INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS & DATA

COLLECTION

Statistics:

Statistics is the “ science which deals with

the collection, analysis and interpretation
of numerical data”.

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Main Functions of Statistics:

 Collection of Data

 Presentation of Data

 Analysis of Data

 Interpretation of results

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Types of Statistical Data:

o Primary Data: Primary data are those which are collected from the units or

individuals directly and these data have never been used for
any purpose earlier.

o Secondary Data: The data, which had been collected by some individual or
agency and statistically treated to draw certain conclusions
and now the same data are used and analyzed to extract some
other information.

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  Population

 Sample

 Parameter

 Statistic

 Sampling

 Random Sampling

 Non-Random Sampling
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Data Analysis:

 Measures of Central tendency or average

 Measures of Variation or dispersion

 Measures of Skewness

 Measures of Kurtosis

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Measures of Central tendency or average

 Arithmetic Mean

 Median

 Mode

 Geometric Mean

 Harmonic Mean

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Arithmetic Mean (A.M.)
A.M. : Arithmetic mean of set of observations is their sum
divided by the number of observations.
𝑛
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ………+ 𝑥𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
Simple A.M. : 𝑋 = =
𝑛 𝑛
n - Number of observations.

Ex: A Monthly income of 10 families in a city is given by:

1600, 1560, 1440, 1530, 1670, 1860, 1750, 1910, 1490, 1800.
10
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 16610
𝑋= = = 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟏
10 10

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A.M. For Discrete Series:

𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Direct Method: 𝑋=
𝑛
f - Frequency of the given set of observations
n = 𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 = Total number of observations

Ex: The following data represents the marks obtained

by 60 students of a class. Obtain the average marks.

Marks 20 30 40 50 60 70
No. of
8 12 20 10 6 4
Students

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 Marks No. of Students fx
20 8 160
30 12 360
40 20 800
50 10 500
60 6 360
70 4 280
N = 60 𝑓𝑥 = 2460

𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 2460
𝑋= = = 𝟒𝟏
𝑛 60

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A.M. For Continuous Series:
𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Direct Method: 𝑋=
𝑛
f - Frequency of the given set of observations
x - mid-point each class
n = 𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 = Total number of observations

Ex: Obtain the Arithmetic mean for the following data.

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

No. of
12 18 27 20 17 6
Students

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 Marks No. of Mid-point fx
Students
0-10 12 5 60
10-20 18 15 270
20-30 27 25 675
30-40 20 35 700
40-50 17 45 765
50-60 6 55 330

𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 2800
𝑋= = = 28
𝑛 100

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Using the Deviation:
If the values of x or f are large, the calculation of A.M. by above formula is
quite time-consuming and tedious.
The A.M. is reduced to a great extent by taking the deviations
of the given values from any arbitrary point ‘A’ :

Let 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴

1 𝑛 ℎ 𝑛
𝑋=𝐴 + 𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖 or 𝑋=𝐴 + 𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑛 𝑛
ℎ − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

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Ex: C.I. 0-8 8-16 16-24 24-32 32-40 40-48
Frequency 8 7 16 24 15 7

𝒙−𝑨
C.I. Mid-Value Frequency 𝒅= fd
𝒉
0-8 4 8 -3 -24
8-16 12 7 -2 -14
16-24 20 16 -1 -16
24-32 28 24 0 0
32-40 36 15 1 15
40-48 44 7 2 14
Total 77 -25
𝑛
ℎ 8 x (−25)
𝑋=𝐴+ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 28 + = 25.404
26-07-2018 𝑛 77 13
𝑖=1
Median:
Median of a distribution is the value of the variable which divides it
into two equal parts.
It is the value which exceeds and is exceeded by the same number of
observations. Thus the median is called as a “positional average”.

Evaluation of Median: For ungrouped data,

(i) Odd number of observations.
(ii) Even number of observations.

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For Grouped data:

(i) Discrete Frequency distribution:

𝑁+1 𝑁
a) Find , where N – Total Frequency = 𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 .
2
𝑁+1
b) See the (less than) cumulative frequency (c.f.) just greater than .
2
c) The corresponding value of x is median.

