PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT- IX

CURRICULUM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

9.1. Curriculum:
 The word Curriculum is derived from Latin Language “Currere”
which means to run or race course
 Curriculum is the blueprint of education that directs what, why,
how, and how well students learn.
 It is the totality of planned and unplanned learning experiences
provided to learners under the guidance of an educational
institution.
 It includes the goals and objectives of education, the content or
subject matter to be taught, the methods and strategies used for
teaching and learning, and the evaluation of learning outcomes.
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
Four Key Elements of Curriculum

FOUR KEY ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM

1. Goals / Aims / Objectives / Outcomes

 Define what learners should know, do, and value.

(Assessing the learning Needs)

 Range from broad goals to specific, measurable objectives.

 Ex: Goal: Students will understand major theories of

human development
Objective: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to
list and explain Piaget’s four stages of cognitive
development. (Specific action)

2. Content / Subject Matter / Syllabus

 Knowledge, skills, concepts, and values to be taught.

 Selected based on goals, learner needs, and cultural

relevance.

 Ex: Erikson’s psychosocial theory, memory processes,

cognitive biases.

3. Methods / Pedagogy / Learning Experiences

– Teaching strategies and processes that help achieve

outcomes.

– Emphasize active, experiential, and developmentally

appropriate learning.

– Ex: Group discussions, debates, projects, Role-play to

simulate counseling sessions

4 Assessment / Evaluation

– Collecting evidence of learning to check goal attainment.

 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
– Guides improvement of teaching, learning, and curriculum
design.

– Ex: Tests, rubrics, presentations, reports

Characteristics of a Good Curriculum

 Developmentally Appropriate – Matches age milestones and

individual needs.
 Culturally Appropriate – Respects diversity and promotes
inclusivity.
 Inclusive – Accommodates all learners, including disadvantaged
and disabled.
 Child’s Choice – Allows interest-based, self-directed learning.
 Active Learning – Promotes exploration, problem-solving, and
reflection.
 Play-Based – Uses play as a medium for meaningful learning.
 Individual Differences – Adapts to varied intelligences and
learning styles.
 Integrated – Connects learning across subjects and domains.

9.1.1. Principles of Curriculum

Principle Meaning Example

Principle of Curriculum should meet Including a unit on mental
Social Relevancy the needs of society and health awareness to help
and Utility prepare learners for real- students cope with stress
life challenges. and support peers.
Principle of Curriculum should include Offering options like case
Variety and diverse subjects, methods, studies, group projects, and
Flexibility and adapt to different role plays along with
learners’ needs. lectures.
Principle of Curriculum should be Scheduling short activities
Time organized to use time (like memory recall tasks)
effectively and match for younger learners and
learners’ developmental longer experiments for
stages. older ones.
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
Child-Centric Curriculum should be Allowing students to
Principle designed according to choose a psychology topic
learners’ interests, (e.g., motivation,
abilities, and psychology. perception) for project
work.
Principle for Curriculum should provide Encouraging students to
Utilization of meaningful activities to keep a psychology
Leisure use free time productively. reflection journal or do
mindfulness exercises
outside class.
Principle of Active participation and Conducting a small
Activity learning by doing must be memory or perception
emphasized. experiment where students
record and analyze their
own results.
Principle of Curriculum should connect Linking psychology
Integration and knowledge across subjects concepts of learning with
Correlation and life situations. educational practices or
marketing strategies.
Principle of Curriculum should prepare Lessons on attitude change
Civic and Social learners to be responsible and prejudice reduction to
Needs citizens and contribute to promote social harmony.
society.
Principle of Curriculum should foster Asking students to design a
Creativeness creativity and problem- new experiment to test
solving. attention span.
Principle of Curriculum should prepare Teaching about AI in
Forward- learners for the future, not psychology research and its
Looking just present needs. role in future careers.

