UNIVERSITY OF SAHIWAL, SAHIWAL

Department of Chemistry

Name: Noor e Sahar

Roll no: BSch-19-116
Section: Morning-B
Session: 2019-23
Subject: electronics & Modern Phy

Submitted to: Sir Farooq Alam

Professor of physics in UOS
Lecture No: 1
Crystal, any solid material in which the component atoms are arranged in a definite pattern
and whose surface regularity reflects its internal symmetry.

Crystal = Lattice + Basis

Lattice:
Lattice is a regular and infinite periodic arrangement of points in a space.
➢ The arrangement of points defines the lattice symmetry.
➢ A lattice may be one, two or three dimensional.

Basis (Motif):
A group of one or more atoms, located in a particular way with respect to each other and
associated with each point, is known as Basis (Motif). For example: in NaCl crystal, basis is
Na and Cl and in diamond crystal, carbon is basis.

Unit cell:
A basic concept in crystal structures is the unit cell. It can be defined as:
" Atoms or group of atoms forming a building
block of the smallest acceptable size of the whole
volume of a crystal is defined as a unit cell "
OR
“A unit cell is a region of space such that many
identical units are packed together, it forms all of
the space.”
➢ By amassing identical unit cells, the entire lattice can be constructed.
➢ Lattice points are located at the corner of the unit cell and in some cases, at either
faces or the centre of the unit cell.
 Types of Crystal Structure:

Crystals are classified into two types:

1. Poly crystal
2. Single crystal

Poly crystal: In this type of crystal periodicity is

not maintained throughout the body.

Single crystal: In this type of crystal periodicity is

maintained throughout the body.

Cubic Crystal System:

Here for the cubic crystal system, we have Simple cubic (SC), Face-centred cubic (FCC), and
Body-centred cubic (BCC).
Simple cubic system (SC):
The simple cubic system consists of one lattice Pointon each corner of the cube. Each atom
at a lattice point is then shared equally between 8 adjacent cubes and a unit cell, therefore,
contains 1 atom in total. 8(1/8) = 1 atom
Body centered cubic system (BCC):
Body centered cubic system has 1 lattice point in the center of unit cell in addition to 8
corner points. Total no. of atom per BCC unit cell is 8(1/8) +1 = 2 atom
Face-centred cubic (FCC):
A face centered cubic system has lattice point on the faces of the cube giving exactly one-
half contribution in addition to the corner lattice point. Total no. of atom per FCC unit cell is
8(1/8) +6(1/2) = 4 atom

Crystal Systems:

As we know that crystal is a solid whose atoms are arranged in a “highly ordered” repeating
pattern. These patterns are called crystal systems. All minerals form in one of seven
crystal systems. Each is distinguished by the geometric parameters of its unit cell, the
arrangement of atoms repeated throughout the solid to form the crystal object. These seven
crystals systems are:

[Link] system: a = b= c
=== 90º

2. Tetragonal: a=bc

 =  =  = 90º

3. Orthorhombic: abc

 =  =  = 90º

4. Hexagonal: abc

 =  =  = 120º

5. Rhombohedral: a=b=c

 ,  ,   90º

6. Monoclinic: abc

  90º, ,  = 90º

7. Triclinic Crystals abc


Hexagonal Closed Pack Structure:
Hexagonal close packed (hcp) refers to layers of spheres packed so that spheres in alternating
layers overlie one another. The hcp structure has three layers of atoms. In both the top and
bottom layers, there are six atoms that arrange themselves in the shape of a hexagon and a
seventh atom that sits in the middle of the hexagon. The middle layer has three atoms nestled
in the triangular grooves of the top and bottom plane.

The hexagonal structure of alternating layers is shifted so its atoms are aligned to the gaps of
the preceding layer. The atoms from one layer nest themselves in the empty space between
the atoms of the adjacent layer. However, instead of being a cubic structure, the pattern is
hexagonal.
The packing factor is 0.74. The atoms in a hexagonal close packed structure efficiently
occupy 74% of space while 26% is empty space. Hexagonal closest packed has a
coordination number of 12 and contains 6 atoms per unit cell. The hcp structure is very
common for elemental metals including Beryllium, Cadmium, Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc,
Zirconium.
Bravais lattices:
❖ In 1848, Auguste Bravais demonstrated that in a 3- dimensional system there are
fourteen possible lattices.
❖ A Bravais lattice is an infinite array of discrete points with identical environment.
❖ Seven crystal systems + four lattice centring types = 14 Bravais lattices.
❖ Lattices are characterized by translation symmetry.