Ex: x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
f 8 10 11 16 20 25 15 9 6

Calculate the Median of the distribution.

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 x f c.f.
1 8 8 𝑁+1
= 60.5
2 10 18 2
3 11 29
4 16 45 The cumulative frequency (c.f.) just
5 20 65 𝑁+1
greater than is 65 and value
2
6 25 90
corresponding to 65 is 5.
7 15 10
8 9 114 ∴ 𝑴𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝟓.
9 6 120
N = 120

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(ii) Continuous Frequency Distribution:
In case of continuous frequency distribution, the class corresponding to the
𝑵
c.f. just greater than is called the median class and the value of median is
𝟐
obtained by the following formula:

ℎ 𝑁
Median = 𝑙 + ( − 𝑐)
𝑓 2

where l - is the lower limit of the median class,

f - is the frequency of the median class,
h - is the magnitude of the median class,
c - is the c.f. of the class preceding the median class
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Ex: Find the median of the following data:

Wages
2000-3000 3000-4000 4000-5000 5000-6000 6000-7000
(in Rs.)
No. of
3 5 20 10 5
workers

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Calculation:
𝑁 43
= = 21.5
2 2
Wages No. of c.f.
(in Rs.) Employees
Cumulative frequency just greater
2000-3000 3 3 than 21.5 is 28 and the
3000-4000 5 8
corresponding class is 4000-5000.
Thus the median class is 4000-5000.
4000-5000 20 28
5000-6000 10 38 l = 4000; h = 1000; f = 20; c = 8
6000-7000 5 43
N= 43
1000
Median = 4000 + (21.5 − 8)
20

∴ Median = 4675.
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Quartiles
𝑁+1
First Quartile (Q1) = Size of 𝑡ℎ item ( Discrete series)
4

𝑁
Q1 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item (Continuous series)
4

𝑁
− 𝑐.𝑓.
4
Q1 = 𝐿 + ×𝑖
𝑓

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 𝑁+1
Third Quartile (Q3) = Size of 3 𝑡ℎ item (Discrete series)
4

3𝑁
Q3 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item. (Continuous series)
4

3𝑁
4
− 𝑐.𝑓.
Q3 = 𝐿 + ×𝑖
𝑓

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Example 3: Calculate the value of Q.D. and its coefficient of Q.D.
from the following data.

Roll No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Marks 20 28 40 12 30 15 50

Solution: Marks in ascending order 12 15 20 28 30 40 50

𝑁+1 7+1
Q1 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item = Size of = 2nd item.
4 4
Size of 2nd item is 15. Hence Q1 = 15

𝑁+1 7+1
Q3 = Size of 3 𝑡ℎ item = Size of 3 = 6th item.
4 4
Size of 6th item is 40. Hence Q3 = 40.

.
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Example 4: Compute the value of Q.D. and its coefficient from
the following data

C.I. 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

f 12 19 5 10 9 6 6

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Solution:
Marks Frequency cumulative
frequency

10-20 12 12
20-30 19 31
30-40 5 36
40-50 10 46
50-60 9 55
60-70 6 61
70-80 6 67
N= 67

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 𝑁 67
Q1 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item = Size of = 16.75th item.
4 4
Q1 - lies in the interval 20-30

𝑁
4
− 𝑐.𝑓.
Q1 = 𝐿 + ×𝑖 L = 20, 𝑁/4 = 16.75, c.f. = 12
𝑓
f = 19, i = 10

67
−12
4
Q1 = 20 + × 10 = 20+2.5 = 22.5
19

Hence Q1 = 22.5

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 3𝑁 3×67
Q3 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item = Size of = 50.25th item.
4 4
Q3 - lies in the class 50-60.

3𝑁
4
− 𝑐.𝑓.
Q3 = 𝐿 + ×𝑖 L = 50, 3𝑁/4 = 50.25, c.f. = 46
𝑓
f = 9, i = 10

50.25−46
Q3 = 50 + × 10 = 50+4.72 = 54.72
9

Hence Q3 = 54.72

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 𝑁+1
Deciles: 𝑫𝟒 = Size of 4 item in individual and discrete series.
10
4𝑁
𝑫𝟒 = Size of th item in continuous series.
10

𝑁+1
Percentiles: 𝑷𝟔𝟎 = Size of 60 th item in discrete series.
100

60𝑁
𝑷𝟔𝟎 = Size of th item in continuous series.
100

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 4𝑁 4×67
𝑫𝟒 = Size of th item = = 26.8 th item.
10 10
𝑫𝟒 lies in the interval of 20-30.