9.1.2. Curriculum patterns (Teacher, Learner, Problem, Subject,

Activity/Experience, Broad-field)

Pattern Meaning / Focus Key Features / Examples

Teacher- Focus is on the teacher as the - Knowledge is transmitted
Centered primary source of knowledge from teacher to students.
and authority. Teacher - Emphasis on lectures, rote
decides what to teach, how to learning, and repetition.
teach, and when. - Example: A history teacher
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
delivering lessons mainly
through direct explanation
with students taking notes.
Learner- Curriculum designed around - Learners actively participate
Centered the learner’s needs, abilities, in planning and learning.
interests, and experiences. - Encourages discovery,
creativity, and self-direction.
- Example: Allowing students
to choose project topics based
on their interests (e.g., a
science fair experiment they
design).
Problem- Curriculum organized - Focus on problem analysis,
Centered around social issues, life inquiry, and critical thinking.
situations, or real-world - Knowledge is applied to
problems. practical situations.
- Example: Students work on
solving environmental
problems like waste
management in their
community.
Subject- Traditional model where - Emphasis on mastery of
Centered curriculum is divided into subject matter.
specific subjects or - Each subject is taught
disciplines. independently.
- Example: Separate classes
for Mathematics, Science, and
Language with clear subject
boundaries.
Activity / Learning occurs through - Hands-on and experiential
Experience- purposeful activities and learning.
Centered experiences (“learning by - Promotes holistic
doing”). development (physical,
emotional, social, cognitive).
- Example: Conducting science
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
experiments, art projects, field
trips.
Broad-Field Integrates related subjects - Encourages interdisciplinary
into larger fields to avoid learning and connections
fragmentation of knowledge. across subjects.
- Provides broader
perspectives for learners.
- Example: Environmental
Studies combining concepts
from Science, Geography, and
Social Science into one
subject.

9.2. Types (Core, Competency-Based, Null, Hidden, Rhetoric)

 Core Curriculum
o Essential, compulsory subjects for all learners
o Provides a common foundation of knowledge and skills
o Example: Mathematics, Science, Language as mandatory
 Competency-Based Curriculum
o Focus on developing specific skills/competencies
o Emphasis on what learners can do rather than only what
they know
o Example: Nursing students practicing patient care
 Null Curriculum
o Content deliberately left out or omitted from the
curriculum
o May be excluded due to irrelevance, controversy, or lack of
resources
o Example: Sex education not taught in some schools
 Hidden Curriculum
o Unstated values, norms, and attitudes learned indirectly
o Shaped by school culture, teacher behavior, peer
interactions
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
o Example: Discipline, punctuality, cooperation
 Rhetoric Curriculum
o Broad, idealistic statements in policy or official documents
o Reflects educational aspirations but not always practiced
fully
o Example: “Education for all-round development”
 Overt (Explicit) Curriculum
o Official, written, and structured curriculum
o Includes syllabi, textbooks, lesson plans
o Example: NCERT/IGNOU syllabus
 Phantom Curriculum
o Learning influenced by media, technology, and popular
culture
o Outside formal schooling but affects students strongly
o Example: Social media shaping attitudes and lifestyles
 Transdisciplinary Curriculum
o Goes beyond subject boundaries, integrates multiple areas
o Organized around real-world problems or themes
o Example: Climate change project linking science,
geography, economics

9.3. Approaches to Curriculum Organisation (Topical, Spiral, Logical,

Psychological, Unitary & Integrated)
 Curriculum organization refers to the way learning content and
experiences are sequenced, structured, and delivered to learners.
 Effective organization ensures that instruction is
developmentally appropriate, coherent, and meaningful, enabling
students to build knowledge progressively.
 Various approaches—such as topical, spiral, logical,
psychological, unitary, and integrated—guide teachers and
curriculum planners in designing and implementing instruction
that maximizes learning outcomes.
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
Approaches to Curriculum Organization

1. Topical Approach
o Organizes content around separate topics or themes.

o Each topic treated independently; emphasis on breadth

rather than sequence.

o Advantage: Ensures thorough coverage. Disadvantage:

Ignores learner readiness.

o Example: Teaching “Human Digestive System” in Class VI

without revisiting.
2. Spiral Approach
o Key topics recur at increasing complexity, building on prior

knowledge.
o Supports continuity, reinforcement, and progressive

development.
o Advantage: Improves retention and motivation.

