Chapter two

Understanding Society, State and Government: Ethiopian focus

Introduction

State, government and society are common terminologies and concepts dominate social
science particularly Political Science, Law, Civics and Philosophy. Their influence affects the
individual citizen in many ways that in turn the opportunities of the society, the state and the
individual person in many ways like development, stability and peace. Thus, these concepts
underlie the essential part of Civics and Ethics studied as they are interdependent, interrelated
and at times mutually inclusive in their nature. This does not mean that they are always
integrated and harmonized in the best desired way. The relations among the three triangular
institutions, without exaggeration, determine the level of states in general socio-economic
development and influence in international relations. It is not however as simple as this
observation to strike a right working balance among them due to divergent and conflicting
interests. Some conflicts get well managed through a better harmonization of the three forces
while other conflicts require more efforts for their settlement.

2.1. Society

Definition of society

 A society is the largest form of human group. It consists of people who share a
common heritage and culture. Members of the society learn this culture and transmit it
from one generation to the next. They even preserve their distinctive culture through
literature, art and other means of expression.
 Society is understood as largest social organization to which individual person owe
their allegiance or an aggregate of persons united by a common culture which are
relatively autonomous and self-sufficient and who live in a definite geographical
location. It consists of culture, social norms and values, and social class and groups.
 Society is also defined as a group of people who have a similar cultural background or
related to each other through persistent relations such as social status, roles and social
networks and live in specific geographical area.
 Human society is group of human broadly distinguished from other groups by their
mutual interests, shared institutions, common heritage and culture.

From the above definitions we can draw some of the basic characteristic feature of a society.
Among others, society is – a largest group of people

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 - Live in a certain territory relatively for long period of time
- Autonomous and self- sufficient
- Have a mutual/common back ground: shared value, institutions culture and
norms
- Maintain and transmit its identity from generation to generation
- Has its own distinguishable features
2.2.1. Contending Theories of Society
On the basis of the conception of society’s organization and the relation of a society with its
members there are three contending theories. These are functionalist, conflict and symbolic
inter-actionist theories of society. Let us discuss them one after the other.
A. Structural-Functionalist theory

According to Structural-functionalism (often paraphrased “Functionalism”), society is a

living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival, which
emphasizes the way that parts of society are structured to maintain its stability. The
proponents of the functionalist theory saw any society as a vast network of connected parts,
each of which helps to maintain the system as a whole. The functionalist approach holds that
if an aspect of social life does not contribute to a society’s stability or survival –if does not
serve some identifiably useful function or promote value consensus among members’ of a
society - it will not be passed on from one generation to the next.

According to this theory, society is a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability. This theory begins by recognizing that our lives are guided by social
structures meaning relatively stable patterns of social. The most salient characteristic of the
functionalist theory is its vision of society as a whole being comprehensible, orderly and
stable. From this it is vividly revealed that the theory focused on macro level of analyzing
the society. Augestie Comte and Herbert Spencer were the two most influential proponents of
this theory.

B. Conflict Theory

According to Conflict Theory, society is: an arena of inequality that generates conflict and
change. This theory complements the functionalist theory by highlighting not solidarity but
division based on inequality. The theory investigate how factors such as social classes,
genders, races, ethnicity and religions, etc. are linked with to unequal distribution of money,
power, education and social prestige. The theory points out rather than promoting the

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operation of society as a whole, social structure typically benefits some people while
depriving others.

When conflict theorists look at society, they see the social domination of subordinate groups
through the power, authority, and coercion of dominant groups. In the conflict view, the
most powerful members of dominant groups create the rules for success and opportunity in
society, often denying subordinate groups such success and opportunities; this ensures that
the powerful continue to monopolize power, privilege, and authority. You should note that
most conflict theorists oppose this sort of coercion and favor a more equal social order.
Some support a complete socioeconomic revolution to socialism (like Karl Marx), while
others are more reformists, or perhaps do not see all social inequalities stemming from the
capitalist system.

The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict
or tension between competing groups. Such conflict may not be necessarily violent; it may
take the form of labor negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for
members, or disputes over the governmental budget.