4𝑁
− 𝑐.𝑓.
10
𝑫𝟒 = 𝐿 + ×𝑖 L = 20, 4𝑁/10 = 26.8, c.f. = 12
𝑓
f = 19, i = 10
𝑫𝟒 = 27.79
60𝑁 60×67
𝑷𝟔𝟎 = Size of th item = = 40.2 th item
100 100
𝑷𝟔𝟎 lies in the interval of 40-50.
60𝑁
100
− 𝑐.𝑓.
𝑷𝟔𝟎 = 𝐿 + ×𝑖 L = 40, 4𝑁/10 = 40.2, c.f. = 36
𝑓
f = 10, i = 10
𝑫𝟒 = 44.2

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 MODE
Definition: Mode is the value of the variable which is predominant
in the series.

1. For a discrete frequency distribution , mode is the value of

x – corresponding to maximum frequency.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f 4 9 16 25 22 15 7 3

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But in any one of the following cases:

(i) If the maximum frequency is repeated.

(ii) If the maximum frequency occurs in the very beginning or at the
end of the distribution
(i) If there irregularities in the distribution,

the value of mode is determined by the method of grouping:

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 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
f 3 8 15 23 35 40 32 28 20 45 14 6

Frequency
(vi)
(iii) (iv) (v)
x (ii) Leave the
Leave the Add first Leave the
(i) Add first 1st two
1st freq. & three freq. 1st freq. &
two freq. & add
add two add three
three
1 3 11
2 8 26
3 15 38 23 46
4 23
5 58 98 73
35
6 75 107
7 40 72
8 32 60 80 100
9 28 48
10 20 65 93
11 𝟒𝟓 59 79
14
12 20 65
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 Column Number Maximum Frequency Value or combination
of values of x
(i) 45 10
(ii) 75 5, 6
(iii) 72 6, 7
(iv) 98 4, 5, 6
(v) 107 5, 6, 7
(vi) 100 6, 7, 8

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 For Continuous Frequency distribution:

ℎ(𝑓1 −𝑓0 ) ℎ(𝑓1 −𝑓0 )

Mode = 𝑙 + =𝑙 +
𝑓1 −𝑓0 −(𝑓2 −𝑓1 ) 2𝑓1 −𝑓0 −𝑓2

l – lower limit of the modal class

h – magnitude of the modal class
𝑓1 - frequency of the modal class
𝑓0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 - frequencies of the class preceding and succeeding
the modal class

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 C.I. 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Frequency 5 8 7 12 28 20 10 10

Hence the maximum frequency is 28.

Thus the modal class is 40-50.

10(28−12)
Mode = 40 + = 46.67
2x28−12−20

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A distribution is having only one mode is called Unimodal.
If it contains more than one mode, it is called bimodal or multimodal.

Then the value of the mode cannot be determined the above formula and
hence mode is ill-defined.

Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean

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 1) Calculate the mean, median and mode of the following data.

Wages
15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64
(in lakhs.)
No. of
31 47 59 78 104 113 81 60 52 25
workers

Mean = 39.52

Median = 39.77

Mode = 40.6

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2) Variable 10-13 13-16 16-19 19-22 22-25 25-28 28-31 31-34 34-37 37-40
Frequency 8 15 27 51 75 54 36 18 9 7

Calculate the Mean, Median and Mode for the following data.

Mean = 24.19
Median = 23.96
Mode = 23.6

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 Series A Series B Series C
200 200 1
200 205 989
200 202 2
200 203 3
200 190 5
Mean = 200 200 200

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 Measure of Dispersion
 Scatteredness (homogeneity or heterogeneity)

The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an

average value is called variation or dispersion of data.

