explain the
emission and absorption of radiation. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1918 for this work.
Postulate 1: Atoms do not absorb or emit energy continuously.
Postulate 2: Energy is absorbed or emitted in specific, discrete packets called quanta. A quantum
of light energy is called a photon.
Postulate 3: The energy of a quantum (photon) is not fixed.
Postulate 4: The amount of energy of a quantum is directly proportional to the frequency (ν) of
the radiation. This is represented by the Planck equation:
E=hν.
'h' is Planck's constant, with a value of 6.625×10−34 Js in SI units.
X-rays:

Discovery: In 1895, W. Roentgen accidentally discovered X-rays.

Formation: They are produced when fast-moving electrons (cathode rays) collide with a metal
anode in a discharge tube.
Properties: X-rays are highly penetrating, short-wavelength radiations. They can pass through
materials like paper, glass, rubber, metal, and human flesh.
Types of X-rays: Based on their wavelengths and intensity, there are two main types of spectral
lines of X-rays, as analyzed by Moseley:
1. K-series: Produced by elements with large atomic numbers. These spectral lines have short
wavelengths and high energy because the electron transition occurs from a high energy level to a
low energy level, indicating a large energy difference.
2. L-series: Produced by anodes with small atomic numbers. These spectral lines have long
wavelengths and low energy because the electron transition occurs between energy levels with a
small energy difference.
Production of X-rays
 X-rays are produced in a special type of discharge tube.
 The tube contains a heated filament (cathode) and a tungsten anode.
 Under high voltage (5000 V) and very low pressure (0.001 mm), cathode rays (electrons) are
emitted from the cathode.
 These electrons travel at high speed and strike the tungsten anode.
 The sudden deceleration of electrons in the anode atoms causes the production of X-ray photons.
Properties of X-rays
 They are short-wavelength, high-energy, invisible electromagnetic radiations.
 Their range of wavelength is between 0.1 and 10 Å.
 They travel at the speed of light.
 Penetration power increases as the energy of the X-rays increases.
 Like cathode rays, they travel in a straight line.
 They are unaffected by electric or magnetic fields.
 They affect photographic film.
 They have enough energy to ionize gases and can damage and destroy living cells.
Uses of X-rays
 Medical: Initially used to help set broken bones. Current uses include:
 Examining defective or damaged teeth (by dentists).

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 Destroying cancer cells.

 Industrial & Security: Analysis of metallic substances or bullets in flesh.
 Checking baggage for concealed metallic items, blades, or illegal goods at airports.
 Scientific:Determining the structure of crystals using X-ray diffraction techniques.
Moseley's Law and Atomic Number
Discovery: In 1913, Moseley studied the wavelengths of X-rays produced from 38 different
elements (from Aluminum to Gold).
Observation: He found that the wavelengths of X-rays decreased regularly as the atomic masses
of the anode metals increased.
Moseley's Law: He deduced that the frequency of these radiations is directly proportional to the
number of protons in the nucleus (atomic number, Z).
Formula: The square root of the frequency (root of v) is directly proportional to the atomic
number (Z) of an element.

, where 'a' and 'b' are constants.

Radioactivity

Discovery: The phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered by French scientist Henry Becquerel
in 1896 while working with a uranium mineral called pitchblende.
Observation: He noticed that the mineral continuously emitted invisible rays. These rays could:
Produce bright spots on photographic plates.
Ionize gases.
Penetrate thin metal sheets.
Cause fluorescence on a zinc sulfide screen.
Naming: Initially called Becquerel rays, they were later named "radioactive elements" by Marie
Curie, and the phenomenon was termed "natural radioactivity."
Radioactive Elements: Elements that spontaneously emit these radiations are known as natural
radioactive elements.
Process: Natural radioactive elements break down into more stable elements through this
spontaneous emission of radiation. This process continues until a stable element, such as lead (Pb-
82), is formed.
The Curies: Marie and Pierre Curie isolated the radioactive components, Polonium and Radium,
from pitchblende.
Do You Know? (Radiocarbon Dating)
Radiocarbon dating is a method used to determine the age of organic material (like wood or
bones).
It works by measuring the properties of Carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon.
This method is commonly used to predict the age of ancient objects
Artificial Radioactivity
Artificial radioactivity occurs when a stable element is bombarded or struck by a nuclear particle,
causing it to become radioactive and produce nuclear radiations.
An example is the decay of Uranium-238 to Thorium-234 and an alpha particle:
92238​ U→90234​ Th+24​ He (Uranium) → (Thorium) + (α-rays)
Types of Radiations
Rutherford's Experiment: Rutherford used a lead box to contain a radioactive sample and passed
the emitted radiations through an electric field.
Observation: He observed three types of radiations, which he named alpha (α), beta (β), and
gamma (γ) rays, based on how they were deflected.
Separation by Magnetic Field: The radioactive rays can also be separated using a magnetic field:
 Alpha (α) rays are deflected towards the south pole.
 Beta (β) rays are deflected towards the north pole.
 Gamma (γ) rays are not deflected, indicating they have no charge.