C. Inter-actionist (Action) Theory

The founder of symbolic interaction- a micro level theory that focuses on how actors
assemble meanings – is highly influential Max Weber. The theory emphasized on the need to
understand a setting from the point of view of the people in it. His approach emphasizes how
human meanings and actions shape society. Accordingly societies differ primarily in terms of
the way in which their members think about the [Link] the symbolic interactionism
theory, ideas, especially beliefs and values have the power of transforming a society. Among
others: society is considered as the product of the everyday interactions of people doing
together.

 Human behavior is a product of the way we interpret the social world on a daily basis.
The social world is created and recreated by people going about their lives.
 The way in which people interpret and give meaning to the behavior of others is a
significant factor in the understanding of the social world.
 "Society" is seen as an "elaborate fiction" that we create in order to help us to make
sense of the bewildering range of behavior that we experience on a daily basis.
"Society" does not have an objective existence, as such, since it is experienced
subjectively by people.

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  Social life consists of people interacting (that is, behaving with reference to each other
- taking note of the way people behave towards each other), setting- up mutual
expectations - or norms - and then acting with reference to these norms.
 The concept of categorization is important because people classify various similar
phenomena in their daily lives in order to make sense of these phenomena.
 The process of labeling (giving names to the phenomena we classify) is significant
because the labels we create (mother, criminal, insane and the like) help us to define
(or stereotype) the nature of the social categories we create. In modern societies
people tend to behave towards each other on the basis of the labels that each person
attracts from others.
2.1 The State
2.1.1 Definition and Attributes of State

The concept of state is central to traditional approaches in political science. Different scholars
have various conceptions about the state. There were numerous philosophical explanations
about the state. Among others the following are some definitions of the state from views of
different scholars:-

 A state is organized machinery for the making and carrying out of political decisions
and for the enforcing of the laws and rules of government (Blunstschli and Woodro
Willson).
 A state is an association of families and villages for the sake of attaining a perfect and
self-sufficient existence (Aristotle)
 A state is an instrument of class oppression. In class society, the state is an element of
coercion which safe guards the interest of the rulers (Marxist).
 A state is a society politically organized and is more than a mere collection of families
or an agglomeration of occupational organizations.
Generally speaking, we can find Aristotle’s and other political thinkers who consider the state
as beneficent institution for human and achievement of good life. On the other side we can
find the Marxist definition that looks the state as an instrument of exploitation for the ruling
class.

Nonetheless, the modern state is commonly defined as; “an abstract entity which consists of
defined territory, certain numbers of population subjected to an organized political authority
i.e. government which have sovereignty.

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As part of its technical expression, the 1933 article 1 of the Montevideo Convention on the
rights and duties of state lays down the most widely accepted formulation of the criteria of
state hood in the international law. The state as an international legal person should posses’
four basic elements or attribute i.e Population, territory, government and sovereignty.
While the first two elements are taken as its physical elements, the rest are considered as the
spiritual or metaphysical elements. Let us now look in to the elements of the state.

 Population
The state should have a permanent population is naturally required. It refers to the people
who are residing within the same geographic area. There is no specification of minimum
number of inhabitants to live in a state
Homogeneity: is one feature distinguishing nations and it denotes peoples’ similarity or
sameness in cultural-psychological identity i.e they speak the same language, follow similar
way of life, share one and adjacent territory and similar psychological make-up. Germany,
Iceland in Europe, Somalia and Swaziland in Africa, Korea and Japan in Asia are few
examples of relatively homogeneous states in the world today.

Heterogeneity: refers to variation in cultural identity among the populations of states in

language, culture and traditions. Examples of heterogeneous states include, among others,
Ethiopia (with about 85 ethnic groups), Nigeria (with some 250 ethnic groups) and India
(with about 800 languages).

Socio-economic diversity: is another feature of populations in a given state with developed

nations having a majority of urban, industrial and literate populations while fast developing
states are transforming from majority peasant and rural, uneducated and labor based
population to that of urban and literate one.