Lecture No: 2
Free Electron Model:
In solid-state physics, the free electron model is a simple model for the behaviour of valence
electrons in a crystal structure of a metallic solid.
Drude Model:
The model, which is an application of kinetic theory assumes that the microscopic behaviour
of electrons in a solid may be treated classically and looks much like a pinball machine, with
a sea of constantly jittering electrons bouncing and re-bouncing off heavier, relatively
immobile positive ions.
The Drude model of electrical conduction was proposed in 1900 by Paul Drude. The model
was extended in 1905 by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (and hence is also known as the Drude –
Lorentz model) and is a classical model.
Classical theories:
Classical theories refer to theories, that predate modern, more complete, or more widely
applicable theories.
Assumptions:
The Drude model considers the metal to be formed of a mass of positively-charged ions from
which a number of "free electrons" were detached.
The Drude model neglects any long-range interaction between the electron and the ions or
between the electrons.
Explanations DC field:
➢ Simplest analysis of the Drude model assumes
➢ That electric field E is both uniform and constant
➢ The thermal velocity of electrons is sufficiently high such that they accumulate only
an infinitesimal amount of momentum dp between collisions, which occur on average
every t seconds

Time -Varying Analysis:

The dynamics may also be described by introducing an effective drag force.

Accuracy of The Model:
➢ Simple classical Drude model provides a very good explanation of DC and AC
conductivity in metal.
➢ It greatly overestimates the electronic heat capacities of metals.

Quantum Theory:

Quantum theory is a collection of results from the years 1900–1925 which predate modern
quantum mechanics. theory was never complete or self-consistent, but was a set of heuristic
prescriptions which are now understood to be the first quantum corrections to Classical
Mechanics.

Arnold Sommerfeld:

Made a crucial contribution by quantizing the z-component of the angular momentum, which
in the old quantum era was called space quantization This allowed the orbits of the electron to
be ellipses instead of circles, and introduced the concept of quantum degeneracy.
Degenerate Energy Levels:
In quantum mechanics, an energy level is said to be degenerate if it corresponds to two or
more different measurable states of a quantum system. Conversely, two or more different
states of a quantum mechanical system are said to be degenerate if they give the same value
of energy upon measurement.
The number of different states corresponding to a particular energy level is known as the
degree of degeneracy of the level. It is represented mathematically by the Hamiltonian.

Bohr–Sommer-field Quantization:

A procedure for selecting out certain discrete set of states of a classical inferable motion as
allowed states. These are like the allowed orbits of the Bohr model of the atom; the system
can only be in one of these states and not in any states in between.
Basic principle: The basic idea of the old quantum theory is that the motion in an atomic
system is quantized, or discrete. Examples Harmonic oscillator.

Lecture No: 3

Energy bands & Energy band gaps:

The angular momentum of an electrons is always quantized and is integral multiple ℎ 2π .
Energy Levels:
Thus, the electrons can have certain orbital radii. The electrons in these orbits have only a
certain value of energy. These certain values of energy of electrons in an atom are called the
energy levels of the atom.

Energy Bands:

When the numbers of atoms are brought together, as in a crystal, they interact with one
another. As the result, each energy level splits up into several sub-levels. A group of such
energy sub-levels are called energy band. Important energy bands are:
➢ Valence Band
➢ Conduction Band
➢ Forbidden Band

Valence Band:

➢ The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valance electrons.
Therefore, the energy band occupied by valance electrons is called the valance band.
➢ The valance band may be either completely filled or partially filled with the electrons
but can never be empty.

Conduction Band:

➢ The energy band next to the valance band is called the conduction band.
➢ The valance and conduction bands are separated by forbidden energy gaps.
➢ The conduction band may be empty or partially filled.
➢ The electrons in the conduction band can drift freely in the materials and are called
free or conduction electrons.
➢ The width of forbidden energy gap between valance and conduction band decides
whether a material is a conductor, insulator or a semiconductor.

Forbidden Bands / Energy Gap:

 The energy bands are separated by gaps in which there is no energy level. Such energy gaps
are called forbidden bands.
The electron may jump from one energy band to another by acquiring energy equal to the
energy of forbidden energy gap.
In solid-state physics, an energy gap or band gap, is energy range in a solid where no electron
states can exist.
It generally refers to the energy difference (in electron volts) between the top of the valence
band and the bottom of the conduction band in insulators and semiconductors.

Types of Materials:

Materials can be divided into

three types based on the values
of energy gap
➢ Insulators
➢ Conductors
➢ Semi Conductors

Insulators:
➢ It is a material in which energy gap between the valance and conduction
band is very large nearly 6 eV, where 1eV No electron can jump from
valence band to conduction band. As there are no free electrons in
insulator, hence no current can pass through insulators.
➢ Value of resistivity of the order of 1010 Ω / m.
➢ Due to large energy gap an electron from valence band can’t move into
conduction band. Conduction band completely empty.
➢ No electron can jump from valence band to conduction band. As there
are no free electrons in insulator, hence no current can pass through insulators.
Examples: glass, Diamond, Silicon di oxide Energy gap of diamond is ~ 6 eV.

