Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries

University of Chittagong

Planktology suspended

MS: 205

Prepared by:
Sanjit
Special thanks to Dipta
17-09-11
Session:2009-10
 CONTENTS
Chapter Topic Page

Definition, classification and importance of plankton

1. Definition, Classification, Importance of plankton … 03

Phytoplankton

2.1 Definition¸ Classification … 08

2.2 Factors affecting the growth, distribution and seasonal
succession of phytoplankton in different oceans. … 11
2.3 Productivity and their measurement … 25
2.4 Factors affecting primary production of the sea. … 30
2.5 Phytoplankton bloom, Seasonal & non-seasonal blooms,
the problems of single species bloom. … 39
2.6 Culture techniques of phytoplankton Skeletonema
costatum, Chlorella and Tetraselmis. … 49
Zooplankton

3.1 Definition, classification … 56

3.2 Factors affecting the growth, distribution and seasonal
changes of zooplankton. … 58
3.3 Geographical distribution of zooplankton. … 62
3.4 Vertical distribution and migration of zooplankton … 64
3.5 Food and Feeding habit of zooplankton … 72
3.6 Culture technique of commercially important
zooplankters – Artemia, Rotifer, Copepod. … 73
Phytoplankton-zooplankton relationship

4. Phytoplankton-zooplankton relationship … 85

Fish-plant relationship
5. Fish-plankton relationship … 89
Plankton collecting gears

6. Plankton collecting gears … 93

Determination of plankton biomass

7. Determination of plankton biomass … 98

Zooplankton of the coastal water of Bangladesh

8. Zooplankton of the coastal water of Bangladesh … 101

Short notes and Differences
9. Short notes and differences … 104

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 2
 Plankton

Definition: - [2006,08,10]
Plankton is a community including both plants and animals that consists of all
those organisms whose powers of locomotion are insufficient to prevent them
from being passively transported by physical factors.
It may be defined as floating or drifting organism which has limited power of
locomotion or movements.

In 1887 Hensen (Germany) first introduced the term plankton. The word
“plankton” is derived from the Greek word “planktos” meaning “wandering”.
According to Hensen “They are tiny microscopic aquatic organisms including
both plant and animals having limited capacity to move but which have
insufficient power for keeping themselves or preventing themselves against
water currents, tide and wind etc”.

General characteristics of Plankton: -

# Planktons are aquatic organisms with limited or no locomotors powers,
involuntarily independent of the shore and bottom or remain suspended in the
water column.
# Planktons are organisms either plant or animals, relatively small and
microscopic.
# Their distribution is affected by water motion, waves and currents.
# Plankton is at the base of the food web.
# Plankton includes much different photosynthetic and chemosynthetic specie

Classification of Plankton: -
A. On the basis of the nutritional requirements: [2006]

1. Phytoplankton: -
*Microscopic, autotrophic and floating organisms which performs
phytosynthetic process.
*Obtain energy for growth.
*Produce food for animal.
*Unable to physical movements.
Example: - Diatoms, Dinoflagellates

2. Zooplankton: -
*Heterotrophic organism
*Small herbivores and carnivorous animal.
*Feed on phytoplankton.
Example: - Copepods, Ctenophores.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 3
3. Saproplankton: -
*Non-photosynthetic micro-organisms
*Heterotrophics.
Example: - Bacteria, Fungi.

B. On the basis of the length of the planktonic life: [2006,08,10]

1. Holoplankton or permanent plankton:

*Organisms whose entire life span in planktonic.
*Generally green and primarily zooplankton.
Example: - Copepods, Relia
Or, The plankton which passes treir whole life at planktonic stage is called
[Link] types of Copepods.

2. Meroplankton or Temporary plankton or Transitory:

*Planktonic organisms passing through a pelagic phase which is only part of the
total life span or,
*Those living organism as plankton during only a part of their life.
Example: –The egg or larvae stage, planktonic spores, shrimp post larvae.

3. Tychoplankton:
*Generally benthic habit organisms.
*Very temporary plankton.
Example: - Ostracods, Mysits.

[Link] the basis of life characteristics:

1. Euplankton:
*Living or true plankton.
2. Pseudoplankton:-
*Consists of dead plankton & living on debris but appears as living plants &
animals.

D. On the basis of size: [2006,08]

1. Ultra-plankton :< 2 µm. e.g. - Bacteria, Fungi.
2. Nano-plankton: < 5 µm. e.g. - Coccolithophores, Chlorella.
3. Micro-plankton: 60-500 µm. e.g. - Ceratium, Artemia.
4. Meso-plankton: 0.5-1 mm. e.g. - Large diatom and small zooplankton.
5. Macro-plankton: 1mm-10mm. e.g. - Copepods, Euphausids.
6. Mega-plankton: Generally large plankton which are more than 10mm or
>10mm. e.g. - Jelly fish, Segitta.

E. On the basis of the habitant: - [2006]

1. Marine plankton (Haliplankton):
A. Oceanic Plankton: Those inhabiting water beyond continental shelves.
[Link] Plankton: Those inhabiting waters overlying continental shelves.
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[Link] water plankton: Those inhabiting in brakish water.

2. Fresh water plankton (Limnoplankton):

Those inhabiting in lake, Fresh water ponds.

E. On the basis of distribution:

1. Superficial plankton. Or pelagic
2. Abyssal plankton/ bathyal or Benthic

[Link] on the depth distribution:

1. Epiplankton:
2. Mesoplankton.
3. Hypoplankton.

[Link] the basis of the body formation:

1. Chaetoplankton-Floating plankton.
2. Discoplankton-Dish shaped plankton.
3. Physoplankton-Bladder
4. Rhaledoplankton-Elongated.

H. On the basis of the light penetration:

1. Photic plankton
2. Aphotic plankton.

I. Classification by salinity:
1. Infra-haline: 0.5 ppt
2. Oligo-haline: 0.5 – 3.0 ppt
3. Meso-haline: 3.0 – 30 ppt
*Limnetic water salinity < 0.5 ppt
*Oligohaline (0.5 – 5 ppt)
*Mesohaline (5-18 ppt)
*Polyhaline (18 – 30 ppt)
*Euhaline (30 – 40 ppt)

J. On basis of the environment:

1. Limo-plankton-Lake.
2. Rheo-plankton-River.
3. Hypalmyso-plankton-Brakish water
4. Hali-plankton-salt water.

Ref:
1) G.E Marine Plankton 1955
2) R.B Elements of Marine Ecology 1970

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Proposed grouping of plankton by size based on classification by
Dussart (1965) in the following:

Group Size Major Organisms

limits
[Link] < 2 µm Free bacteria
[Link] 2 -20 Fungi, small flagellates, small diatoms
µm
[Link] 20-200 Most phytoplankton species, foraminiferas
µm ciliates, Rotifers, Copepod, nouplii
[Link] 200µm Cladocerans, Copepods, larvaceans.
–2mm
[Link] 2-20 Pteropods, Copepods, Euphausiids,
mm Chaetognaths.
[Link] 20-200 Cephalopods, Euphausiids, Sergestids,
mm Myctophids
[Link] >20mm Scyphozoans, Thaliaceans
*Group 1-3 are water bottle plankton; 4-6 are net plankton.

Economic importance of marine plankton/plankton:

[2006,08,10]

The economic importance of marine plankton-phytoplankton and zooplankton

are given below-

Importance of phytoplankton:- [2006,11]

Merits:-
1. Phytoplankton performs photosynthetic process through which organic food
is produced for animals.
2. They occur at the base level of food chain and food web.
3. Phytoplankton makes balance the organic environment by releasing O2 and
taking CO2.
4. Primary production depends upon phytoplankton.
5. Some organic matters and soil obtain from phytoplankton.
6. Phytoplankton is used as insulator to prepare bombs.

Demerits:-
1. Formation of water bloom.
2. Formation of red tide which is harmful for animals.
3. Dynamite is made of phytoplankton.
4. Excretion of toxic materials.

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Importance of zooplankton:-
Merits:-
1. By using as food, zooplankton balance the topic level of the food chain and
food wed.
2. Zooplankton is used in fish hatcheries as food.
3. Dead zooplankton become decomposed and release CO2 which is essential
for photosynthesis.
4. Some zooplankton is eaten by people.
5. Zooplankton especially copepods are used as indicator species.

Demerits:-
1. Zooplankton increases the amount of CO2 where photosynthesis does not
occur.
2. Some zooplankton contains poison which is harmful for other other
organisms.

Ref:
1) G.E Newell, Marine Plankton 1955
2) R.B. Tail Elements of Marine Ecology 1970
3) P.S Verma cell Biology (Ecology part) 1999

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 Phytoplankton
Definition: - [2007,11]
Autotrophic plankton that generates glucose by photosynthesis the primary
producers are generally called phytoplankton.

The term phytoplankton is derived from the Greek word “python” meaning
“plant”.
Phytoplankton is microscopic, drifting and chlorophyll bearing autotrophic
organisms whose movement from one place to another place due to water
current.
Marine phytoplankton is made up small plants, mostly microscopic in size and
unicellular. The phytoplankton often also includes a numerous and diverse
collection of extremely small, motile plants collectively terms micro flagellates.

Classification of phytoplankton: - [2005,07,11]

On the basis of size, structure, body shape, chromatophore patterns and
nutritional value, phytoplankton are classified into three types –

A) Diatom
B) Dinoflagellates
C) Nanoplankton
There are at least eight major types of phytoplankton, of which the most
important are the diatoms and [Link] the past decade,the small
coccolit phores and silicoflagellates and the extremely small autotrophic
pleoplankton, has been found to the more important in world productivity than
most researchers could have imagined.