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the uses of nuclear radiations:

 Medical Field: Used to diagnose, monitor, and treat diseases.
 Used to study bone formation in mammals.
 Radiotherapy is a common treatment for cancer.
 Radioisotopes are essential in the field of nuclear medicine.
 Agriculture Field: Radioisotopes are used to treat seeds to produce new varieties of crops.
 Energy Production: Nuclear radiations are used for the production of energy
 Nuclear power plants, such as the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant, generate electrical energy.
Industries:
 Used to monitor the quality of products.
 Radioisotopes are used to measure the density of metals and the thickness of plastics.
 Geology: Used to study rocks.
 Archeology:The Carbon-14 isotope is used to measure the age of fossils and artifacts (radiocarbon
dating).
Quantum numbers
Each orbital in an atom is specified by a set of three quantum numbers (n, l, m) and each electron is
designated by a set of four quantum numbers (n, l, m and s).
(1) Principle quantum number (n)
(i) It was proposed by Bohr and denoted by ‘n’.
(ii) It determines the average distance between electron and nucleus, means it denotes the size of
atom.
(iii) It determine the energy of the electron in an orbit where electron is present.
(iv) The maximum number of an electron in an orbit represented by this quantum number as . 2 n2
No energy shell in atoms of known elements possess more than 32 electrons.
(v) It gives the information of orbit K, L, M, N------------.
(vi) Angular momentum can also be calculated using principle quantum number
(2) Azimuthal quantum number (l)
(i) Azimuthal quantum number is also known as angular quantum number. Proposed by Sommerfield
and denoted by ‘l’.
(ii) It determines the number of sub shells or sublevels to which the electron belongs.
(iii) It tells about the shape of subshells.
(iv) It also expresses the energies of subshells s<p<d<f (increasing energy).
(v) The value of ) 1=n-1 always. Where ‘n’ is the number of principle shell.

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(vi) The maximum number of electrons in subshell ) =2(2l+1)

(vii) For a given value of ‘n’ the total values of ‘l’ is always equal to the value of ‘n’.
(3) Magnetic quantum number (m)
(i) It was proposed by Zeeman and denoted by ‘m’.
(ii) It gives the number of permitted orientation of subshells.
(iii) The value of m varies from –l to +l through zero.
(iv) It tells about the splitting of spectral lines in the magnetic field i.e. this quantum number proves the
Zeeman effect.
(v) For a given value of ‘n’ the total value of ’m’ is equal to . 2 n2
(vi) For a given value of ‘l’ the total value of ‘m’ is equal to ). 2(l+1)
(vii) Degenerate orbitals : Orbitals having the same energy are known as degenerate orbitals. e.g. for p
subshell
(viii) The number of degenerate orbitals of s subshell =0.
(4) Spin quantum numbers (s)
(i) It was proposed by Goldshmidt & Ulen Back and denoted by the symbol of ‘s’.
(ii) The value of 1/2,-and 1/2 is ' ' s which signifies the spin or rotation or direction of electron on
it’s axis during movement.
(iii) The spin may be clockwise or anticlockwise.
(iv) Maximum spin of an atom = 1/2 ( number of unpaired electron.)
(v) This quantum number is not the result of solution of schrodinger equation as solved for H-atom.