Conductors:
➢ It is a material in which energy gap between the valance and
conduction band is zero.
➢ In these materials Valence electrons can move valence band
to conduction band without requiring thermal energy.
➢ The overlapping indicates a large number of electrons
available for conduction.
➢ Hence the by applying of a small amount of voltage results a
large amount of current produce.
➢ Best conducting materials are Silver & cupper.

Semiconductors:
 ➢ The materials in which the conduction and valence bands are separated by a small
energy gap (1eV) are called semiconductors.
➢ Silicon and germanium are the commonly used semiconductors. Eg = (1.21-
3.6)×10−4 eV for Si and Eg = (0.785-2.23)×10−4 eV for Ge .
➢ A small energy gap means that a small amount of energy is required to the free
electrons by moving them from the valence band to conduction band.

➢ The semiconductors behave like insulators at 0 K, because no

electrons are available in the conduction band.
➢ If the temperature is further increased, more valence electrons will
acquire energy to jump into the conduction band.
➢ When external electric field is applied, free electron travels within
conduction band producing electron current.
➢ Where as hole travels in valence, producing hole current.
➢ The total current will be sum of free electrons& holes.
➢ As temperature increase free electrons & holes increase and hence conductivity
increases.

Lecture No: 4
Semiconductor Materials:
Introduction:
The materials in which the conduction and valence bands are separated by a small energy gap are
called semiconductors.

➢ If a valence electron receives sufficient thermal energy, it can move into conduction band
leaving a vacancy in valence band, which is called hole and therefore, if one electron is
sufficiently thermally energized it creates a pair of free electron and hole, this process is
called carrier generation.
➢ Carrier generation can happen due to
1- Thermal excitation 2- Photo excitation
2- 3- Electrical excitation 4- Impact ionization

Direct & Indirect band gap in Semi Conductors:

➢ The process of free electrons returning from conduction band to valence band which causes
disappearance of a free electron, hole pair is called carrier recombination.
➢ Semi conductors are divided into two types based upon the method of recombination.
1- Direct band gap Semi conductors
2- 2- Indirect band gap Semi conductors
 Direct band gap Semi conductors:
➢ For these semi conductors, Conduction band
minima and valence band maxima occurs at
same value of momentum.
➢ An electron from conduction band directly
return to valance band without changing Its
momentum and releases energy in the form
of light (Photon hν).
➢ Examples: GaAS, Gap. GaAsP

Indirect band gap semiconductors:

➢ The semiconductors in which conduction band
minima and Valance band maxima occurs at
different value of momentum.
➢ When electron from CB returns to VB after
changing its momentum is called indirect band gap
semi conductors.
➢ Electron changes its momentum by releasing
phonon which is a heat particle.
➢ Examples: Si, Ge.

Types of semiconductors:

Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lie between Conductors and
Insulators. Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
Two-types of semiconductor:
1- Intrinsic semiconductors
2- Extrinsic semiconductors

Intrinsic or Pure Semiconductors:

A pure semiconductor is known as intrinsic semiconductor. Like

elements of group IV group C, Si, Ge, Tin, Lead.
➢ The most common examples of intrinsic semiconducting
materials are silicon. Each atom of silicon has four valance
electrons. Moreover, each atom of silicon is surrounded by
four atoms.
➢ In these semiconductor crystals, each atom forms four
covalent bonds to become stable.
➢ At 00, all valence electrons participate in covalent band
formation. Conduction not possible.
 ➢ If temperature increases, greater number of free electron hole pair will be created.
Causes no conduction.

Extrinsic Semiconductors:

➢ The semiconductors doped with some impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors.
➢ The conductivity of silicon and germanium can be drastically increased by the
controlled addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor material. This
process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers (electrons or holes).
➢ The two categories of impurities are N-Type Semiconductor, P-Type Semiconductor.

N-type Semiconductors:

➢ A p-type material is one in which electrons are in majority, while holes are in
minority.
➢ IV group elements Phosphors, Arsenic, Antimony
are used as pentavalent. it is often referred to as a
downer atom.
➢ Phosphors forms four covalent bonds with Si and
donate 5th electron to crystal. It is called free
electron.
➢ Electrons in the conduction band and holes in the
valence band make the semi conductive material to
conduct but they are too limited to make it a very
good conductor.
➢ Adding impurities in materials like Si or Ge can significantly increase the
conductivity of material. The process is called doping.
➢ Addition of a pentavalent material increases the number of conduction electrons.
➢ Material is called N-type semiconductor.

P-type Semiconductors:

➢ To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent

impurity atoms e.g., boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga)
are added. All three of the boron atom's valence electrons are
used in the covalent bonds; and, since four electrons are
required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is added.
Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often
referred to as an acceptor atom. The number of holes can be
carefully controlled by the number of trivalent impurity atoms
added to the silicon.
➢ Holes are in majority while electrons are in minority. trivalent
impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity atom is shown in the
centre.
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