A) Diatoms: -
*The majority of the diatoms are unicellular, uninucleate plants with a size
range of about 15 µm to 400 µm in maximum dimension, although some
smaller and a few considerably larger formes exists.
* The diatom cell known as frustules, consist of silica (SiO2).
* Fully 55% of energy of sunlight absorbed by a diatom.
* It contains chlorophyll a and c and accessory pigment xanthophylls.
* Diatom store energy as fatty acids and oils.
* Reproduction is asexual and bisexual.
* More than 5600 species of diatoms are known to exist.
* Most are round, but some are elongated or branched or triangular.

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 Fig - 2.1: Reproduction of mean cell-size in diatoms following cell division.

* Diatoms reproduction by cell division and auxospore formation.

* Diatom means ‘‘To cut through’’. (Dia = Through, toms=to cut)

Economic importance of Diatom: -

* They are important as food of aquatic organisms.
* Used in the surgical treatment.
* Controls high temperature in hatchery.
* Used as human food in many countries.

On the basis of shape, diatoms are grouped into four broad

categories as follows –

A) Pillbox shapes or Box shape: -

* Usually circular and radially symmetrical when seen in top or bottom view.
*Sometimes they are connected by protoplasmic strands to form chains

Central vacuole
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Chromatophores

Epitheca
Hypotheca

Fig - 2.2: Diagrammatic section of a pillbox diatom

Example:
1) Coscinodiscus concinnus 2)Thalassiosira
3) Hyalodiscus 4) Concinosira

B) Roder needle shapes: -

*Generally long and cylindrical
* Star like clusters or irregular zig-zag strands.
Example:
1) Rhizosolenia
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 9
2) Thalassiothrix

3) Asterionella japanica

C) Filamentous shapes: -
* Cells joined end to end by the value suefaces to form stiff.
* Cylindrical chains or flexible ribbons.
* Flat body, mainly fresh water habitat.
Example:
1) Guinardia flaccida

2) Flargilaria

D) Branched shape: -
*Cell bearing various large spines or other projections and sometimes united
into chains by contact between spines or by sticky seeretions.
Example:
1) Biddulphia sinensis

2) Chaetoceros decipiens

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 10
Factors affecting the growth distribution and
seasonal succession of phytoplankton in different
oceans.

Or, Explain the factors affecting the growth of phytoplankton. [2008,09,11]

Or, Describe the role of abiotic factors for the growth of phytoplankton.
[2009]
Or, Described the influence of two major factors on the distribution of
phytoplankton. [2006,10]

Phytoplankton are passively floating plant organisms which can not move one
place to another place without assistance of Tran partial agencies of the
environment factors such as wind current,wave etc.
In marine environment there are several ecological factors that influence the
growth,mortality,distribution and abundance of phytoplankton directly or
[Link] principle factors that affecting on the growth of phytoplankton
are as follows –

Ecological factors:-
A. Abiotic factor: -

Physical Chemical Dynamic

1. Light. 1. Oxygen 1. Current
2. Temperature 2. CO2 2. Tide
3. Hydrostatic pressure 3. pH 3. Wave
4. Salinity 4. H2S 4. Turbulence.
5. Specific gravity. 5. Nutrients 5. Upwelling
6. Turbidity 6. Polymers.

B. Biotic factors: -
1. Dissolves organic matters
2. Grazing.
3. Competition.
4. Food.
5. Seston.
6. Parasitism.
7. Bioluminescence.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 11
 Abiotic factor

Physical factors:
1. Light: - [2008]
Generally we can say that directly or indirectly light control the grpwth and
distribution of the major marine life and it is the most important ecological
factors in the sea. The availability of the sunlight as the source of radient energy
is an essential factor of production and growth of phytoplankton.
*Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the basic need of phytoplankton take place
in the euphotic zone.
Sunlight
nCO2_+ nH2O (CH2O)n + nO2
Chlorophyll

*Compensation: -
The depth of which the rate of production of organic material by photosynthesis
escacity balance the rate of break down of organic material by plant respiration
is called compensation depth (Pc = Rc). Below compensation depth there is not
net production. (Pc < Rc)

Photosynthesis
(P)

Depth

Compensation depth
( Pc = Rc)

Critical depth (Pw < Rw)

*Seasonal variation: Seasonal variation light with its thermal effect causes the
function of productivity in the ocean.

December; Winter May ; Spring June ; Summer July ; Autumn

Fig - 2.3: Productivity in seasonal variation of light

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2. Temperature: - [2008]
Temperature is a significient factor because any changes in temperature may
affect on the growth of [Link] important affect are as follows –
Temperature is related to salinity, circulation, CO2 .Because of huge
temperature the mass of water is occurred in the ocean.

*Photosynthesis: -
The rate of photosynthesis increases with the rise of temperature upto certain
limits.

Temperature
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Phytoplankton production
10 high

Depth
20

Phytoplankton
30 production low

40

*Phytoplankton Culture: -
Growth rate of phytoplankton culture largely depends on [Link] this
need (18-20)o C temperature.

*Respiration: -
Respiration rate also increase or decreases with the changes of temperature.

*Metabolism: -
The rate of metabolism is much accurated with the rise in temperature.

*Flotation: -
Flotation of phytoplankton depends upon necessity of water which controlled by
temperature.

*Solubility: -
Solubility of O 2 also decrease with the increase of [Link] differencies
in dissolved O 2 content, may prove limiting phytoplankton growth.

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 Temperature Oo C Solubility Salinity 35.4 %o
0 8.08
10 6.44
20 5.38
30 4.52

*Phytoplankton Bloom: -
Temperature has a great affect in extensive bloom of phytoplankton during
specific season when other factor e.g – nutrients supply in abundant.

*Seasonal variation in temperature: -

Seasonal variation in temperature has a direct affect on phytoplankton growth. It
is seen that the variation of temperature of winter and the summer may change
the structure of the species.e.g – Semipsira .The change causes seasonal
succession on phytoplankton with highest peak of its growth.

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fig – 2.4: Seasonal variation of temperature

3. Hydrostatic pressure: -
The pressure increse with the increase of [Link] the lower part of
[Link] die due to high [Link] has direct effect on protoplasm and
increase the vescocity hence it influence the growth and reproduction of
phytoplankton.

4. Salinity: -
Salinity is the important factor for phytoplankton [Link] maintains the
osmotic relationship between the protoplasm and sourrounding water. Excess or
low salinity causus [Link] diatoms of neretic form have a wide range
of salinity tolerance and known as euryhaline that is capable of [Link]
small changes in salinity.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 14
 50

40

30

20

10

32 24 16 8 Salinity ppt

Fig – 2.5: Metabolic change with salinity

5. Specific gravity: -
We know that specific gravity α 1/Temp and specific gravity α salinity.
*Temperature and salinity controll the specific gravity.
*So reproduction, growth, abundance and distribution of phytoplankton are
indirectlly affected by specific gravity.

6. Turbidity: -
It is a complex and irregular movement of ocean [Link] may increase present
production by enriching nutrient to the surface water,but in very turbid water
that contain a large quality of suspended particle sufficient light can not
penetrate.

Chemical factors:
1. Oxygen (O2): -
*It is essential for biotic organisms in respiration.
*Respiration of phytoplankton can not go without the supply of O 2. Lack of O2
means the death of phytoplankton.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO 2 + 6H 2O + Energy

(Respiration)

*Excess or low O2 content of water is harmful for growth of phytoplankton.

*It is necessary for breakdown of food.

2. Carbon-di-oxide (CO2):-
*CO2 is an important ecological factor which limits the growth of
phytoplankton.
*Except CO2, phytoplankton can not manufacture their food.

Sunlight
nCO2 + nH2O C6H12O6 + nO 2
Chlorophyll
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 15
3. pH or (Hydrogen ion concentration): -
*The pH range of sea water is normally about 7.5 – 8.5.
*The increase or decreasing of pH directly affects on phytoplankton growth.

4. H2S: -
*Created by bacterial decomposition of organic substances.
*It has destructive effect on phytoplankton growth.

5. Nutrients: - [2008]
*It plays most important role in the biological process of sea water.
*PO4 and NO3 are very important for protein synthesis in phytoplankton.
*If nutrition is decrease the primary production is decrease.

Dynamic factors
1. Current: -
*This is an important factor which influences the distribution of phytoplankton.
*It may disperse spores, eggs, adults to a suitable place for survival or may
negative effect by carrying them to unfavourable place.

2. Tide: -
*A lot of phytoplankton die when trapped in cast during high tide.
*By increasing turbidity in coastal region, tide hampers the primary
productivity.

3. Wave: -
*A lot of phytoplankton comes to the coast by waves and ultimately they die.
*It is destructive factor for phytoplankton.

4. Turbulence: -
*It is complex, irregular movement of water by which different layers of water
mixed vertical. It may promote productivity by bringing nutrient to the surface.
*Long time effect of turbulence may be harmful for growth of phytoplankton.