 Territory
Territory generally refers to three physical possessions over which the state and government
exercise their sovereign authority- landmass, space and water body. These territorial divisions
among the present states of the world are extremely irregular due to irregular political
evolutions in creating the state. In general, there can be no state without a territory of its own
though its boundaries might be clearly or ill-defined.

 Government
For a political society to function reasonably and effectively it needs some form of
government or central administration. Government in this context broadly refers to groups of
people who exercise political power in the states. All states by definition have governments

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of some kind that exercises sovereign power on their behalf. But there have been a lot of
differences among the governments of the world due to different reasons
 Sovereignty
Refers to both the internal i.e. supreme authority over the population, territory, institutions in
its confines and external authority i.e. independence and freedom from external powers.

2.1.2 Theories on the origin and development of State

The origin and development of state is still subject to debate because various theories on the
subject supposed different factors which are often irreconcilable to justify state formation.
However, the most common theories of the state are

1. The Divine Right Theory

Based on this theory state is the creation of God and finds its expression in the
religious scriptures. Its people are enjoined to render obedience to the power that be
who are ordained by God. The basic assumption in this theory is that the earth as a
whole is the replica of the heavenly world and its purpose is to prepare its people for
“the never ending world.”Generally, this theory argue that
 The state is created by God with a special sense of deliberate, direct, specific
act of creation with a particular end in view- the peace on this earth for the
preservation of human race
 The ruler is appointed by and representative ofGod on earth so the hereditary
succession is legitimate
 All rights of the ruler are gifts of the divine and his “accountability” is to the
creator alone.
2. The Genetic Theory
State is an eventual extension of the family. Aristotle argues that the state is the
descendent of one family, the children and the children’s children for which reasons
state were originally governed by kings … and when villages are join themselves
together as in every aspect to form one society, the society is the state and contain in
itself… the government. Proponents of this theory argued that family composition and
residence of authority then its growth to tribe and clan led eventually to the formation
of the state.
3. Force Theory
The main premise in this theory is man is a creature of lust for power and subjugation
of others. Accordingly the state is primarily the consequence of the forcible
subjugation through long continued warfare among primitive groups and all modern

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 political communities owe their existence to successful warfare. From the very
beginning of human history there has always being a struggle among different social
groups to achieve economic advantages resulting in the ascendency of some over
others. The conquerors granted concessions to the conquered who thus reconciled
themselves with the existing situation. Ultimately, it led to the assimilation and the
state with law and government came into being.
4. The Social Contract Theory
The main argument in this theory is that the existence of political
authority/government is based on the consent/ agreement of the people. This theory is
originated and developed by Tomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau
and three of them shared that idea that the state is a result of agreement between the
society and the leader. It is a contract based on agreement otherwise terminates in
failing consensus. People are agreeing to surrender their natural right to the
government and in return the government gives and protectstheir civil right. The
main role of a state and its government is to protect the life, liberty and property of an
individual. If a state fails to protect these civil rights the contract come to an end.
5. The Marxist Theory
The origin of the state is found in class contradiction and struggle. The state arose as a
matter of necessity as society divided into two classes: the rich and the poor. With the
invention private property the dominant class came into being by virtue of owning the
means of production. To protect its wealth and interest it needs some authority and
eventually creates the state. Thus the state is a product of society’s internal
development and an instrument of the rich to exploit and subjugate the poor.
2.1.3 Forms of State Structure
States based on their structure divided as unitary, federal and confederal. Let us briefly
discuss them orderly.
A. Defining Unitary
Unitary is a form of state structure characterized by power centralization and indivisibility of
sovereignty i.e. the national government is legally supreme over sub-national territorial
bodies or units. Britain, the Netherlands, Romania, Poland etc are examples of unitary state.