Disadvantage: May be repetitive, time-consuming.

o Example: “Plant life” → Photosynthesis → Respiration

across grades.
3. Logical Approach
o Content follows the subject’s inherent logic: simple →

complex, known → unknown.

o Encourages coherence and conceptual clarity.

o Advantage: Strengthens reasoning and scientific rigor.

Disadvantage: Ignores psychological readiness.

o Example: Physics: Motion → Force → Work → Energy →

Power.
4. Psychological Approach
o Based on learners’ developmental stage, readiness, and

interests.
o Focuses on how learners process information effectively.

o Advantage: Meaningful, motivating learning. Disadvantage:

May disrupt logical content sequence.

 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
o Example: Teaching “Force” through play rather than
abstract Newton’s laws.
5. Unitary Approach
o Treats curriculum as an integrated whole combining

knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

o Promotes holistic understanding.

o Advantage: Encourages thematic links and retention.

Disadvantage: Units may be too large.

o Example: “Energy” covering physics, biology, and

chemistry.
6. Integrated Approach

o Connects science with other subjects and real-life contexts.

o Encourages interdisciplinary, project-based learning.
o Advantage: Makes learning relevant; promotes knowledge
transfer. Disadvantage: Requires high teacher skill.
o Example: Climate change project linking physics,
chemistry, biology, and geography.

9.4. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

 Curriculum development is a decision-making process of
selecting and organizing teaching-learning components.
 It involves determining objectives, subject matter, activities,
resources, and evaluation [Link] resource units, unit
plans, course outlines, and curriculum guides.
 Defines the learner’s day-to-day school life. (Beane, Toebfer &
Alessi, 1986)

Stages of Curriculum Development

Stage Focus / Activities / Example / Note

Purpose Methods
1. Assess Identify Surveys, Profiling
Needs learners’ real questionnaires, learners’
educational field studies, knowledge gaps;
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
needs to guide interviews, determining
curriculum analyzing skills or concepts
design reports/data to prioritize
2. Set Translate Writing aims, Objective:
Objectives identified goals, and learning “Students will be
needs into objectives; able to explain
clear, specific, aligning with the water cycle
measurable national/state by the end of the
goals standards unit”
3. Select Choose Reviewing Selecting topics
Content content that is textbooks, on renewable
relevant, reference energy in science
significant, materials, local curriculum
interesting, context; relevant to
valid, useful, considering students’
and feasible learner readiness environment
4. Organize Structure Sequencing topics Teaching motion
Content content for from simple → → force → energy
logical complex, concrete in physics;
progression, → abstract; linking
continuity, and integrating related ecosystems
integration subjects across biology
units
5. Choose Align teaching Hands-on Science lab
Learning methods and experiments, activity on plant
Experiences activities to projects, group photosynthesis;
objectives; discussions, role interactive
encourage plays, multimedia climate change
active learning resources project

6. Evaluate Assess Formative Pre-tests, post-

Curriculum whether evaluation (during tests,
objectives are development) and observation,
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
achieved; summative surveys;
provide evaluation (after analyzing
feedback for implementation) students’
improvement learning
outcomes
7. Pilot Implement small- Trial teaching of
Development curriculum scale lessons, a new science
Try-Out units in real gather feedback, module before
contexts to revise content and full-scale
test feasibility methods adoption in all
and classes
effectiveness

9.5. MODELS OF CURRICULUM (RALPH TYLER, WHEELER,

HILDA TABA, STUFFLEBEAM)
Curriculum models provide structured frameworks that guide
curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation. The most
prominent models are those of Ralph Tyler, Wheeler, Hilda Taba, and
Daniel Stufflebeam.

1. Ralph Tyler’s 4-Step Linear Model (1949)

 Developed by Ralph Tyler, one of the pioneers of curriculum

theory.
 Known as the “Objective-Centered Model” or “Tyler Rationale.”
 Focuses on a systematic, linear, scientific approach to
curriculum development.
 Curriculum development should answer four fundamental
questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What learning experiences can be provided to attain these
purposes?
3. How can these learning experiences be effectively organized?
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being
attained?