5. Upwelling: -
*It brings nutrient rich water to the surface and increases the phytoplankton
growth.
*The vertical circulation is also important for maintaining aerobic condition in
the deep sea, H2S is formed at the bottom due to lack of dissolved oxygen. E.g-
Black Sea.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 16
 Sea surface
Land
Direction of surface drift

Continental slope

Deep layer upwelling

to replace surface
water

Fig – 2.6: Upwelling

Biotic factors

1. Dissolved organic matter: -

*It has direct effect on primary production. By decomposing of plant and
animals dead body, organic matters discharge into sea and help the
phytoplankton growth by giving NO 3 and PO4.
*On the other hand it is the important nutrient media for heterotrophic bacteria,
yeast, fungi etc. Hence organic substance is necessary for the phytoplankton
growth and other physiological activities.

2. Grazing: - [2008]
*An important biological factor which limits the growth of phytoplankton.
*It has been found that with the increase of growth of phytoplankton,
zooplankton migrate there and graze on standing [Link] and Mysids
are very important grazer which easily migrate to the area of heavy
phytoplankton. Hence grazing is an important factor for phytoplankton growth
and abundance.

1 Man/fish Tertiary consumer

10 Small fish Secondary consumer

100 Zooplankton Primary consumer

1000 Phytoplankton Producer

Fig – 2.7: Grazing and Consumption

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3. Competition: -
*In nature there are always inter species struggle strongly for food, space, light
and dominancy. In this striggle the fittest are only survive and other abolish.
*So the competition has an effect on growth and abundance acting as a regular.

4. Seston: -
Suspended particles are present in the sea water. Collectively known as seston.
It absorbed light from the euphotic zone, reduces the depth of the
photosynthentic zone and also the conpensation depth. So it is very harmful for
phytoplankton growth.

5. Food: -
*Food is the key factor for the living organism. The food of marine plankton is
mainly inorganic salt of CO 2 .Aquatic organism obtain a large part of their food,
requirement from dissolved organic matter. So sufficient quantities of food
effect on the growth of phytoplankton.

6. Biolumenenscence: -
*The light productivity phenomenon of various marine organisms is known as
[Link] light producting animals; include bacteria, Jelly fish,
radiolarians, dinoflagellates, hydroids and many fish species.
*For grazing purpose the herbivorous and carnivorous become as
bioluminenscencent at [Link] it an essential and affective factors for the
aboundance growth and the development of phytoplankton.

7. Parasitism: -
*Different types of parasitics actively destroy the phytoplankton community and
they also limit the growth of phytoplankton.
*The above factors are most important for growth and developments of
[Link] are also some factors that affects that affect little on
phytoplankton production and growth.

Seasonal succession

Seasonal succession:
The changes in dominant species from season to season is called seasonal
[Link] would appear to be a very wide spread phenomenon among the
phytoplankton. Phytoplankton normally consists of hetegenous collection of
[Link] seasonal succession of plankton communities are also varried in
different region due to their environmental condintion.

Causes of seasonal succession: -

The main causes that influence the seasonal succession are follows-

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1. Changes in temperature
2. Changes in light intensity.
3. Changes in nutrient concentration.
4. Occurrence of herbivorous animal.
Among the mentioned causes temperature is a major factor affecting the
succession of [Link] species undoubtedly have different temperature
and light requirements and it could be particular species predominants at a
particular season because the prevailing temperature and light condition fareous
it.
Salinity with the intensity, quality and daily duration of light has so many
possibilities of adaptation and interaction with other factors.

Describe the seasonal succession of phytoplankton in different region of the

world.
Or, Briefly described the seasonal succession of phytoplankton. [2006]

The seasonal succession of phytoplankton in different regions is divided into

mainly four regions. They are-
1. Temperate region.
2. Arctic region.
3. Tropical region and
4. Antarctic region.

1. Temperate region: -
The surface water in temperate region have efficient nutrient salts at all the time
of the year for adequate growth of [Link] maximum phytoplankton
occur in the spring (i.e.-pre monsoon period) due to their enrichment of the
nutrient where as the maximum occur in the [Link] summer growth is
minimum because of grazing by zooplankton and also the [Link] spring
phytoplankton bloom is produced a great deals because of food which results in
the subsequent increase in zooplankton.

2. Arctic region: -
There is variable solar radiation during winter because of the winter night and
thus there can be no photosynthesis and no phytoplankton [Link]
maximum growth of phytoplankton is occurred due to enrichment of nutrient in
the month of June, July and fall seasons. The growth of phytoplankton become
decrease due to zooplankton (i.e.-by grazing)

3. Tropical region: -
A succession of small increase and decrease in phytoplankton and zooplankton
standing stocks may occur through out the year by local weather condition and
movement of water [Link] this region production of plant cells is almost
continuous, grazing by herbivorous and steely through out the [Link] is a
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 19
shorter delay period between phytoplankton increase and zooplankton egg
production.

4. Antarctic region: -
It is dark region. In this region surface water becoming cool and vertical mixing
becoming more stronger of the mid autumn and In March more phytoplankton
disperse below the compensation depth and thus the size of stock falls quickly.
At the late autumn as the temperature and illumaintion decrease further quality
of phytoplankton gradually decrease to their winter level of the region.

Seasonal succession of phytoplankton in different season through

the year: -
Seasonal succession of phytoplankton during the main four seasons of sea in
middle latitude shows different features which are described below –

1. Winter (Nov-March):
Characterized by –
# Surface water became colder as it lose heat atmosphere.
# Short day length lower sun algae represent very low illumination.
# As the surface gets cool, conventional wind mixing extends and a lot of
nutrient comes to surface.

Organism: -
Due to temperature and less light intensity through very high nutrient level only
very poor species compositions plankton are found. Certain diatom like
Cocinodiscus is often present but dinoflagellates are very rare except for
Ciratium tripos.

2. Spring (March – May):

Characterized by –
# Increasing isolation causes surface water temperature to rise.
# Illumination tends to increase.
# Water column becoming stabilized by thermal stratification.

Organism: -
1. As the enriched nutrient level remains unused during winter a rapid growth in
phytoplankton occur due to the favorable combination of temperature, light and
nutrient supply.
2. Different diatom like Skeletonema, Cosinodiscus etc. species tends to
predominate in succession although the order is not constant from year to year
for difference of their requirement.
3. At this time many herbivorous organism, zooplankton under goes a gradual
increase and take more planktonic food which causes a shape decrease in
phytoplankton population.
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3. Summer (June – August):
Characterized by –
# Warm surface water.
# Well illumination.
# Well replacement from deeper water because of restricted vertical mixing due
to shape thermocline.

Organism: -
During this season inorganic nutrient concentration of surface water as low as
most of the nutrients preciously used up by the phytoplankton during spring
diatom peak. In this season diatom become very increase.

4. Autumn (Sep – Oct):

Characterized by –
# Surface water becoming cool.
# Illumination becoming lower.
# Rapid replacement of nutrient in the surface due to breaking of thermocline
and convectional mixing.

Organism: -
1. Both diatom and dinoflagellates are becoming more numbers.
2. Diatom again produces a very mixed population of Rhizosolenia,
Coscinodiscus, Cheatocers etc.
3. As the vertical mixing becomes stronger of the mid autumn, much of the
phytoplankton disperses below the compensation depth and thus the size of the
stock falls quickly.
4. At the later autumn as the temperature and illumination decrease further the
quantity of phytoplankton gradually decrease to their level.

Diatom

Dinoflagellates

N D J F M A M J J A S O

Fig – 2.8: Seasonal succession of diatom and dinoflagellates.

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Seasonal succession in Kutubdia channel:
Seasonal succession may be defined as the changes in species composition in a
water body with time.

Introduction: -
Kutubdia channels lies between latitude 21o44/ N to 21o55/ N and latitude 91o12/
E to 91o55/ E. Most of the shore area of the side of the channel is covered with
innumerable branches of river channel and some other small tributaries.

Hydrological feature: -
* Air temperature – (19 – 32.2)o C
* Rainfall – Maximum in June 76.8 cm
Minimum in December 1.3 cm
There is no rainfall in January – February.
* Water temperature – Maximum in September 31 o C
Minimum in January 23.1 o C.
* Dissolved O2 – Varies between 3.51 ml/L – 8.35 ml/L.
Maximum in December
Minimum in June.
* pH - Varies between 7.10 -8.32
Maximum in December
Minimum in May

Seasonal succession of phytoplankton on the coastal water of

Bangladesh: [2010]
In Kutubdia channel the species composition and occurrence are largely
influenced by the hydrological parameters such as – rainfall, salinity
transparency and few with temperature, pH and dissolved O 2.
Hence the season succession phytoplankton is related by hydrological
parameters related to seasonal wind blowing is described below -

North-east wind blowing season (Nov – Feb):

This season is characterized by –
# Wind blowing occurs mostly North - Easterly.
# Rainfall is low.
# Salinity is higher due to low rainfall and ranger between (20 – 25) ppt.
# Transparency is higher in absence of rainfall as well as raises discharge and
turbidity range (10 – 45) cm.
# Water temperature between (22 – 28)o C.
# Surface water gets cool. Conventional and wind mixing extends deep into
water column bringing a lot of nutrient to the surface.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 22
Organism: -
1. Although the temperature and light intensity is low, the nutrient level is
very high and salinity transparency is favorable. Some species of
phytoplankton are usually occur here mainly included the decision of
Bacillarophyta, Cynophyta, Chlorophyta.
2. Among them the Bacillarophyta is dominant which consist about 80 % of
the phytoplankton species. During this time the peak is found in January
(2100 cell/L) because in this time the amount of rainfall is negligible and
transparency is high.

Pre-monsoon (March – April) spring:

It is characterized by –
# Rainfall is moderate.
# Salinity is higher due to low fresh water discharge (20 25) ppt
# Transparency decreased (35 – 40) cm.
# Water temperature between (27 – 30) oC.