.
Shape of orbitals

Shape of ‘s’ orbital

(i) For ‘s’ orbital l=0 & m=0 so ‘s’ orbital have only one unidirectional orientation i.e. the
probability of finding the electrons is same in all directions.
(ii) The size and energy of ‘s’ orbital with increasing ‘n’ will be .
(iii) s-orbitals known as radial node or modal surface. But there is no radial node for 1s orbital
since it is starting from the nucleus.

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(2) Shape of ‘p’ orbitals

(i) For ‘p’ orbital l=1, & m=+1,0,–1 means there are three ‘p’ orbitals, which is symbolised as . , ,

(ii) Shape of ‘p’ orbital is dumb bell in which the two lobes on opposite side separated by the
nodal plane.
(iii) p-orbital has directional properties.

(3) Shape of ‘d’ orbital

(i) For the ‘d’ orbital l =2 then the values of ‘m’ are –2, –1, 0, +1, +2. It shows that the ‘d’ orbitals
has five orbitals as
(ii) Each ‘d’ orbital identical in shape, size and energy.
(iii) The shape of d orbital is double dumb bell .
(iv) It has directional properties.

(4) Shape of ‘f’ orbital

(i) For the ‘f’ orbital l=3 then the values of ‘m’ are –3, –2, 1,0,+1,+2,+3. It shows that the ‘f’
orbitals have seven orientation as
(ii) The ‘f’ orbital is complicated in shape.
Based on the provided image, here are the notes on the topics of electronic configurations, Pauli's
Exclusion Principle, and the Aufbau Principle.
2.7 Electronic Configurations

Definition: Electronic configuration is the distribution of electrons in the available sub-shells and
orbitals (s, p, d, and f) of an atom.
Notation:
The superscript on a sub-shell indicates the number of electrons.
The coefficient specifies the number of the shell to which the sub-shell belongs.
Example (Oxygen): 1s2,2s2,2p4
Orbital Representation: The configuration of electrons in orbitals is represented by a single arrow
for one electron and a double arrow for two electrons.
An upward arrow (↑) signifies a clockwise spin.
A downward arrow (↓) signifies an anti-clockwise spin.
(1) Pauli's Exclusion Principle
Founder: Wolfgang Pauli (1925 A.D.).
Core Principle: "In an orbital of an atom, no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum
numbers, at least one quantum number must be different."

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Implication: If two electrons are in the same orbital, they must have the same principal quantum
number (n), azimuthal quantum number (l), and magnetic quantum number (ml​ ). However, their
fourth quantum number, the spin quantum number (ms​ ), must be different.
Example (Helium Atom): The two electrons in the 1s orbital of a helium atom have the following
quantum numbers:
First electron: n=1, l=0, ml​ =0, ms​ =+1/2
Second electron: n=1, l=0, ml​ =0, ms​ =−1/2
Conclusion: Based on this principle, an orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, and these
two electrons must have opposite spins.
(2) Aufbau Principle
Meaning: "Aufbau" is a German word meaning "building-up."
Core Principle: "According to this principle, electrons are filled progressively to the various sub-
shells in the order of increasing energy, starting with the 1s sub-shell having the lowest energy."
Credit: Pauli named this principle.
Based on the image you provided, here are the notes on the topics of the (n+l) Wiswesser rule and
isoelectronic species.
(3) (n+l) Wiswesser Rule
Core Principle: The energy of an orbital depends on the principal quantum number (n) and the
azimuthal quantum number (l).
Filling Order: Electrons fill orbitals in order of increasing (n+l) value.
Rule 1: Orbitals with a lower (n+l) value are filled first.
Rule 2: If two orbitals have the same (n+l) value, the orbital with the lower principal quantum
number (n) is filled first.
Examples:
3d vs. 4s:
For the 3d orbital: n=3, l=2. The (n+l) value is 3+2=5.
For the 4s orbital: n=4, l=0. The (n+l) value is 4+0=4.
Since the 4s orbital has a lower (n+l) value (4 vs. 5), it is filled before the 3d orbital.
4p vs. 5s:
For the 4p orbital: n=4, l=1. The (n+l) value is 4+1=5.
For the 5s orbital: n=5, l=0. The (n+l) value is 5+0=5.
Since both orbitals have the same (n+l) value (5), the orbital with the lower n value (4p) is filled
first.
Do You Know? (Isoelectronic Species)
Definition: The term isoelectronic refers to atoms or ions that have the same number of electrons
and the same electronic configuration.
Example:
Neon (Ne, Z=10) has 10 electrons.
Sodium ion (Na+, Z=11) has 11−1=10 electrons.
Fluoride ion (F−, Z=9) has 9+1=10 electrons.
All three species have the same number of electrons (10) and the same electronic configuration
(1s22s22p6). Therefore, they are isoelectronic.