 Key Features of Unitary State Structure

By way of a summary presentation, the followings can be listed as some essential features
characterizing unitary State structure:

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  Supremacy of the Central Legislature (Parliament). There is only one
(unicameral) legislature which is always absolutely supreme and hence it alone
enacts and monitors the law.
 Absencesof subsidiary sovereign bodies [Link] is vested in the
national /central government and hence sub national bodies are not sovereign.
 Unchecked/unilateral (re) centralization of Power at the center: i.e. power
that may have been decentralized to sub-national bodies can be re-centralized at
the will of the central government unilaterally.
B. Defining Federalism
Federalism is a form of state structure in which power is formally (constitutionally) divided
or shared between the federal /national/ and sub-National (regional/ provincial) governments,
each of which is supreme in its own sphere. Ethiopia, Nigeria, India, Brazil, USA, Canada,
Australia, Germany are examples of federal states etc.

 Key Features of Federalism

By way of a summary presentation, the followings can be listed as some essential features
characterizing federal state structure:

 The existence of dual politiesi.e. two relatively autonomous levels of governments- the
central and the regional- exist each possessing a constitutionally entrenched ranges of
powers and functions.
 Written constitution: A federal state has most of the time but not necessarily always a
written (codified) constitution that stipulates formal (constitutional) division of authority
between the central government and sub national governments.
 Supremacy of federal Government and Constitution: this implies that in federalism
the federal government and constitution is usually superior and supreme over the sub
national governments and constitutions.
 Absence of unilateral re-centralization of powers and authority by
thecentral/federal government at its will.
 Absence of unilateral amendment of the federal constitution or some of its
provisions by either government level.
 Constitutional Arbiter. The formal provisions of the constitution are interpreted by
a supreme court (the judiciary) at the federal level, which there by arbitrates in case of
conflict (disputes) between federal and regional government. The respective fields of
jurisdiction of each level, the judiciary in a federal level (system) is constitutionally

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 empowered to determine. However, in Ethiopia, the House of Federation (HF) is in
charge of this power.
 Linking institutions: In order to foster or develop cooperation, partnership and
understandings between the federal and regional (sub national) governments,
federalism normally offers the regional (sub national) governments representation
through a bi-cameral legislature.

2.2 Federalism and theIssue of State Power Distribution

Federalism distributes state power in three broad categories of practices. These are;
 Exclusive powers: these refer to powers exercised either only by federal or the
regional government authorities. In the context of Ethiopia, powers that are only
exercised by the federal government include among others;Foreign Affairs,
Defense, Printing and circulating of money.
 Concurrent powers: these refer to the powers exercised commonly by the federal
and regional governments. In Ethiopia, areas of concurrent powers include among
others;Social sectors such as education, health and labor and affairs, Transport
and communication sectors, Internal security, Agriculture, industry, trade and
tourism, Local finance raising and spending etc.

 Residual powers: These refer to the powers on which the constitution does not
expressly/explicitly mention as to which government level exercise them- the
central or the regional. In some federal states they are given to the central
government while in others to the regional ones. In Ethiopia, such powers are
given to regional governments.
2.2.1 Processes of Federalism in brief
Most literatures in the academics of civics and ethics usually identify two processes through
which federal arrangements emerge and evolve. These are;

I. Federalism by Disaggregation or Holding together Federations

This is a process by which the federal arrangement is developed from a previously unitary
state mainly as government’s response to alleviate threats of secession by territorially
clustered minorities. Examples include Ethiopia, India, Belgium, Canada and Spain.

II. Federalism by Aggregation or Coming together Federations

This is a process by which the federal arrangement is developed from previously

independently existing states by way of pooling their sovereign powers to a certain

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 domain for the sake of goods otherwise unattainable. Examples include the USA,
Switzerland and Australia.

2.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Federalism

 The following are some of advantages of federalism:
 Geographical or Ethnic diversity
 Practical administration: tax collection, enforcing laws
 Necessary condition for social, economic and political development
 Localized political demand for more autonomy, and
 Treat of secessionist movements
 While the following are some of the critism or disadvantages of federalism:\
 Separatist
 Threaten unity
 Anti-egalitarianism
 Local governments are susceptible
 Dispersed power
 Deteriorates quality of administrative - - - narrow out look
 Heterogeneous policy

C. Con-federal State Structure

Confederalism is voluntary association of independent states. It is an association of states,
which rests upon the common agreement of its members expressed in an elaborate document.
Confederations are formed for common advantage without affecting internal freedom,
structure, lawmaking and enforcing processes, external relations of the states confederating.
The objectives include external security, promotion of cultural and economic unity, and
operation of postal service.