Organism: -
During this time, the plankton communities are decreased due to less
transparency of water and also for nutritional lackage.

Monsoon (May – August):

This season characterized by –
# Wind blowing South – easterly.
# Heavy rainfall occurs caused by wind blowing (30 – 70) cm.
# Salinity is lower due to heavy fresh water discharge (8 – 20) ppt.
# Transparency decreases due to turbidity of water.
# Surface water becomes warm.

Organism: -
1. During this season low concentration of phytoplankton is found due to
negative effect of rainfall, which reduces salinity and temperature.
2. In the month of June when highest rainfall occur and salinity decreases
rapidly then occurs minimum concentration of phytoplankton and this
concentration is about 600 cell/L.

Post Monsoon (Sep – Oct):

This season is characterized by –
# Rainfall is moderate, i.e. decreasing gradually (50 – 20) cm.
# Surface water becomes cool.
# Water transparency is increasing.
# Surface water is rich in nutrient content.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 23
Organism: -
1. As the enriched nutrient level become unused during the monsoon, a
rapid growth of phytoplankton occur specially composed of Skeletonema,
Biddulphia, Coscinodoscus etc, due to favourable combination of
temperature, light, nutrient supply and stable water column.
2. During this time specially September, Bacillarophyta reaches sits peak
concentration such as 1300 cell/L and October is about 2900 cell/L.

M A M J J A S O N D J F

Fig – 2.9: Seasonal Variation of phytoplankton in Kutubdia channel during (March 1988 – Feb 1989).

Conclusion: -
When all the parameters of plankton growth are optimum, the productivity and
biomass will be extreme. From above study we see that in the month of
September, October and January, February the lankton production and growth is
high.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 24
 Productivity and their measurement

Productivity: - [2007]
The total amount of organic matter synthesized from inorganic substances by
organisms within a unit time in a given volume of water is termed as
productivity. It is the net yield of products and consumers and determines the
amount of living matter of am ecosystem.

Primary productivity: - [2005,06,09,10,11]

Primary productivity is defined as the amount of carbon fixed by autotropic

organisms through the synthesis of organic matter from inorganic compounds
such as CO2 and H2O using energy derived from solar radiation or chemical
[Link] major process through which primary productivity occurs is
thought to be [Link] reaction of this process is as follow-
Light
nCO2 + nH2O (CH2O) n + nO2
Chlorophyll

So, primary productivity means the amount of carbon fixed by autotropic

organisms per square or cubic meter with in a unit of time.

Primary productivity is included two types of productions-

1. Gross primary production 2. Net primary production.

Gross primary production: - [2006,10]

The total amount of organic matter produced by photosynthesis per unit of time
represents the gross primary production.i.e-

Gp = Np + R Here,
Gp = Gross primary production
Np = Net primary production
R = Respiration
Net primary production: -
The organic matter which is produced in gross primary production is used by
plants for their own respiration and the remaining is termed as net primary
production i.e. -
N p = Gp - R
Here,
Np = Net primary production
Gp = Gross primary production
R = Respiration

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 25
Secondary productivity: - [2005]
Secondary productivity is the rate which energy is stored in the consumer and
decomposer tropic level.

Causes of productivity measure:

a. It is often necessary for ecological to know the rate of production
given environment.
b. By measuring productivity we are able to know the total amount of
organic matter formed. During photosynthesis or utilization or of other
constituents necessary to photosynthesis.
c. To get calories volume of per square meter of surface per day or per
year.
d. It is the index of fertility of the sea.
e. Productivity measurement prodice/ information on the fishery.

How phytoplankton float in water: [2011]

The following physiological mechanism of phytoplankton helps to float in
water.

Small size:
Typical plankton maintains their planktonic existence through their small size.
Small size increases the ratio between surface area and volume/weight, because
of this they float. Ex. - Gymnodinium.

Spine:
Spines serve to increase the surface area without increase volume or weight and
in this way help to retard sinking. Ex. - Chactoceras.

Air bladder:
Bladder like cells has this silica wall and large vacuoles cell-sap of low density.
Ex. - Planktoniella.

Niddle:
Ex. - Rhizosolenia.

Ribbon like shape:

Ribbon like colonies are brood and float show some twisting in suspension.
Ex. - Actinophychus.

Chain form:
Many of the algae genera and most species attached to each other and form
chain of cells. This formation of cell sinking rate and help it float them. Ex. -
Sapla.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 26
How plankton float in water: [2011]
Phytoplanktons are stayed on the floating condition not sinking in the water.
The following may cause floating.
i. The cell of phytoplankton is light and little. Its specific gravity is less
than water. So that it can float on water easily.
ii. For having air bladder, vacuoles etc. some phytoplankton float on water.
iii. In many causes phytoplankton float in water for having vilia, flagella and
spines.
iv. The phytoplankton store food as fat, oil etc. that help their floatation.
v. Some phytoplanktons are converted in gelatin and nuclease those help to
make colony. This sliding colony helps phytoplankton to float in water.

Name the different methods for the measurement of primary production:-

There are several methods for the measurement of primary production which are
given below –
*O2 method (Light & dark bottle method) *Chlorophyll method.
*pH method. *Biomass accumulation method.
*CO2 assimilation method. *Nutrient uptake method.
*Photosynthesis measurement method. *Carbohydrate estimation method.
*Zooplankton count method. *Harvesting method.

Describe one method for measuring productivity/ primary productivity of

phytoplankton. [2006,07,09,10,11]
Or, Describe the O2 content method or, light dark bottle method.

O2 Method
The systematic discussion of ‘Light and dark bottle’ method which is described
originally by Wrinkler for the measurement of primary production is given
below –

A. Principle: -
Oxygen is produced along with organic matter during photosynthesis,and it is
produced in amounts directly related to the rate of organic
[Link] of the amount of oxygen being produced over a given
period of time,therefore,provide close approximations of productivity.
Light
nCO2 + nH2O (CH2O)n + nO2
Chlorophyll

Produced O 2 is nearly proportional to carbon fixed. Again, during respiration

some O2 is used by the organisms.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 27
B. Apparatus: -
1. A nansene bottle for water sampling.
2. BOD bottle for each measurement-one is pointed black and another is
transparent.
3. Burette, pipette and conical flask.
4. Other materials.

C. Reagent: -
1. Potassium iodide (KI)
2. Sulphuric Acid (concentrated)
3. Sodium thiosulphate.
4. Starch solution.

D. Procedure: -
*At first water sample is collected from the different depth of the selected
station by nansene bottle.
*Then sample from each depth are taken using the techniques. Two lights and
one dark bottle are used for each depth.
*Now, the dark and light bottles are returned to their original depth for
incubation. The time is recorded.
*Removing the bottles from each depth is fixed with Wrinkler oxygen reagents
and O 2 concentration of water is determined by titration.
*After 24 hours the suspended bottles are recorded and O 2 concentration is
determined.

E. Calculation: -
From the different O2 concentration measured, we can calculate-

Respiration (R) =IB-DB Here,

Net production (NP) =LB-IB IB=Initial bottle.
Gross production (Gp) =Np+R DB=Dark bottle
=LB-IB+IB-DB LB=Light bottle
=LB-DB Np=Net production
R=Respiration
Gp=Gross production.

F. Unit of productivity measurement: -

1. Grams per square metre per day (gm/m2/day)
2. Grams per cubic metre per day (gm/m3/day)

G. Merits: -
*It provides the estimation of gross and net production and respiration at a time.
*Required apparatus and reagents are available, inexpensive and convenient in
handling.
*This method has been widely used for research activities.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 28
H. Demerits: -
*If the water samples enclosed in bottles for prolong period, the result can vary.
*This method has limitation to high production rates exceeding about 50
gm/m3/day.

C14 Method
C14 Method: -
This is the only method that is applicable to the practical measurement of
photosynthesis rates in the oceans which is the first used by S. Nielsen (1952).

Principal: -
The primary production can be measured by determining the amount of C14
incorporated in the cells as glucose after addition of a known quantity of
NaHC14O3.
Mathematically,
(Rs –RB) × W× 1.05
3
Photosynthesis in mgc/m /day=
R×N
Merits: -
*It is so much sensitive and suitable for the measurement of both low and high
productivity.
*It has facilitated productivity measurements in many natural waters.
*No organic matter must lost by excretion.
*No 14CO2 must be lost by excretion.
* No, C14O3 must be lost by respiration.

Demerits: -
* It is an expensive method and can be measured only photosynthesis rate.
* The isotope of 14C may be taken up more slowly than the 12C.
* Dark fixation may be fully arrested for the dark bottle measurement.

Ref:
1) A.D. Boney, Phytoplankton 1976, The Camelot press lted, England.
2) V. Harold Thurman, Introductory oceanography, 1988.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 29
Factors affecting primary productivity of the sea,
Nutrients, Light, Temperature, Micro-nutrients, Grazing:
Productivity is no doubt dependent upon the every changing ecological
parameter. However, the factors that affecting productivity are given below –

1. Diurnal and seasonal cycles. 6. Turbulence.

2. Circulation of Nutrients. 7. Upwelling.
3. Variation in light intensity. 8. Depth & clarity of water.
4. Temperature. 9. Clouds.
5. Wind. 10. Grazing.

1. Diurnal and seasonal cycles: -

a. During daylight hours, organic production takes place and exceeds
respiration.
b. After sunset, production and respirations continues.
c. As the seasons change and therefore the day length changes, there is-
significant corresponding changes in the daily production.
d. The incident angle of sunlight, which varies with the season, also causes
change in productivity.