Measures of Dispersion: Range

Quartile Deviation
Mean Deviation
Standard Deviation

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Absolute Measure of Dispersion:

Relative Measure of Dispersion:

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Range
Definition: Difference between the value of the smallest item and the
value of the largest item in the distribution.
Range = 𝑳 − 𝑺
L – Largest Value, S- Smallest Value

The relative measure corresponding to range is called the coefficient of

range,
𝑳−𝑺
Coefficient of Range =
𝑳+𝑺

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Example 1: The following are the prices of shares of a company from
Monday to Saturday:

Days Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Price(Rs.) 200 210 208 160 220 250

Calculate the range and its coefficient.

Solution: Range = L – S = 250 – 160 = 90

Range = Rs. 90
𝐿−𝑆 250−160 90
Coefficient of Range = = = = 0.22
𝐿+𝑆 250+160 410

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 In a frequency distribution, range is calculated by taking the difference
between the lower limit of the lowest class and the upper limit of the
highest class.

Example 2:

𝐿−𝑆 60−10 50
Coefficient of Range = = = = 0.714
𝐿+𝑆 60+10 70

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Quartile Deviation
Definition: Average amount by which the two quartiles differ from the median.
𝑸𝟑 −𝑸𝟏
Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) =
𝟐

• The Median ± Q.D. covers exactly 50 per cent of the observations.

• When Q.D. is very small, it describes high uniformity or small variation of the
central 50% items, and a high Q.D. means that the variation among the central
items is large.

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Relative measure of Q.D.

𝑸𝟑 −𝑸𝟏
Coefficient of Q.D. =
𝑸𝟑 +𝑸𝟏

It can be used to compare the degree of variation in different distributions.

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Example 3: Calculate the value of Q.D. and its coefficient of Q.D.
from the following data.

Roll No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Marks 20 28 40 12 30 15 50

Solution: Marks in ascending order 12 15 20 28 30 40 50

𝑁+1 7+1
Q1 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item = Size of = 2nd item.
4 4
Size of 2nd item is 15. Hence Q1 = 15

𝑁+1 7+1
Q3 = Size of 3 𝑡ℎ item = Size of 3 = 6th item.
4 4
Size of 6th item is 40. Hence Q3 = 40.

.
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 𝑄3−𝑄1 40−15
∴ 𝑸. 𝑫. =
2 = 2 = 12.5

𝑄3 −𝑄1 40−15
Coefficient of Q.D. = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓
𝑄3 +𝑄1 40+15

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Example 4: Compute the value of Q.D. and its coefficient from
the following data.

Marks 10 20 30 40 50 60
No. of
4 7 15 8 7 2
Students

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Solution: Marks Frequency cumulative
frequency
10 4 4
20 7 11
30 15 26
40 8 34
50 7 41
60 2 43

𝑁+1 43+1
Q1 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item = Size of = 11th item.
4 4
Size of 11th item is 20. Hence Q1 = 20

𝑁+1 43+1
Q3 = Size of 3 𝑡ℎ item = Size of 3 = 33rd item.
4 4
Size of 33rd item is 40. Hence Q3 = 40.

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 𝑄3−𝑄1 40−20
𝑸. 𝑫. =
2 = 2 = 10

𝑄3 −𝑄1 40−20
Coefficient of Q.D. = = = 0.333
𝑄3 +𝑄1 40+20

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Example 4: Compute the value of Q.D. and its coefficient from
the following data

C.I. 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

f 12 19 5 10 9 6 6

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Solution:
Marks Frequency cumulative
frequency

10-20 12 12
20-30 19 31
30-40 5 36
40-50 10 46
50-60 9 55
60-70 6 61
70-80 6 67
N= 67

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 𝑁 67
Q1 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item = Size of = 16.75th item.
4 4
Q1 lies in the interval 20-30

𝑁
4
− 𝑐.𝑓.
Q1 = 𝐿 + ×𝑖 L = 20, 𝑁/4 = 16.75, c.f. = 12
𝑓
f = 19, i = 10

67
−12
4
Q1 = 20 + × 10 = 20+2.5 = 22.5
19
Hence Q1 = 22.5

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 3𝑁 3×67
Q3 = Size of 𝑡ℎ item = Size of = 50.25th item.
4 4
Q3 lies in the class 50-60.