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Based on the provided image, here are the notes on Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity.
(4) Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
Degenerate Orbitals: Orbitals within the same sub-shell have the same energy and are called
degenerate orbitals.
p-sub shell: Consists of three degenerate orbitals: px​ , py​ , and pz​ .
d-sub shell: Consists of five degenerate orbitals: dxy​ , dyz​ , dxz​ , dx2−y2​ , and dz2​ .
Founder: German Physicist Friedrich Hund, in 1927.
Rule: "In available degenerate orbitals (p,d,andf), electrons are distributed in such a way that
maximum number of half filled orbitals (single electron in orbital) are obtained."
Explanation: This rule is followed because unpaired electrons with parallel spins are more stable
than paired electrons. Pairing electrons in the same orbital creates repulsion, which can be
minimized by placing them in separate degenerate orbitals.
Example (for p-orbitals): If there are three electrons to fill the 2p sub-shell (2px​ , 2py​ , 2pz​ ),
electrons will fill each orbital singly with parallel spins (2px1​ ,2py1​ ,2pz1​ ) rather than
pairing up in one orbital (2px2​ ,2py1​ ,2pz0​ ).
Electronic Configurations Following Hund's Rule:

Electronic configurations of elements

The above method of writing the electronic configurations is quite cumbersome. Hence, usually
the electronic configuration of the atom of any element is simply represented by the notation.

Some Unexpected Electronic Configuration

Some of the exceptions are important though, because they occur with common elements, notably
chromium and copper. Cu has 29 electrons. Its excepted electronic configuration is
but in reality the configuration is as
this configuration is more stable. Similarly Cr has the configuration of
instead of .
Factors responsible for the extra stability of half-filled and completely filled subshells,
(i) Symmetrical distribution : It is well known fact that symmetry leads to stability. Thus the
electronic configuration in which all the orbitals of the same subshell are either completely filled
or are exactly half filled are more stable because of symmetrical distribution of electrons.
(ii) Exchange energy : The electrons with parallel spins present in the degenerate orbitals tend to
exchange their position. The energy released during this exchange is called exchange energy. The
number of exchanges that can take place is maximum when the degenerate orbtials (orbitals of
same subshell having equal energy) are exactly half-filled or completely. As a result, the exchange
energy is maximum and so it the stability.

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1. Rutherford's α-particle scattering experiment proved that atom has:

A. Electrons B. Neutrons C. Nucleus D. Orbitals

2. The ratio of radius of first orbit in hydrogen to the radius of first orbit in
deuterium will be:
A. 1:1 B. 1:2 C. 2:1 D. 4:1

3. The ratio between kinetic energy and the total energy of the electron of
hydrogen atom according to Bohr's model is:
A. 2:1 B. 1:1 C. 1: -1 D. 1:2

4. Which of the following electron transitions will require the largest amount of
energy in a hydrogen atom:
A. From n = 1 to n = 2 B. From n = 2 to n = 3 C. From n = ∞ to n =
1 D. From n = 3 to n = 5

5. Third line of Balmer series is produced by which transition in spectrum of H-

atom:
A. 5 to 2 B. 5 to 1 C. 4 to 2 D. 4 to 1

6. Which of the following spectral lines will occur in the absorption spectrum?
A. 4,5,6 B. 1,2,3,4,5,6 C. 1,2,3 D. 1,4,6

7. Four lowest energy levels of H-atom are shown. The number of emission lines

could be:
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6

8. In the above problem, the number of absorption lines could be:

A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6

9. Heisenberg Uncertainty principle is not valid for:

A. Moving electron B. Motor car C. Stationary particles D. 2 & 3
both

10. Which configuration does not obey Pauli's exclusion principle?

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11. Which of the following configuration follows Hund's rule?