D J F M A M J J A S O N

Fig – 2.10: Diagrammatic respiration of the seasonal cycles in light, nitrate, phosphate, and
phytoplankton.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 30
2. Circulation of nutrients: -
a. The inorganic substances required by the plants are commonly known as
plant nutrients of which nitrogen and phosphorus have great significance in
influencing productivity.
b. Besides, iron, manganese, molybdenum and cobalt are other nutrients
necessary for some plants, silicon is required by diatom.
c. These nutrients are greatly reduced in summer, being rapidly utilized by the
plant life and even in winter when plant life is greatly diminished.

3. Variations in light intensity or importance of light in productivity: -

a. Light is very important in primary productivity of coastal [Link] a source
of radiant energy light plays a vital role in primary production of the process of
[Link] following photosynthesis process does not occur without
[Link] occurs at depth of(20-30)m below the surface water.
Sunlight
nCO2 + nH2O (CH2O) n + nO2
Chlorophyll

In this process O2 and glucose are produced which are taken by the aquatic
organism for their growth.
b. As the photosynthesis process does not occur without sunlight and O 2 does
not produce, the aquatic animals do not get their required energy for
nourishment and live.
c. Light penetration is less on the continental shelf than in the open ocean
because of turbidity.
[Link] depth at which the O2 production and O 2 consumption is equal is called
the O 2 compensation depth,Below the compensation depth light penetration
decrease and photosynthesis process does not [Link] a result O2 and organic
compound can not produces,there is no primary production.
So light is very essential factor in primary productivity in marine environment.

0 Light intensity 1/1

Depth 20 Light intensity 1/2

in m
Light intensity 1/3
40
Light intensity 1/5
60
Light intensity 1/10
80
Light intensity 1/100
100
Gross production

Fig – 2.11: Vertical distribution of light intensity and gross production.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 31
4. Temperature: -
Temperature is a significant factor because any change in the temperature may
affect on the primary production or the growth of phytoplankton.
a. The rate of photosynthesis increases with rising temperature up to a
maximum but then diminishes sharply with further rise of
[Link] variations of production in temperature latitude are
related to change of both temperature and illumination.
c. Temperature is also important in the solubility of gases involved in
[Link] CO2 and O2 are more soluble in cold water than warm
water.
d. Temperature influences production indirectly through its effects on the supply
of nutrients to the euphotic levels.
From above discuss we can easily say that temperature is a significant factor in
primary productivity in marine environment.

40

Low production
30

Depth
20

10 High production

4 8 12 16 20 24 28

Fig – 2.12: Affect of temperature on phytoplankton.

5. Wind: -
a. Wind is factor in productivity which regulates waves, currents and turbidity.
b. It also produces Choppy water which may cause more reflection of the sun-
rays than calm water, and thus it may slow down photosynthesis.
c. Wind also causes agitation of water which causes considerable diffusion of
oxygen between sea and the atmosphere.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 32
6. Turbulence: -
a. Turbulence has various effects on productivity depending upon
circumstances.
b. It may promote production by bringing nutrients to the surface.
c. It may sometimes reduce production by carrying down a considerable part of
the plant production below the compensation depth.

7. Upwelling: -
a. Upwelling indirectly helps in productivity by bringing nutrient rich water to
the surface from sub-surface layer (100-200) m
b. In the southern ocean continuous upwelling ensures the adequate supply of
nutrients during summer.
c. In low latitudes, divergences between the equqtorial currents and counter
currents cause upwelling which helps in maintaing productivity.

8. Depth and clarity of water: -

a. Productivity depends on depth.
b. Primary organic production is limited to the upper 100m or 90m of the ocean
because of limitation imposed by light penetration.
c. Light intensity and sinking rate increase due to clarity of water.

9. Clouds: -
Clouds may be minor factor in productivity locally for short time.
Clouds directly control the light intensity.

10. Grazing: -
a. It is an important factor that controls the phytoplankton production.
b. A dense phytoplankton population is the result of optimum growing
conditions associated with scarcity of grazing animals.
c. The abundant presence of herbivorous animals causes the usual sparse of
phytoplankton.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 33
Productivity in different Geographical region: -
There are mainly three productive regions. They are –
1. Tropic region 2. Temperate region
3. Polar region –
a) Arctic region
b) Antarctic region.
1. Tropic region: -
# This region is relatively low productive due to little seasonal variation,
permanent thermocline and deep compensation depth.
# In tropic region, there are three usually high productive areas, such as –
i. Equatorial upwelling area
ii. Coastal upwelling area
iii. Coral reefs.
# These areas are highly productive because the supply of available nutrients
present here.

2. Temperate region: -
# In temperate region productivity is relatively high in full season (July - Dec)
because at this time thermocline situation breakdown and the nutrient rich deep
water mix with the surface water.
# Besides, the availability of nutrients supply is another cause of high
productivity in this region.

3. Polar region: -
# In polar region there is little density stratification to prevent the mixing of
deeper water with shallow water.
#Arctic region is low productive due to ice cover limits the rate of
photosynthesis.
# Antarctic region is extremely high productive due to unique circulation of
water, great supply of phosphorus and nitrogen.

Thermocline and Thermocline position:

Thermocline: - [2008]
The term ‘thermocline is an important feature of oceanic waters and some
shallow waters.
It is the so called discontinued layer between two bodies of water where
temperature changes from one to another very rapidly is called [Link]
brief; the static position of water is called thermocline.
In surface water of the ocean is warmer than the deeper [Link] water bodies
above the thermocline is called epilimnion and the water bodies below the
thermocline is called hypolimnion.

Figure of diagrammatic representation of thermocline are given below –

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 34
 300
Cold and deeper water

250

200

Thermocline/ discontinuity layer

150

Zone of surface mixing

100

Depth 50

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (o C)

Fig – 2.13: Diagrammatic representation of thermocline.

Position of thermocline: -
*From the surface, the temperature drops slowly and steady and untill a depth of
about 120m.
*From this point the drop in temperature is very rapid to about 175m.
*So, the thermocline layer lies between 120m-175m in depth.
*Thermocline may be caused for degree of clouds and difference of temperature
between the sea and air.

Thermocline may be three types –

1. Permanent thermocline
2. Seasonal thermocline
3. Diurnal thermocline.

Importance or roles of thermocline in primary production: -

[2008]

*Thermocline is a great barrier against photosynthesis.

*No photosynthesis occurs below thermocline and the plants can not use the
nutrients below it.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 35
*But above the thermocline photosynthesis occurs and the plants use the
nutrients continuously.
*The thermocline creates the surface layer to stable and this stability helps the
plankton to keep a float in the upper layer.
*Until thermocline is formed, plants are transported below the critical [Link]
that no effective production can occur.
*The nutrients which are brought back to the surface by upwelling and become
stable by thermocline.
*The presence and the absence of the thermocline will affect an important effect
while thermocline remains absence, wind keeps the water circulating and water
from the surface continuously being carried down the depth where
photosynthesis can not support life.
*The state position of thermocline influences the primary production in the
ocean water.

So, the thermocline is an important factor in primary productivity in marine

environment.

Affects of micro-nutrients on primary production of the sea:

Or, Role of micro-nutrients in primary productivity of the sea: -
[2005]
Allen and Nelson (1910) suggested that even all the known inorganic nutrients
were available in sufficient quantities the culture would not flourish. So, it is
clear that the need of both organic and inorganic micro-nutrients. The micro-
nutrients or vitamin like substances must be present in sea water in small
amounts for healthy growth of many phytoplankton or marine algae.

Vitamins of the B-complex are obviously commonly needed. Vitamin B-12 or

cobalamin is essential for the growth of a number of dinoflagellates, diatoms
such Skeletonema coastatum.

Inshore water it is present the amount of 5-10 mµg/L and offshore water 2
mµg/L and euphotic zone 0.6 mµg/L which is very important for phytoplankton.
Other vitamin much thiamin and biotin is growth promoting and inhabiting.

With this some vitamin like substances cystine and divalent sulphur is essential
for the growth o some diatoms. Some time this substance gottened toxicity like
“red tide” is very harmful for plants and animals.

Lastly it is clear that this micro-nutrients influence the settlement, distribution

and also breeding of marine organisms. So, the productivity of sea is affected by
the most important substance such as vitamins.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 36
Why should be two plankton peaks in the annual cycle at
the temperate zone and discuss the seasonal variation in
phytoplankton production?
In temperate zone the seasonal variation is evident. There phytoplankton
production fluctuates through out the year. Two peaks of phytoplankton
production are predominately seen in spring and autumn season. The most
précised season of being two peaks are as follows –
* In spring illumination is increasing.
* The concentration of nutrients in the surface layer is high.
* The compensation depth depends.
* Zooplankton undergoes more gradual increase.
* In autumn, wind mixing of surface water increases.

Seasonal variation on planktonic production: -

Seasonal variation in temperature, illumination and availability of nutrients in
the surface layer of the sea gives rise to fluctuations in phytoplankton
production. The four seasons of the sea some following general features –

Winter:
a. The surface layer of water has low temperature.
b. Poor or absent illumination.
c. High concentration of nutrients conservational mixing.
d. Production of phytoplankton is minimum.

Spring:
a. The surface water temperature is rising. The water column is becoming
stabilized by thermal stratification.
b. Illumination is increasing.
c. The concentration of nutrients is initially high.
d. There is an enormous increase in the quantity of phytoplankton
specially diatoms, which soon reach their greatest abundance for the year.