3𝑁
4
− 𝑐.𝑓.
Q3 = 𝐿 + ×𝑖 L = 50, 3𝑁/4 = 50.25, c.f. = 46
𝑓
f = 9, i = 10

50.25−46
Q3 = 50 + × 10 = 50+4.72 = 54.72
9
Hence Q3 = 54.72

𝑄3 −𝑄1 54.72−22.5
𝑸. 𝑫. = = = 16.11
2 2
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 Mean Deviation
Definition: M.D. is the average difference between the items in a distribution and the
median or mean of that series.
𝐷
Mean Deviation or M.D. =
𝑁
Where 𝐷 is the deviations from median ignoring signs.

For individual observations:

(i) Compute median of the series.
(ii) Take deviations of items from median ignoring ± signs and denote these
deviations by 𝐷 .
(iii) Obtain the total of these observations, 𝐷 .
(iv) Divide the total obtained in step (iii) by the number of observations to
get the value of mean deviation.

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 Relative Measure of M.D. :

𝑀.𝐷.
Co-efficient of M.D. =
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛

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Example 5: Calculate the mean deviation of the two income
groups.
I (Rs.) II (Rs.)
4000 3000
4200 4000
4400 4200
4600 4400
4800 4600
4800
5800

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Solution: Group I Group II
Rs. 𝑫 Rs. 𝑫
4000 400 3000 1400
4200 200 4000 400
4400 0 4200 200
4600 200 4400 0
4800 400 4600 200
4800 400
5800 1400
N=5 𝑫 = 1200 N=7 𝑫 =4000

𝐷
Mean deviation : I group M.D. =
𝑁
𝑁+1 5+1
Median = 𝑡ℎ item = = 3rd item. Size of the 3rd item = 4400.
2 2
1200
M.D. = = 240
5
i.e., the average deviation of the individual incomes from the median income
is Rs. 240.
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 𝐷
Mean deviation : II group M.D. =
𝑁
𝑁+1 7+1
Median = 𝑡ℎ item = = 4th item.
2 2
Size of the 4th item = 4400.
4000
M.D. = = 571.43
5
i.e., the average deviation of the individual incomes from the
median income is Rs. 571.43.

𝑀.𝐷. 240
Co-efficient of M.D. (I - Group) = = = 0.055
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 4400
571.43
(II- Group) = = 0.13
4400

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Mean deviation – Discrete Series
𝑓𝐷
M.D. =
𝑁

(i) Compute median of the series.

(ii) Take deviations of items from median ignoring ± signs and
denote these deviations by 𝐷 .
(iii) Multiply these deviations by the respective frequencies and
Obtain the total, 𝑓 𝐷 .
(iv) Divide the total obtained in step (iii) by the number of
observations to get the value of mean deviation.

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Example 6: The number of telephone calls received at an exchange in 245
successive one-minute intervals are shown in the following
frequency distribution. Compute the mean deviation about
the median.

Number of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Calls
Frequency 14 21 25 43 51 40 39 12

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Solution: No. of Calls f c.f. 𝑫 f𝑫
0 14 14 4 56
1 21 35 3 63
2 25 60 2 50
3 43 103 1 43
4 51 154 0 0
5 40 194 1 40
6 39 233 2 78
7 12 245 3 36
N = 245 𝒇 𝑫 = 366
𝑁+1 245+1
Median = Size of th item = = 123rd item . Hence the
2 2
median value is 4.
𝑓𝐷 366
M.D. = = = 1.49
𝑁 245

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In Continuous Series:
We have to obtain the mid-points of the various classes and take
the deviations of these mid-points from median.