In contemporary world, there are modern forms of confederations, but such arrangements are
different from the older ones. Modern arrangements are established around common defense,
economic alliance and politico- religious alliance. Northern Atlantic Treaty Organization
NATO, Common Market of East and Southern Africa- COMESA, and Economic Community
of Western African States- ECOWAS, The Arab League are some of the examples to be
mentioned.

2.3 Government
2.3.1 Definition and Functions of Government

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In its broadest sense, to govern means to rule or exercise control over others. Government can
therefore be taken to include any mechanism through which ordered rule is maintained, its
central features being the ability to make collective decisions and the capacity to enforce
them. A form of government can thus be identified in almost all social institutions like
families, school, businesses, trade unions and so on. However, government in our context is
more commonly understood to refer to the formal and institutional processes that operate at
the national level to maintain public order and facilitate collective action. It is a body or
organ that administers a country and main organization dealing with affairs of the whole
country. Thus, government is one of the most essential components and also an
administrative wing of the state.

 Function of Governments

In the field of political science, there are varied views regarding the purpose and function of
government. Those views have ideological and theoretical bases in which they established as
due the relationship between and among the three core institutions: state, government, and
society. In the contemporary world, the major functions of governments include, among other
things, the following:

A. Self-Preservation: the first and primary task of almost all governments is to ensuring
security among the governed. They are responsible to bring order, predictability, and
internal security against domestic and foreign force.
B. Introducing , implementing and enforcing laws, rules and regulations
C. Regulation of the economy: all governments invariably play the role of distributing
resources in their societies. In addition, governments are the only institutions that
determine whether resources are going to be controlled by the public or private
sector. Furthermore, governments also play the role of the regulation of the economy.
By enacting and implementing policies related with the agricultural, industrial,
transportation, taxes, tariffs, etc, governments through their different institutions
indulge in regulating the overall economic activities of the country.
D. Conflict management: governments usually develop and consolidate institutions and
procedures to prevent, manage, and resolve conflicts. These may include the
legislative, executive, and judicial institutions with established procedures for the
supervision and resolution of conflicts which may arise in the society.

2.3.2 Government Structure/Organization

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 Structures of Governments

Under modern Political theory, government is understood as having three main branches
commonly known as: legislative, executive, and judiciary organs. Each organ has its own
distinct roles and responsibilities, the legislature makes law, executive organ enforce and
implements law, and the judiciary interprets the laws at least superficially.

A. The Legislative Organ: is a type of representative assembly with the power to adopt
laws. Legislatures are known by many names, the most common being parliament and
congress. Among many of the principal functions of the legislative branch of
government include:
 Legislation
 Representation of the citizenry
 Oversight of the executive organ of the government
 Ensuring legitimacy
 Constitutional making and amendment
 Electoral and deposing functions
 Enacting law and policies on financial and fiscal issues
 Investigative function on many legal gaps
B. The executive organ: in its broadest sense, the executive is the branch of government
responsible for the implementation or enforcement of laws and policies made by the
legislature. In its coverage, the executive organ branch extends from the head of
governments to the members of enforcement agencies such as the police, the military,
ministers, departments, and civil servants.
C. The Judiciary Organ

The judiciary is the branch of government that is empowered to decide legal disputes. Most,
not all, governments have specialized judicial structures that include the system of courts and
judges. Thus, the central function of judges is to adjudicate on the meaning of law, in the
sense that they interpret or construct law. The significance of this role varies from state to
state and from system to system. Accordingly, the major powers and functions of the
judiciary organ, among other, include the following:

 Adjudication
 Formation of case law
 Guardian of the constitution
 Protection of rights of citizens

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  Judicial review
2.3.3 Forms and Systems of Government

There are approximately 201 existing political systems around the world and each has its
distinct features and characteristics. Some systems place more powers in the parliament and
are called parliamentary systems, and other systems place more powers into a directly elected
president and are called presidential systems. Among parliamentary and presidential systems
there will be different outcomes depending on other factors, such as the party landscape
(number of parties), the electoral system, the availability of natural resources and the role of
civil society.