Summer:
a. The surface water is warm and well illumination.
b. The concentration of nutrients is low because they have been taken up
by the phytoplankton and there is little replacement from deeper water
because vertical mixing is presented by a sharp thermocline.
c. The phytoplankton as a whole declined in amount.

Autumn:
a. The surface water is cooling and illumination is becoming less.
b. Rapid replenishment of nutrients in the surface layer.
c. Both diatoms and dinoflagellates are becoming more numerous.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 37
Photosynthesis is more important on the ocean than the land: -
“Photosynthesis is more important on land than in the ocean”. Do
you agree with the above statement? If so please explain. [2007,08]

Almost all living thing ultimately get their energy from the sun by a process
called photosynthesis. It is one of the most important natural reactions. The
overall chemical reaction may be as follows-

Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
In photosynthesis, plant and other organisms combine carbon-di-oxide and
water to make simple sugar like glucose. The energy for this comes from
sunlight. Oxygen is given of as a bi-product. This reaction is taken place in all
photosynthetic organisms.
The ocean contains 78% of the world earth surface. Photosynthetic organs are
diverse and wide-spread in the world ocean. This includes the pelagic
phytoplankton cyano bacteria, benthic micro-algae, benthic-macro-algae (sea
weed, sea grass, mangroves, salt marshes plants) and symbiotic algal cell in
coral and other animals.
In the ocean the process of photosynthesis organic matter and oxygen is
produced. Living being requires energy and for this oxygen is necessary.
Respiration can not occur without the supply of O 2. Human take O2 and release
CO2. CO2 is necessary for the zooplankton in the formation of calcified cells.

Photosynthesis
Light + CO 2 + H2O + minerals organic matter + O2 + heat

Light + CO 2 + H2O + minerals organic matter + O2

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 38
Seasonal and non-seasonal blooms, causes of
phytoplankton bloom, the problems of single species
bloom:
Phytoplankton bloom: - [2007]

Plankton bloom is the excess growth of a group of plankton or one species of

plankton caused by the excess of nutrients like N2, P, and other favourite
environment effects in an ecosystem.
There are mainly two types of plankton bloom.
a. Seasonal plankton bloom.
b. Non-seasonal plankton bloom.
Again, seasonal plankton bloom are two type, they are-
1. Spring bloom.
2. Autumn bloom.

The causes of phytoplankton bloom: [2005]

Or,The factors responsible for phytoplankton bloom:[2007]
It is very difficult to determine precisely all the causes of phytoplankton
[Link] common causes of phytoplankton bloom is described below-

1. Nutrients: -
In cases of general blooms of phytoplankton it seems obvious that the most
frequent cause lies in an increase of available plant nutrients, such an increase
may come about in one of a number of ways.

2. Wind: -
Most phytoplankton appears during the season when the trade winds are
[Link] wind stored up the bottom deposits, liberating accumulated
nutrients into the water and this way passing the way for increasing
phytoplankton production.

3. Upwelling: -
An increase of nutrients sometimes also come about by an upwelling of water
from the aphotic zone,such upwelling may occur in conjunction with high off
shore winds,which drive surface water away from the shore and thus force
deeper water upto the surface or upwelling may occur as a result of diverging
currents.
According to Sverdrop & Allen (1934), few diatoms are found water masses
which have existed as surface water for a long time and large population of
diatoms are found only in water masses which have spent relatively a short time
as surface waters.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 39
4. Seismic disturbances: -
Seismic disturbances occationally may lead to the enrichment of the water,
either by causing upwelling of deed water or by stirring upto the bottom muds.
5. Rains and floods: -
Heavy rains and floods frequently carry rich supplies of nutrients from the land
into the water and thus pass the way for a blooming of phytoplankton.

6. Break down of food chain: -

If the food chain of any ecosystem break down then there is remained a large
amount of unused phytoplankton and may create phytoplankton.

Effects of phytoplankton bloom: - [2007]

Excessive phytoplankton blooms may have a number of different biological

effects:

Bad effects: -
One of the most conspicuous effects is extensive animals mortality, such
mortality may be due to directs or indirect production of one sort or another.
# Animal mortality may be due to [Link] may be caused for
examples, during the darkness when photosynthesis is not taking place and
when the metabolism of the large number of phytoplankters are being up the
available oxygen or it may be caused by the depths and decay of large qualities
of the [Link] process of decay of cource will use up the oxygen.

# Animals mortality may also occur through poisoning caused the

phytoplankton [Link] of decay of phytoplankton under an aerobic
conditions would there upon result in the production of toxic hydrogen suphide
gas.

# There may be an actual direct production of poisons by phytoplankters

themselves, as often appears to be the case of during blooms of
[Link] of dinoflagellates is termed as “red tide” often these “red
tide” have been accompanied by the mortality of large numbers of fish and other
marine [Link] 1946-47 the red tides along the west coast of “Florida”
resulted in very heavy mortality.

# In many cases it may produce an obnoxious sliming of the water or unpleasant

[Link] odors are especially objectionable when become reservoirs or in
other bodies of water used by cities or towns as a source of drinking water.

Good effects: -
# Extensive phytoplankton blooms are not always bad in their effects.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 40
# The increased quality of phytoplankton present may act as basic food of an
increased quantity of animal life and ultimately may result in an increase of the
fish population.

Discuss the impact of phytoplankton blooms in an aquatic

habitat:
Phytoplankton bloom may have different biological, physical and chemical
impacts on organisms and on the marine environment.

A. Physical impacts: -
* Phytoplankton blooms create unpleasant odors.
* Blooms causes to animal mortality.
* Massive phytoplankton blooms specially floating patches out off light
illumination.

B. Chemical effects: -
* Phytoplankton causes for O2 depletion 0-0.7 ml/L.
* H 2S increases.
* Sometimes nutrients depletion may occur.
* Different toxic substance release.
* Chemical substances of blooming species react with clear water. So water
becomes poisonous.

C. Biological Impacts: -
* Suffocation: Decrease of dissolved O 2 level blooming plankton causes
suffocation of ravigatoss of the sea and different types of marine animals.
* Toxicity: Some dinoflagellates causing red tide, produce toxic substances as a
result toxicity occurs fish and shell fish are killed drinking red tide water.
* Migration of marine animals: Different types of marine animals leave the
bloom area due to oxygen depletion, scarcity of oxygen, trace element and other
nutrients depletion.
* Effects on terrestrial animals: Massive dinoflaggellates, bloom toxicity can
contaminate shell fish with consequent depth of sea bird.
* Hampering of food chain: Phytoplankton bloom causes a great hamper in the
food chain and marine animal’s habitat may be destructed.

Discuss the factors of phytoplankton bloom formation in

an aquatic habitat: -
Phytoplankton bloom is the excess growth of a growth of phytoplankton or on
species of phytoplankton caused by excess of nutrients like N2, P and other
favourable environmental effects in an ecosystem.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 41
There are mainly two types of phytoplankton bloom.

1) Seasonal phytoplankton bloom

2) Non-seasonal phytoplankton bloom
Causes of seasonal phytoplankton bloom: -
Seasonal phytoplankton bloom is responsible for favourable occurrence of light,
temperature and nutrients.

Light: -
In summer season when light intensity increase, the compansion depth extends
to deeper levels. As a result the phytoplankton mostly diatom remains longer
and then phytoplankton bloom has been occurred because of their great
abundance.

Temperature: -
Seasonal variations of phytoplankton production rate are related to changes of
both temperature and illumination. Temperature directly influences
phytoplankton to take place bloom formation in the abundance of nutrients.

Nutrients: -
The nutrients extract from the water and which are essential for phytoplankton
growth. When the nutrients like Si, P, N2, Fe, Mn, Nitrate, are abundance.
Phytoplankton occurs there dominantly. Thus phytoplankton bloom forms.

The major numbers of phytoplankton that take part in

bloom formation:
The major number of phytoplankton that take part in bloom formation-
1. Goryalux
2. Protogonxalux.
3. Glinnidium Gymnodium.
4. Dinophris.
5. Oscillatoria.

The major numbers of phytoplankton that take part in bloom formation

after the application of inorganic fertilizer:

Major numbers are –

* Gymnodium breis * Coelosphaerium sp * Oscillatoria sp
* Gymnodium flaxum * Cosnarium impressulum * Nitzschia sp
* Gymnodium aureum * Chlorella sp * Nodularia sp
* Gymnodium incesium * Pediastrum sp * Anabena sp
* Gymnodium fulgens * Couolithophora sp
* Goryalux polyhydra * Lyngbya sp
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 42
Controlling phytoplankton bloom: -

We can control the phytoplankton bloom –

* By natural process especially reducing toxicity.
* By mangrove plantation, sea weeds, sea grass
* Chemical use.
* Introduction Vit-12 destroying bacteria.
* Encouragement of natural predators that eat phytoplankton.
* By using copper poison.

Describe two processes which produce O2: -

Photosynthesis: The process by which plant produce carbohydrate from CO2
and water in presence of chlorophyll using light and releasing O2.

Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Chemosynthesis: -
The formation of organic compounds form inorganic substance using energy
derived form oxidation.

Phytoplankton bloom in different region:

On the basis of abiotic and biotic factors and different reasons phytoplankton
bloom in different regions –

1. Tropical region: -
Phytoplankton bloom increase in summer region because of their local weather
condition, movement of water masses and increasing of temperature and O2.