Steps :

Step Explanation Example

1. Defining - Goals derived from societal “Students will be able
Objectives needs, learners’ to solve quadratic
characteristics, and subject- equations
matter content. - Should be independently.”
observable, measurable, and
specific.
2. Selecting - Choose activities that Interactive problem-
Learning promote achieving the solving sessions, real-
Experiences defined objectives. - Align life application tasks.
experiences with objectives
and student needs.
3. Organizing - Sequence activities logically Start with basic
Learning (simple → complex, known → algebra concepts
Experiences unknown). - Ensure before introducing
continuity (linking past quadratic equations.
learning) and integration
(cross-subject relevance).
4. Evaluating - Assessment to check if Quizzes, assignments,
the objectives are achieved. - Can projects, or
Curriculum include tests, projects, observation-based
observations, or portfolios. - evaluation.
Feedback is used to refine
curriculum.

Advantages:

 Clear structure for planning and implementation.

 Focus on objective achievement ensures accountability.
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
Limitations:

 Less flexible to changes in learner needs or societal contexts.

 Teacher involvement is minimal; top-down approach.

2. Hilda Taba’s 7-Step Inductive Model (1962)

 Developed by Hilda Taba, a strong advocate of teacher

participation in curriculum design.
 Uses an inductive, grassroots approach: starts from specific
classroom experiences → general curriculum.
 Teachers, who are closest to learners, should initiate curriculum
development based on classroom realities.

Step Explanation Example

1. Diagnosis of Analyze students’ Identify difficulty in
Learners’ Needs interests, problems, and understanding fractions
readiness levels. among 4th graders.
2. Formulation Develop clear, “Students will be able to
of Learning measurable, and add and subtract
Objectives achievable objectives. fractions with like
denominators.”
3. Selection of Choose relevant content Include visual aids, real-
Content aligned with objectives. life examples of
Emphasize validity, fractions.
significance, and
feasibility.
4. Organization Arrange content logically, Start with simple
of Content ensuring a sequence that fractions, then move to
promotes learning. mixed fractions.
5. Selection of Choose methods and Group activities, hands-
Learning activities that actively on experiments, or math
Experiences engage learners. games.
6. Organization Sequence activities for Begin with teacher
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
of Learning effective learning and demonstration → guided
Activities align with content and practice → independent
objectives. practice.
7. Evaluation Assess both learning Continuous assessment
outcomes and curriculum through quizzes,
effectiveness. assignments, and
observations.

Key Features:

 Inductive, participatory, democratic.

 Teacher-led design; promotes reflection and practical relevance.
 Emphasizes continuous feedback and revision.

Advantages:

 Encourages teacher creativity and professional growth.

 Flexible and responsive to learners’ needs.

Limitations:

 Time-consuming and complex for large-scale curriculum

planning.
 Requires trained, skilled teachers.

3. Wheeler’s Cyclical Model (1967)

 Proposed by David Wheeler, emphasizes a dynamic and

interactive process.
 Sees curriculum as a continuous, cyclical process rather than a
linear one.
 Curriculum development involves ongoing formulation,
implementation, evaluation, and revision.

Phases:
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
Phase Explanation Example
1. Formulation Define broad goals and “Enhance students’
of Educational specific objectives. problem-solving skills
Aims in science.”
2. Selection of Identify activities and Laboratory
Learning methods aligned with experiments, project-
Experiences goals. based learning.
3. Organization Arrange subject matter Concepts from basic
of Content logically and principles → advanced
progressively. applications.
4. Organization Sequence activities for Demonstration → group
of Learning optimal learning. work → individual
Experiences practice.
5. Evaluation Continuous assessment Adjust lesson plans or
and Revision of outcomes; modify activities based on
aims, content, and student performance
methods based on and feedback.
feedback.

Key Features:

 Cyclical, not strictly linear.

 Emphasizes flexibility, feedback, and revision.
 Suitable for evolving educational contexts.