12. For Na (Z = 11), set of quantum numbers for last electron is:
A. n=3, l=1, m=1, s=+1/2 B. n=3, l=0, m=0, s=+1/2 C. n=3, l=0, m=1,
s=+1/2 D. n=3, l=1, m=1, s=-1/2

13. Which one represents ground state configuration?

14. The term quantized momentum is linked to:

A. Free electron B. Valence electrons only C. Electrons in shells D.
Photons

15. Radiations emitted in the form of photons when electrons of hydrogen atom
fall from higher level to n level are never in the:
A. Visible light region B. Infrared region C. X-ray region D.
Ultraviolet region

16. Origin of positive rays in discharge tube is:

A. Anode B. Perforations in cathode C. Electrolytic reaction in
tube D. Ionization of gas in tube

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17. Source of ionization of gas molecules in discharge tube is:

A. Electrons of gas B. Electrons from anode C. Electrons from
cathode D. Collision between gas molecules

18. E = -1313.31/n^2, it means that electron will have zero energy:

A. In first shell B. In 2nd shell C. In 7th shell D. At infinity

19. The fact that electron can revolve in any one of the permitted energy levels
and not in between them means electron is:
A. Stationary B. Wave C. Having quantized momentum D. Photon
like packet

20. Ne10 = 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 has electrons with same spin:
A. 10 B. 2 C. 5 D. 3

21. Which statement is true with respect to Planck's quantum theory:

A. Energy travels discontinuously B. Quanta are packets of light only C.
Photons are quanta of sound D. Energy and wave number are not related

22. The fundamental particles of an atom are:

A. Electrons and protons B. Electrons and neutrons C. Protons and
neutrons D. Electrons, protons, neutrons

23. Rutherford bombarded ______________ particles in discovery of nucleus:

A. Gamma-rays B. Alpha-rays C. Beta-rays D. X-rays

24. Which of the following is not possible?

A. n=2, l=0, m=1 B. n=3, l=0, m=0 C. n=2, l=1, m=-1 D. n=3, l=1, m=-
1

25. The principal quantum number of an atom is related to:

A. Orientation of orbital in space B. Spin of electron around its own
axis C. Size of the orbital D. Shape of orbital

26. A p-orbital can accommodate up to:

A. Six electrons with opposite spin B. Two electrons with opposite spin C.
Four electrons with opposite spin D. Parallel spin

27. The set of elements which violates Aufbau principle is:

A. Cr and Co B. Cu and Co C. Cr and Cu D. Cr and Mn

28. The electrons identified by quantum number n and l:

(i) n=4, l=1
(ii) n=4, l=0
(iii) n=3, l=2
(iv) n=3, l=1
Increasing energy order:
A. iv < ii < iii < i B. i < iii < ii < iv C. ii < iv < i < iii D. iii < i < iv < ii
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29. Match List I and List II and pick the correct matching from given codes:

A. A-1, B-3, C-4, D-2 B. A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2 C. A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1 D.
A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4

30. Which one orbital is bilobed with collar?

A. dx^2-y^2 B. dz^2 C. dxy D. dyz

31. Every atom in excited states violates:

A. Heisenberg's Principle B. Aufbau Principle C. Hund's rule D.
Pauli exclusion Principle

32. Total fundamental subatomic particles are present in alpha particle:

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

33. A divalent cation having 18 electrons and 20 neutrons. The nucleon number
of atoms will be:
A. 38 B. 40 C. 36 D. 37

34. Which violates the Aufbau principle?

35. Which is not a basic postulate of Bohr's atomic model?

A. Electron revolves only in orbits having a fixed angular momentum B.
Electron revolves in one of the circular orbits outside the nucleus C. Energy
is emitted or absorbed only when electron jumps from one orbit to another D.
Electron always remains in fixed orbit and does not change orbit even by
absorption of energy

36. The nature of the positive rays depends on:

A. The nature of the electrode B. The nature of the discharge tube C.
The nature of the residual gas D. All of the above

37. The last electron in the Na and K can be distinguished by:

A. Principal quantum number B. Magnetic quantum number C.
Azimuthal quantum number D. Spin quantum number

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38. The highest energy electron of an element in the ground state is characterized
by:
n=4, l=0, m=0, s=+1/2. The atomic number of element is:
A. 32 B. 22 C. 19 D. 12

39. The figure indicates the energy level diagram of an atom and the origin of six
spectral lines in emission (e.g. line no. 5 arises from the transition from level B to
A). Which of the following spectral lines will occur in the absorption spectrum?