A. Parliamentary Form of Government

The parliamentary system is the most widely practiced governance system in the world today.
In that system, a prime minister is the head of the government, and chairs the council of
ministers/cabinet which advises on government policy. The prime minister is elected by the
legislature, most often on the basis of a majority vote. The government is collectively
accountable to parliament and requires its continued confidence to stay in power. The
legislature itself is elected on the basis of a multiparty system and adult grant. Like the Prime
Minister, cabinet ministers are also normally members of the parliament. In a parliamentary
system the role of the Head of State is largely ceremonial (a monarch or a president elected
by the legislature). In countries with a parliamentary system of government, political power is
vested with the council or cabinet of ministers headed by the Prime Minister.

B. Presidential Form of Government

Presidential system has an executive president directly elected by the people. The president
heads the state and the government. S/he cannot be removed by the legislature except in
extraordinary circumstances through an impeachment process. Her/his constitutional term
limit normally ranges from 4 to 7 years. For example, in United States of America the
president has the term office of the president is limited to four years only. Many such systems
limit the number of terms a president can serve. The President appoints some members of
her/his cabinet at her/his discretion. However some offices may need to be approved through
parliamentary hearings. All cabinet members are accountable to the President, but are
normally answerable also the parliament.

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  Differences Between Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Governments

Though it is difficult to say the one is better than the other in terms of democratic governance
and establishment of rule of law, it is possible to identify some of the centre of differences the
two forms of governments. Under here, some of the lines of differences between presidential
and parliamentary political systems are discussed.

Term of Parliamentary Presidential

Difference
Division of power -No clear division of - Executive and legislative organs are sep
power between the executive and the
legislative organs of government

Nature of the -Executive divided into two: a prime - Executive not divided: the president i
executive minster (head of government) of government and head of state
and a president as ceremonial head of
state

Executive selection - Prime minster with almost - President directly elected by the peop
unlimited term office usually a definite term
selected from the largest party or
coalition parties in the parliament

Executive - The prime minister and his/her - The president is responsible to the co
responsibility cabinet is responsible to the
assembly/parliament

Executive power over - The head of government can - The president can dissolve the parliam
assembly dissolve, threaten, and coerce the can`t threaten and coerce it
parliament

Legislative power over - Though, the parliament can take - Strong assembly to the extent of impe
executive vote of no-confidence against the the president
prime minister, the executive and

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 legislative have balanced power

 The Difference among State, Government and Society

There is a common consensus that the term state is often interchangeably used with other
terms like society, nation, government and other associations. Now it shall be worthwhile to
look into the points of distinction so that we may have a correct understanding of the meaning
and nature of this term.

 The difference between State and Government

Though state and government are similar when strictly studied in concrete and practical
terms, the two may be distinguished on theoretical grounds. These differences may include:

1. The state is a bigger entity that includes all citizens, the territory, sovereignty,
recognition, etc; the government is a smaller unit that covers only those who are
employed to perform the functions and activities of the state.
2. The state is an abstract idea, but the government has its existence in a physical form.
In a broad sense, a government includes all persons in the legislative, the executive or
the judiciary branches from the president/prime minister at the top to a more ordinary
citizen at the bottom.
3. The power of the state is original and primary, but the authority of the government is
delegated and derivative. In other words, it is said that while the power of the state is
absolute as being a sovereign entity, the authority of the government is limited by the
provisions of the constitution.
4. The state is a permanent institution. It survives until its sovereign power is destroyed
by the invasion of some other state. But governments come and go.
5. The government is an agency for the fulfillment of the purposes of the state. Hence,
the people may have grievances against the government, but not against the state.
 The difference between State and Society

In Society, there may have different units or structures, varying interests, and specific or
general norms and values. Examples of the basic units of society include the family, the
neighborhood or village, clan or ethnic group, interest groups, clubs and associations, and the
state with its government. Among the organizations in society, the state is the most
fundamental and influential one. In fact, both society and the state are not necessarily one and
same. The state and society differ, among other things, in terms of their scope and objectives.