Advantages:

 Promotes adaptive and responsive curriculum design.

 Encourages ongoing reflection and improvement.

Limitations:

 May be complex to manage in large institutions.

 Requires strong coordination and monitoring.
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
4. Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model (Context, Input, Process, Product, 1971)

 Developed by Daniel Stufflebeam for systematic curriculum

evaluation.
 Focuses on decision-making and continuous improvement.
 Evaluation should guide curriculum development by assessing
context, inputs, processes, and products.

Component Explanation Example

Context Identify needs, problems, and Survey community
Evaluation opportunities in the needs for vocational
educational environment. training.
Input Assess strategies, resources, Evaluate textbooks, lab
Evaluation personnel, and plans for facilities, teacher
curriculum implementation. qualifications.
Process Monitor implementation; Check if teaching
Evaluation identify strengths and methods follow lesson
weaknesses. plans.
Product Measure outcomes and Student performance,
Evaluation effectiveness of the skill acquisition,
curriculum. satisfaction surveys.

Key Features:

 Systematic, comprehensive, and ongoing.

 Supports formative and summative evaluation.
 Focuses on decision-making at all levels.

Advantages:

 Holistic evaluation of curriculum effectiveness.

 Guides improvements for both short-term and long-term
planning.

Limitations:
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
 Requires extensive data collection and analysis.
 May be resource-intensive.

9.6. CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Curriculum evaluation is a systematic process of determining the value,

effectiveness, and relevance of an educational program. It involves
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to assess how well
the curriculum achieves its intended goals and objectives. This
process ensures that the educational program is beneficial for
learners, responsive to societal needs, and aligned with educational
standards.

Evaluation is essential because it helps educators and stakeholders

understand:

 Achievement of Objectives: Whether the curriculum is meeting

its set goals.
 Strengths and Weaknesses: Identifying aspects that are effective
and areas needing improvement.
 Areas for Improvement: Highlighting components that require
modification or enhancement.
 Impact on Learners: Assessing the influence of the curriculum on
students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values.

Types of Curriculum Evaluation:

1. Formative Evaluation: Conducted during curriculum

development to provide feedback and facilitate improvements.
2. Summative Evaluation: Conducted after curriculum
implementation to assess overall effectiveness and outcomes.
3. Diagnostic Evaluation: Focused on identifying specific strengths
and deficits in the curriculum or student learning.
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
Evaluation Focus / Key Features Example
Approach
Objective-Based Measures extent to Assess student mastery
Evaluation which curriculum of specific learning goals;
(Tyler) meets predefined may overlook
objectives; emphasizes unanticipated learning
student learning impacts.
outcomes and
curriculum design.
CIPP Model Comprehensive Context: Identify needs;
(Stufflebeam) evaluation at all stages: Input: Review resources;
Context, Input, Process, Process: Monitor
Product; supports implementation;
formative and Product: Measure
summative evaluation. outcomes.
Congruence- Examines alignment Uses qualitative and
Contingency between intended quantitative data to
Model (Stake) curriculum and actual evaluate curriculum
classroom practices; effectiveness in practice.
balances inputs,
processes, and
outcomes.
Discrepancy Compares desired Example: Compare
Evaluation Model standards (objectives, curriculum objectives
(Provus) policy goals) with with actual student
actual performance; achievement to guide
identifies gaps. improvements.
Connoisseurship Qualitative, expert- Used when numeric
(Eisner) based evaluation; measurement is difficult;
focuses on esthetic and relies on expert
artistic qualities of judgment.
curriculum
implementation.
 PGTRB – EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY
Formative vs. Formative: during Formative: ongoing
Summative curriculum adjustments;
Evaluation development for Summative: final
improvement; assessment of outcomes
Summative: after and decisions about
implementation for continuation/revision.
overall effectiveness.
Decision- Provides stakeholders Evaluation reports
Facilitation with information to guiding adoption of new
Evaluation make informed curriculum or
decisions; engages pedagogical approaches.
educators,
administrators,
policymakers, and
learners.