(a) 4,5,6 (b) 1,2,3, 4, 5, 6 (c) 1,2,3 (d) 1,4,6

40. The e/m ratio of cathode rays is, A. 1.76×1023 C/kg B. 1.76×1011 C/kg C.
1.76× 10−31 C/kg D. 1.76×107 C/kg

41. Which of the following quantum number has negative quantum number
value A. Principal B. Azimuthal C. Magnetic D. Both b & c
42. All are electromagnetic in nature except, A. IR rays B. X-rays C. UV-rays D.
Cathode rays
43. Indicate the correct order of sub shell w.r.t penetration power. A. s > p > d >
f B. f > d > p > s C. p > s > f > d D. d > f > s > p
44. The quantum number 'm' of a free gaseous atom is associated with: A. The
effective volume of the orbital B. The shape of the orbital C. The one-
dimensional orientation of the orbital D. The number of electrons in the orbital
45. Which one of the following best explain the valency of a element?
A. Aufbau principle
B. Hund's rule
C. Pauli's exclusion principle
D. n+l rule
46. All quantum numbers are obtained from solution of Schrodinger equal
except, A. Principal quantum number, n B. Magnetic quantum number, m C.
Spin quantum number, s D. Azimuthal quantum number,
47. If the mass of electron is reduced to half, the Rydberg's constant A. Becomes
half B. Becomes double C. Remains unchanged D. Becomes one fourth
48. As we move away from nucleus the distance between the adjacent orbits goes
On
A. increasing
B. decreasing
C. remains constant
D. increases for first 3 then decreases
49. Orbital having shape of dumbbell with a dough nut
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A. px
B. dz2
C. s
D. f
50. The mathematical form of Moseley's law is
51. If the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation is increased to thrice the
digital value, then what will be the percent change in the value of frequency of
the electromagnetic radiation?
A) Increases by 33%
B) Decreases by 66%
C) Increases by 66%
D) Decreases 33%
52. When magnetic field is applied on orbitals of a given sub energy level they
become
A. degenerate
B. non degenerate
C. greater in number
D. smaller in size
53. An orbital is also called
A. electronic cloud
B. electron sea
C. sub-shell
D. sub-level
54. Atomic number of Mn is 25 its last electron enters in
A. 4px
B. 3d
C. 4s
D. 5d
55. The probability of finding the electron is the nucleus is
A. 100% due to forces of attractions
B. Zero for all elements
C. Finite for all elements
D. Zero for some elements and finite for others
56. What does negative sign in the electronic energy for hydrogen atom convey:
A) Energy of electron when n=∞
B) The energy of electron in the atom is lower than the energy of a free electron
in motion
C) The energy of electron in the atom is lower than the energy of a free electron
of rest
D) The energy of electron decease as it moves away from nucleus
57. After removal of one electron from the outer most shell of each atom, which
will have max. no. of unpaired electrons
A. Na
B. N
C. O
D. Be
58. An improbable electronic configuration is
A. [Ar]3d44s2

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B. [Ar]3d54s2
C. [Ar]3d64s2
D. [Ar]3d104s1
59. Aufbau principle cannot tell us about
A. the no. of electrons in valence shell.
B. relative energies of shells
C. relative energies of subshells
D. distribution of electrons in orbitals
60. The correct order of number of unpaired electrons in the ion Cu2+, Ni2+,
Fe3+ and Cr3+ is
A. Cu2+>Ni2+>Cr3+>Fe3+
B. Fe3+>Cr3+>Cu2+>Ni2+
C. Ni2+>Cu2+>Fe3+>Cr3+
D. Fe3+>Cr3+>Ni2+>Cu2+
61. From Lyman to Pfund series, the wave numbers of spectral lines
A. Increase
B. Remain constant
C. Decrease
D. vary inversely to the frequency
62. Number of unpaired electrons in Cr are:
A. 4 B. 5 C. 6 D. 7
Answer Key

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