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Society embodies the highest level of social existence with all associational forms, structures
and modes of human life, and thus, it is quite complex in terms of structures and
organizational patterns. Compared to society, regardless of its level of development, the state
as a major political organization is the ultimate manifestation of the political life of the
society to which it belongs.

In general, besides the similarities shared between the society and the state, their differences
can be distinguished on the following grounds.

1. In terms of time, society is prior to the state. It means that society came in to being
much earlier than the state.
2. State is just a part of the society. As stated before, society implies the general
relations and associations of human beings. Since human beings are social creatures
by their nature and necessity, such relations are as old as humanity. Moreover these
social relations have diverse forms in the religious, cultural and economic directions,
of these diverse forms, state is one part (political part) that has its purpose limited to
the maintenance of peace, order and security to the people.
3. The two may also be distinguished in respect of their functions. The society performs
a multiplicity of functions in order to meet multifold requirements of human beings.
The family, the community, religion, trade unions, clubs, etc, meet different kind of
requirements of people as intellectual, recreational, moral, cultural, and economic.
But the function of the state is to make and enforce a legal order so that people may
lead a life of peace, security and honor.
4. But the most important point of distinction is that state possesses the attribute of
sovereignty whereby it may coerce and compel others by the use of force. The society
has no such force and whatever force it has, it appears in the form of moral
persuasion. The customs and traditions of the society are followed by the people
because of the force of public conscience but the laws of the state are obeyed,
because their violation is visited with suitable punishment.
2.4 Ethiopian Society, State and Government
2.4.1 Formation of the modern Ethiopian state (Tewodros II—Menlik II)
The formation of centralized statehood in Ethiopia goes back to the end of the 19 th century.
However, this does not mean Ethiopia did not exist before the end of the 19 th century. As a
matter of fact, the existence of Ethiopia as a state is as old as no less than there thousand
years. However, with its present form and extent of territory, the Ethiopian state can
relatively be viewed as a recent phenomenon.

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The process of building a modern centralized state in Ethiopia was significantly
accomplished during the reign of Emperor Menilik II. But, the attempts to do so were started
by Emperor Tewodros right after the end of the Zemene Mesafint. The efforts of building a
modern centralized state in Ethiopia made by Emperor Tewodros were also extended by his
successor or Emperor Yohannes.

The campaigns carried out by Emperor Menilik during the second half of the 19 th century
incorporated the states in the southern, southeastern, and the eastern parts in to present-day
Ethiopia. In the meantime, the present day boundaries of Ethiopia were established based on
international agreements between the Ethiopian government and the surrounding colonial
powers of the time. This took place at the end of the 19th century.

Most importantly, according to Teshale Tibebu, it was emperor Tewodros II initiated,

Yohannes IV elaborated, Minilik II consolidated and Haileselassie completed the process of
transformation from paralyzed sovereignties to centralized sovereignty.

2.4.2 Nation Building in Modern Ethiopia

A. Under the Imperial Regime

Once he successfully achieved the formation of the modern state of Ethiopia the way
discussed above, emperor Minlik had no the rational and equally modern understanding of
changing the centralized new modern state created by soldiers of cultural, Political and
economic privileges over the newly incorporated nations and nationalities in to a state where
all Ethiopians were readily equally feel similar attachment and membership to the modern
state. The use force widely used for the formation of the modern state, as was the case in
Europe, did not stop immediately. Moreover, the creator of modern Ethiopia, emperor Minlik
had no time to realize these demands to determine the future of his state and was overtaken
by death.

After the death of Menelik, The responsibility of nation building historically passed to
Emperor Hilasellasee but he wasted the golden chance through assimilations tactics to
aggravate the contradiction with the ethnic groups. He thought that if all ethnic groups
assimilate one language and one culture, and then the Ethiopian nation would be one and the
same for all times.