Growth

M J J A S O N Period

Fig – 2.14: Phytoplankton bloom in tropical region.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 43
2. Sub-Tropical region: -
After spring phytoplankton increase in the region depending on seasonal
activities and other environmental factors.

Growth

M A M J J A S Period

Fig – 2.15: Phytoplankton bloom in sub-tropical region.

3. Aractic region: -
When temperature and CO2 increase and salinity and O2 decrease then
respiration also increase. As a result ice begins to melt in this region and
phytoplankton bloom increased.

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fig – 2.16: Phytoplankton bloom in Aractic region.

Significance of phytoplankton bloom:

* N 2 and P are abundant in the phytoplankton bloom.
* Phytoplankton bloom environment is a great source of silicate.
* The enhanced productivity in the water mass.
* Phytoplankton bloom may increase the population of fish.
* Reduction of nitrate and phosphate ‘‘loads’’ has been regarded as a high
perils.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 44
 Seasonal phytoplankton bloom
Seasonal phytoplankton bloom: -
A sudden out burst of phytoplankton growth generally occurs in a particular
season is termed as seasonal phytoplankton bloom.
Seasonal phytoplankton bloom divided into 2 types. They are –
1. Spring bloom
2. Autumn bloom.

Spring bloom: -
In the temperature ocean a sudden out burst of diatom growth generally
occurred in the spring months is called spring bloom. This bloom generally
occurs on March, April and May.

Characteristics: -
a. Increasing isolation causes surface water temperature to rise.
b. Illumination tends to increase.
c. Water column becoming stabilized by thermal stratification.
d. As the enrichment nutrients level remains unused during winter a rapid
growth in phytoplankton occur due to the favourable combination of
temperature, light, nutrient supply.
e. Different diatom tends to predominate in succession although the order is
not constant from year for difference of their requirement.
f. At this time many herbivorous organisms, zooplankton under goes a
gradual increase and take more planktonic food which cause a sharp
decrease in phytoplankton population.

J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month

Fig: - 2.17: Seasonal phytoplankton bloom.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 45
Autumn bloom: -
A sudden out burst of diatom in the mouth of autumn is called autumn bloom.
This bloom generally showed the month of September and October.
Characteristics: -
a. Surface water becoming cool.
b. Illumination becoming decrease.
c. Rapid replacement of nutrients in the surface due to breaking of
thermocline and convectional mixing.
d. Both diatom and dinoflagellates are becoming more numbers.
e. Diatom again produce a very mixed population of Rhizosolenia,
Coseinodisus chaetoceros etc.
f. As the vertical mixing become stronger of the mid autumn, much of the
phytoplankton disperses below the compensation depth and thus the size
of stock falls quickly.
g. At the autumn as the temperature and illumination decrease further the
quantity of phytoplankton gradually decrease to their winter level.

Non-seasonal phytoplankton bloom: -

The bloom which occurred by phytoplankton any season of the year, is known
as non-seasonal bloom of phytoplankton. This types of bloom occurred with or
without obvious cause to increase greatly in abundance until there is an
enormous quantity present.
Frequently the water is greatly discolored and it may sometimes become slimy
or even matted on the surface with phytoplankters. This phenomenon occurs of
course in those causes where the phytoplankter are of the floating types, such
many of the blue-green algae. Such blooms may occur at any season of the year
and either in fresh water or in marine water environment. They may increase in
numbers extremely rapidly and as sudden die out.
In fresh waters, the most common phytoplankters forming such enormous
bloom are the blue-green algae blooms of which commonly appear in mid
summer.

Causes of non-seasonal phytoplankton blooms: -

Non-seasonal bloom occurs due to the following factors.
1. Nutrients. 5. Current.
2. Upwelling. 6. Internal waves.
3. Turbulence. 7. Rainfall and floods.
4. Convection.

Nutrients: -
The nutrients extract from the water and which are essential for phytoplankton
growth. When the nutrients like Si, P, N2, Fe, Mn, Nitrate, are abundance.
Phytoplankton occurs there dominantly. Thus phytoplankton bloom forms.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 46
 Here,
= Temperature of surface water
= concentration of nutrients of surface layer
= solar radiation removing sea surface
= zooplankton

J F M A M J J A S O N D
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Fig – 2.18: Phytoplankton bloom with favourable factors.
Upwelling: -
Off shore winds, by silting the surface water in the motion may cause water
from deeper levels to be down up to the surface. The phenomena are called
upwelling. Thus may nutrients are supplied and phytoplankton occurs
dominantly.

Turbulence: -
Turbulence has several of effects on production depending upon circumstance.
It may promote production by bringing nutrients to the surface.

Convection: -
When surface water cools, its density increases and convectional mixing begins.
Once the density of the surface layers begins to exceed that of underlying
waters, the surface water sinking and being replaced by less-dense water from
below.
Nutrients become rich and phytoplankton may bloom.

Current: -
Strong tidal currents may cause serve turbulence and keep the water well mixed
throughout its depth. It also cause the nutrient rich and phytoplankton bloom
cause.
Internal waves: -
Internal wave can cause vertical mixing where they impinge upon the
continental slope. Internal wave causes rich nutrients and then phytoplankton
bloom cause.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 47
Single species bloom:
It would appear that physical and chemical environmental conditions were
favourable for several to many species, simultaneously at the time bloom, yet
often only one species bloom. This bloom consists of a great growth of a single
species, rather than a heterogeneous bloom of a number of different species
together. This type of bloom known as a single species bloom.

Causes of single species bloom: -

The ultimate stimulating of the single species cause of the bloom. In the
environment Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) ratio is 1:10, when this found
above 1:10, in aquatic environment, then the single species bloom occur.

Problems of single species bloom: [2005]

Problem of single species bloom are –

a. Produce toxic substance: -

When the single species bloom occur in water, they produce toxic substance
such as excess of dinoflagellates sp produced red tide in water. They produce
toxic substance and kill the animals.

b. Break down the food chain: -

In a single species bloom only one species are found. But in the water, where
lives various types of animals which feed directly the phytoplankton. As a result
for scarcity of food, zooplanktons are decreased and other animal which live on
zooplankton also decrease. As a result food chain is hampering.

c. Create unpleasant odours: -

Sometimes single species bloom creates unpleasant odours which effect the
aquatic environment.

d. Effect of photosynthesis: -
Excess growth single species causes the decrease of phytoplankton because
light can’t illuminate.

e. Decrease of O2: -
Excess growth of single species also decreases the O2. As a result animals
migrate to the other place for O 2.

f. Light illumination: -
Massive single phytoplankton bloom specially floating patches out off light
illumination.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 48
Culture technique of phytoplankton Skeletonema
costatum, Chlorella and Tetraselmis.

Briefly describe the mass culture of Skeletonema costatum:

[2007,08,11]
Phytoplanktons are microscopic, drifting and chlorophyll bearing autotrophic
organisms whose movement from one place to another place due to water
current.
In controlled condition, cultivation of any species is termed as culture or culture
may be defined as man’s attempt through input of labour and energy to improve
the yields of the useful aquatic/ planktonic organisms by deliberate
manipulation of their rates of growth ortality and reproduction.
Taxonomic position:
Division – Chrysophyta
Class – Bacillariophyceae
Order – Centrales
Family - Skeletonemoideae
Genus - Skeletonema
Species – Skeletonema costatum

Mass culture (outdoor culture)/ commercial culture or

general method:
Apparatus: 1) culture tank.
Preparation of culture medium:
Place filtered seawater in culture tank.

Solution 1:
Kno3 100 gm/L distilled water.
Na2HPO4 10 gm/L distilled water.
(gel) K2SiO3 or Na2SiO3 1 ml/L distilled water.
FeCl3 4 gm/L distilled water.
Commercial EDTA 10 gm/L distilled water.
Solution 1 are mixed with 1 ton of filtered sea water and then 50-100 litre algal
starter (S. costatum) inouleted and aerate. After 1 or 2 days when blooming
occurs which is indicated by brownish color, then S. costatum are harvested.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 49
Outdoor mass culture of Skeletonema costatum:
A. Primary stock solution (pss):

Serial No Nutrients Quality/L distilled water

1. Trace element a. CuSo4 a. 10 gm
b. ZnSo4 b. 22 gm
c. CuCl2,6H2O c. 10 gm
d. MnCl2,4H2O d. 180 gm
e. Na2MoO4,2H2O e. 6 gm
[Link] a. Thiamine (B1) a. 20 gm
b. Biotin (B7) b. 0.1 gm
c. Cyanocobalamine (B17) c. 0.1 gm

B. Working stock solution (WSS):

Serial no Nutrients Quantity/L of Dosage 1 Litre of sea water

distilled water
[Link] NaNO3, 75 gm f f/2 f/4
& Na2HPO4.2H2O 5 gm 2 ml 1 ml 0.5 ml
Phosphate
2. Silrate Na2SiO3 (gd) 38 ml 2 ml 1 ml 0.5 ml
3. Trace EDTA 4.30 gm
metal (Ethylene
diamine tetra
acetic acid)
FeCl3 3.15 gm 2 ml 1 ml 0.5 ml
PSS (Primary 1 ml
stock solution)
4. Vitamins 5 ml of PSS 2 ml 1 ml 0.5 ml
Vitamins

Briefly described the laboratory culture of Skeletonema costatum:

Apparatus:
Following apparatus are required for the laboratory culture of plankton S.
costatum.
1. Micropipette 5. Wire loop 9. Plankton net
2. Pipette 6. Cavity slide 10. Jar
3. Petridis 7. Microscope 11. Spirit lamp
4. Conical flask 8. Autoclave 12. Balance.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 50
Culture procedure: (Sample collection) –
* Phytoplankton is collected from estuary or sea water by plankton net or by
Nansen bottle.
* Collected sample is transferred immediately to the laboratory in a glass or jar
carefully.