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Calculate the coefficient of mean deviation from the following data:

Marks 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90

No. of 2 6 12 18 25 20 10 7
Students

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 Standard deviation
For the frequency distribution 𝑥𝑖 | 𝑓𝑖 ; i =1, 2, …, n ,

1
Variance = 𝜎 2 = 𝑖 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥) 2
𝑁
1 1 2 1 1 2
= 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖2 − ( 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ) or 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖2 − ( 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖 )
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
Or 𝜎2 = (Discrete frequency distribution)
𝑁

Standard deviation = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

1 1 1 2
𝜎= 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)2 or 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖2 − ( 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖 )
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

𝑥 − arithmetic mean of the distribution

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Coefficient of Variation

𝜎
Coefficient of Variation : C.V. = x 100 (Relative Measure)
𝑥

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3) The score of two players A and B in ten innings during a certain
season are:

A 32 28 47 63 71 39 10 60 96 14
B 19 31 48 53 67 90 10 62 40 80

Find which of the two players A, B is more consistent in scoring.

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 2
𝑋 = 460 ; 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑥 = 6500

2
𝑌 = 500 ; 𝑌𝑖 − 𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑌𝑗 − 𝑦 = 5968

𝜎𝐴 = 25.5 𝜎𝐵 = 24.43

C.V.(A) = 55.43 C.V.(B) = 48.86

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4) Suppose that samples of polythene bags from two manufacturers,
A and B, are tested by a prospective buyer for bursting pressure, with
the following results:
Bursting Number of Bags
Pressure (lb.) A B
5.0 – 9.9 2 9
10.0 – 14.9 9 11
15.0 – 19.9 29 18
20.0 – 24.9 54 32
25.0 – 29.9 11 27
30.0 – 34.9 5 13

Which set of bags has the highest average burning pressure?

Which has more uniform pressure? If prices are the same,
which manufacturer’s bags would be preferred by the buyer? Why?
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 𝑋𝐴 = 21 𝑋𝐵 = 21.81

C.V.(A) = 23.24% C.V.(B) = 32.44%

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 C.I. f C.I. f
0-5 10 0-5 10
5-10 30 5-10 40
10-15 60 10-15 30
15-20 60 15-20 90
20-25 30 20-25 20
25-30 10 25-30 10

𝑋 = 15
𝜎=6

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 90
60 60
𝒙 = 15
𝝈 = 𝟔

30 30
40

30

20
10 10
10 10

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 Skewness
When a series is not symmetrical it is said to be asymmetrical or skewed.
A distribution is said to be ‘skewed’ when the mean and median
fall at different points in the distribution, and the balance(or centre of
gravity) is shifted to one side or the other to left or right.

Measure of skewness is the lack of symmetry of a distribution.

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Dispersion is concerned with the amount of variation rather than with its
direction.
Skewness tell us about the direction of the variation or the departure from
symmetry.

Types of Skewness: (i) Symmetrical Distribution

(ii) Positively Skewed Distribution (Mean > Mode)
(iii) Negatively Skewed Distribution (Mean < Mode)

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 Measure of Skewness
Absolute measures of Skewness(Sk)

Sk = 𝑋 - Mode

Relative measures of Skewness:

(i) Karl pearson’s coefficient of skewness.
(ii) Measure of skewness based on moments.

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(i) Karl pearson’s coefficient of skewness.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛−𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑋−𝑀𝑜
Coefficient of Skewness : Sk = =
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜎

But using , Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean

3(𝑋− 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛)
Sk =
𝜎

this measure can vary between ±𝟑 ;

however, in practice, it is rare that the value of Sk exceed the limits of ±𝟏.

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Moments
Moment is a measure of a force with respect to its tendency to
provide rotation.
The strength of the tendency depends on the amount of force and the
distance from the origin of the point at which the force is exerted.

Definition: Let the symbol xi = (𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿) be used to represent the deviation of any
item in a distribution from the arithmetic average of that
distribution.
The arithmetic mean of the various powers of these deviations in any
distribution are called the moments of the distribution.