B. Nation Building under the Dergu

During the time of 'Garrison Socialism' (Dergue) the Ethiopian military wanted to transform
the country without making a major break with the country's imperial past degrading the

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national question, which had been the major source of crisis of the Ethiopian State. The
Dergue promised the abolition of traditional customs which ‘hamper the unity and progress
of Ethiopia’. The overthrow of the feudal regime, it claimed, had ended national and class
oppression, and guaranteed the equality of all peoples and cultures in Ethiopia. Consequently
national contradictions no longer existed, only the legacy of cultural oppression remained.
Accordingly, the orientation of the new regime to the ‘indivisibility of Ethiopian unity’ was
never in question.

Given its socialist credentials, and the long-running ideological debates within the Ethiopian
Left over the issue of self-determination of nationalities, the Dergue had, nevertheless, to be
seen to recognize these rights, and respect for them was enshrined in its 1976 Programme for
the National Democratic Revolution. Not surprisingly, however, when they assumed state
power in September 1974, Ethiopia's dergue had no well-thought-out political program of any
kind, except the vague motto of 'Ethiopia Tikdam’ (Ethiopia First).

C. Nation Building in the Post-1991 Period

Since the demise of the Dergu regime, the EPRDF government has attempt to maintain the
Ethiopian state on the basis of ethnic federalism as well as cultural, language and political
autonomy at regional and sub-regional levels.

Ethno-nationalist movements grew immensely during military rule. Apart from the Eritrean
nationalist movements, the major ethnic organizations included the TPLF, Oromo Liberation
Front (OLF), and Afar Liberation Front (ALF), Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF),
Ogadeni National Liberation Front (ONLF). Ethno-nationalist organizations posed the
gravest threat to military rule and to the unity and territorial integrity of the country. Indeed,
it is the EPRDF brought down the military regime. Thus, since 1991 EPRDF is building the
new Ethiopia under the principle of democratic federalism and unity throughthe nexus of
multiculturalism, federalism, democracy, conflict management and national unity against the
century old national oppressions.

2.4.3 Overview of government systems and forms in modern Ethiopia

A. Absolute Monarchy of the Imperial Regime
Throughout his reign Emperor Haile Selasse had subjugated the state to his domain and all
state powers were under his sole control. He institutionalizedthis absolute power through the
1931 Constitution and the 1955 revised Constitution. These two constitutions were the
symbolization of the rule and moral values that determined most relations between the people
of Ethiopia and the ruling body as well as the relations between a citizen and another citizen.

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One of these values was the value about political authority which the people were expected to
hold strongly as provided for example by the last constitution of the imperial regime at
Article 4, which reads as follows:

“By virtue of his imperial blood, as well as by the anointing he received, the
person of the emperor is sacred. His dignity is inviolable and his power
indisputable. He consequently entitled to all the honors due to Him in
accordance with tradition and the present Constitution. Any one so bold as to
seek to injure the emperor will be punished.”

B. Authoritarian Presidential System of the Dergue

Not different from the absolute monarchy of Hailesilasse, but in the name of republic and
socialism, Mengistu had also imposed his personal rule against all odds. He just equated with
the state of Ethiopia and nearly worshiped as the “savior” of the generation. Like his
predecessor he reduced the nominal judiciary to completely subservient positions and made
the nominal deliberative legislature totally irrelevant in the rule system. Mengistu personally
took death penalty measures on top generals in 1990 in Eritrea for failing to respond
positively for his “war-better” consultations just after a few months of the ratification of the
PDRE constitution through popular referendum.

The executive offices became the replacement of the state. The executives reduced opposite
political opinions and open and peaceful challenges and dialogues as national security threats
directed at the benefits of the Ethiopian state. As the only individual leader openly publicized
that the silence of the people was just popular acceptance of his individual personality and
political philosophy.

C. The Parliamentary system of Post-1991 period

After the end of Dergu`s rule in 1991 and mainly after the ratification of the 1995 FDRE
constitution in, EPRDF has devised parliamentary form of government as the rational system
of government organization. This was the viable option in line with historical tragic absolute
monarchy and authoritarian government systems of past regime.

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