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Moments about the mean (Central Moments):
(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋)
First Moment 𝜇1 = : (sum of deviations from
𝑁
A.M. is always zero.
𝝁𝟏 = 𝟎)
2
(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋)
Second Moment 𝜇2 = : 𝜎 2 = Variance
𝑁

3
(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋)
Third Moment 𝜇3 =
𝑁

4
(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋)
Fourth Moment 𝜇4 =
𝑁

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For a frequency distribution:
𝑓𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 −𝑋)
First Moment 𝜇1 =
𝑁
2
𝑓𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 −𝑋)
Second Moment 𝜇2 = : 𝜎 2 = Variance
𝑁

3 3
𝑓𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 −𝑋) 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Third Moment 𝜇3 = or
𝑁 𝑁

4 4
𝑓𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 −𝑋) 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Fourth Moment 𝜇4 = or
𝑁 𝑁

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 𝜇32
𝛽1 (beta one) = (Coeff. of Skewness)
𝜇23

𝜇4
𝛽2 (beta two) = (Coeff. of Kurtosis)
𝜇22

𝛾1 (Gamma one) = 𝛽1 (Coeff. of Skewness)

𝛾2 (Gamma two) = 𝛽2 −3 (Coeff. of Kurtosis)

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Non-central Moments
Where the actual mean is in fractions it is difficult to calculate moments by
applying the above formulae.
In such cases we can first compute moments about an arbitrary origin (A).

(𝑋𝑖 −𝐴) 𝑓𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 −𝐴)

𝜇1′ = (Mean) ; 𝜇1′ =
𝑁 𝑁
2 2
(𝑋𝑖 −𝐴) 𝑓𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 −𝐴)
𝜇2′ = ; 𝜇2′ =
𝑁 𝑁
3 3
(𝑋𝑖 −𝐴) 𝑓𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 −𝐴)
𝜇3′ = ; 𝜇3′ =
𝑁 𝑁
4 3
(𝑋𝑖 −𝐴) 𝑓𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 −𝐴)
𝜇4′ = ; 𝜇4′ =
𝑁 𝑁
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Conversion of moments about an Arbitrary
origin into Moments about mean
𝜇1 = 𝜇1′ − 𝜇1′

2
𝜇2 = 𝜇2′ − (𝜇1′ )

′ 3
𝜇3 = 𝜇3′ − 3𝜇1′ 𝜇2′ + 2(𝜇1 )

′ 2 ′ 4
𝜇4 = 𝜇4′ − 4𝜇1′ 𝜇3′ + ′
6𝜇2 (𝜇1 ) − 3(𝜇1 )

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 Marks Frequency
0-10 5
10-20 20
20-30 15
30-40 45
40-50 10
50-60 5

Find the Measure of skewness based on moments.

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 Mid point
Marks f 𝒅 = (𝒎 − 𝟑𝟓)/𝟏𝟎 fd 𝒇𝒅𝟐 𝒇𝒅𝟑
(m)
0-10 5 5 -3 -15 45 -135
10-20 15 20 -2 -40 80 -160
20-30 25 15 -1 -15 15 -15
30-40 35 45 0 0 0 0
40-50 45 10 +1 +10 10 +10
50-60 55 5 +2 +10 20 +40
N =100 𝒇𝒅 = -50 𝒇𝒅𝟐 = 170 𝒇𝒅𝟑 = -260

𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜇1′ = × 𝑖 = -5
𝑁

𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖2
𝜇2′ = × 𝑖 2 = 170
𝑁
𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖3
𝜇3′ = × 𝑖 3 = 2600
𝑁
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 ′ 2
𝜇2 = 𝜇1′ − (𝜇1 ) = 145

3
𝜇3 = 𝜇3′ − 3𝜇1′ 𝜇2′ + 2(𝜇1′ ) = -300

𝜇32
𝛽1 = = 0.02952
𝜇23

𝛾1 = 𝛽1 = - 0.172

Since 𝛾1 - is negative, the distribution is negatively skewed.

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 Kurtosis
Kurtosis enables us to have an idea about the ‘flatness’ or ‘peakedness’
of the frequency curve.

“Convexity of the frequency curve”

𝜇4
It is measured by the Coefficient of 𝛽2 = or 𝛾2 = 𝛽2 −3
𝜇22
(i) 𝛽2 = 3, i.e., 𝛾2 = 0 : mesokurtic curve
(ii) 𝛽2 < 3, i.e., 𝛾2 < 0 : platykurtic curve
(iii) 𝛽2 > 3, i.e., 𝛾2 > 0 : leptokurtic curve

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