Separation of zooplankton:
* At first zooplankters are separated using a screen of suitable mesh size.
* If the number of S. costatum in the collected sample is poor. It must be
subjected to primary culture.
There are two types of culture. They are –
1) Indoor culture
2) Outdoor culture.

Primary culture: (Isolation)

There are several methods of isolating S costatum from harmful bacteria of
which following process are dominant –
1) Antibiotic method
2) Pipette method
3) Photatactic behaviour method
4) Agar plating method

Agar plating method:

Sterilized nutrient agar media is prepared with the following ingredients –

* Peptone – 5 gm * Beef extract – 2.5 gm

* Glucose – 1 gm * Agar – 5 gm
* Distilled water – 100 ml * PH – 6.8-7.2
Five pairs of Petridis are poured with 10 ml of melted agar and allowed them to
salinity.

Inoculation:
Isolated species are then inoculated and each of the agar media with sterile wire
loop.

Incubation:
Inculated Petridis are invertly incubated for 5-10 days at room temperature
under optimum light.

Observation and Result:

After 5-10 days various coloured plankton colony will formed in the Petridis.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 51
Secondary culture: (Lab culture)

The main factors which you will consider during laboratory culture of
phytoplankton: [2011]
* After primary culture a series of 5 or more conical flasks are poured with one
litre of filtered sea water.
* The optimum physio-chemical parameters are to be as follows –
Water temperature – (24-26)o c
Salinity – 29-33%o
PH – 7.1-8.0
Light – 100-8000 lux/dim light

Preparation of Allen-Nelson’s media:

Solution 1:
i. KNO3 – 20.2 mg
ii. Distilled water – 100ml
Solution 2:
i. Na2HPO4.2H2O – 40 mg
ii. CaCl2.6H2O – 4 mg
iii. HCl – 2 ml
iv. FeCl3 – 2 mg
v. Distilled water – 80 ml
2 ml of solution -1 and 1 ml of solution-2 are mixed with a litre of filtered sea
water.

Inoculation:-
Each of the five conical flasks is inculated with the primary culture by a sterile
wire-loop.

Incubation:-
*After adding suitable amount of media the flasks are incubated for seven days
of room temperature under optimum light.
*Everyday of incubation the flasks are to be shaken.

Observation:-
*The media of the flasks will be deep green colour within 7 days which intrate
the highest density of the culture.
*Then it is ready for mass culture.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 52
Briefly describe the culture technique of phytoplankton
Chlorella sp: [2005]

Systematic position: -

Division: Chlorophyta.
Class: Chlorophyceae.
Order: Chlorococeats.
Family: Chlorellaceae.
Genus: Chorella (Davis)
Species: Chlorella vulgaris.

General culture: -
*Place filtered sea water in culture tank.
*Fertilize with 5gm of Co(NH2)2 or urea,100gm of (NH2)2So4 and 19gm of
CaHPo4 fertilizers per ton of sea water.
*Harvest Chlorella for live feed after 5 to 7 days. Use this either for feeding or
as starter for subsequent culture.

Culture procedure: -
*Required equipments:-
1. Polythene bag.
2. Pipette.
3. Plankton net.
4. Conical flask.
5. Microscope.
6. Nemaytometer.

*Preparation of culture medium: -

Chlorella:-
Micronutrient:
Na2 EDTA – 7.3gm/LDW (Litre Distilled Water)
Fecl3.6H 2O – 6gm/LDW.
CuSo4.5H2O – 2mg/LDW
ZnSo4.7H2O – 44 mg/LDW
CoCl2.6H2O – 20mg/LDW
Mncl2.4H2O – 360 mg/LDW
Na2MoO4.2H2O – 12mg/LDW.

Stock-A.
NaNo 3 – 150 mg/litre of sea water.
Na2HPo 4.2H2O – 10 mg/Litre of sea water.
Na2SiO3 – 10mg/litreof sea water.
Micro-nutrient – 1ml/litre of sea water.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 53
Inoculation: -
After preparing culture medium Chlorella sp. Are inoculating in the polythene
bag and bags are closed with rope and the bags are to be shaken.

Incubation: -
*After adding suitable amount of media, polythene bags are incubated for 4-5
days in the pond.
*Everyday of incubation the bags are to be shaken.
Required environmental condition for chlorella culture:-
Salinity – 15-36 ppt.
Temperature – 25-30oc
Light – 12 hours dark + 12 hours light.
Observation: -
After 4-5 days cell density will be 1.5 million-5 million/ml of culture.

Harvesting: -
A nylon bolting silk cloth of about 3 – 12 µ each size is suitable for harvesting.

Precaution: -
* The culture instruments must be sterilized before use.
* Clean type instrument must be purified with chromic acid, and chlorate
sulphuric acid.

Conclusion: -
It is an established fact that the success of any hatchery operation will depend
on the availability of basic food, the phytoplankton. So being a suitable size of
to the zooplanktons as well as fish larvae, the culture of chlorella sp should be
emphasized.

Briefly described the culture techniques of phytoplankton

of Tetraselmis sp: [2005]

Systemic position:
Phylum –
Class –
Order –
Genus –

Preparation of culture media:

Stock A: (Solution)
FeCl3.6H 2O – 1.30 gm/L distilled water
MnCl2.4H2O – 0.36 gm/L distilled water
H3Bo3 – 33.60 gm/L distilled water
EDTA – 45.00 gm/L distilled water
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 54
Na2HPO4.2H2O – 20.00 gm/L distilled water
NaNO 3 – 100.00 gm/L distilled water
Trace metal solution – 1.00 ml/L distilled water
Here,
Trace metal solution: -
ZnCl2 – 2.1 gm/100 ml distilled water
CoCl2.6H2O – 2.0 gm/100 ml distilled water
(NH4)6MnO4.4H2O – 0.9 gm/100 ml distilled water
CuSO4.5H2O – 2.0 gm/100 ml distilled water

Stock B: (Solution)
Vitamin B11 (Thiamine) – 10 mg/100 ml distilled water
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamine) – 200 mg/100 ml distilled water

Stock C: (Solution)
Na2SiO3.5H2O – 4.0 gm/100 ml distilled water

Culture: -
* Place filtered sea water in culture tank.
* Fertilize with 1 ml of stock-B and 2 ml of stock-C fertilizers per litre of sea
water.
* Add Tetraselmis sp into the tank and aerate.
* Harvest wanted species after 1 or 2 days when blooming occurs which is
indicated by greenish colour. Use this either for feeding or as starter for
subsequent.

Desired environment for Tetraselmis sp culture: -

Salinity – 15-36 %o
Temperature – 15-33o C
Light – 2000 lux in lab but natural light for culture.

Observation: -
After 2 days, cell density will be 275-450×103 cells/ml.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 55
 Zooplankton

Definition: - [2005,07]
The zooplankton (Gr. Zoon – animals, plankton – wandering) is all those
animals which drift passively in the ocean. The term includes a remarkably
diverse group of creatures differing very widely in size, structure and taxonomic
position. Zooplankters are the most numerous primary consumers of the ocean.
They graze on the diatoms, dinoflagellates and other phytoplankton. Every
important animal’s phylum is represented, if not throughout its entire life
history, than at least for varying lengths of time as larvae. On the basis of
duration of the planktonic life, zooplankton may be defined into two categories
–
* Holoplankton or permanent zooplankton
* Meroplankton or temporary zooplankton.

Characteristics: -
# Single cell, microscopic, minute size.
# Body tube like and radially symmetrical, mouth surrounded by soft tentacles
and simple digeotive cavity.
# Bi-lateraly symmetrical.
# Body divided into head, trunk and tail.
# Body elongated and segmented with lateral appendages, they have eye
tentacles.
# Body with dorsal carapace, eye-smile. Body divided into three regions – head,
thorax and abdomen.
# Univalve, Body unsegmented, planktonic in early life.
# Body bilaterally symmetrical, first larval stage is called ciliated. Ex. Plulcus.
# Vertebrate column present.

Classify zooplankton with example: [2005,08]

On the basis of morphological characters, zooplanktons are classified into
following: -
a) Protozoa – Ex. Tintinnopsis, Globorotalia etc.
b) Cnidaria(Coelenterata) – Ex. Obelia, Aurelia, etc.
c) Ctenophora – Ex. Cestum, Bdinopsis etc.
d) Chaetongnatha – ex. Sagitta,Eukrohnia.
e) Annelida – Sagitella, Vanadis etc.
f) Arthopoda – Podon, Calanus, Mysis, Acctes, Lucifer.
g) Mollusca – Hydrobia,Cilo etc.
h) Echinodermata – Pelagothuria, Larvae of Asteridea etc.
i) Chordata (Pisces) – Hilsa sp, Lates calcarifer, Doliolo, and fish larvae
etc.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 56
Classification:
A. Protozoa
1. Phylum – Protozoa [Link] – Protozoa 3. Phylum – Protozoa
Class – Sarodinea Class – Sarodinea Class - Ciliata
Order – Foraminifera Order – Radiolaria Order - Tintinnina
Genus – Globrotalia. Genus – Aulosplaera. Genus – Tintinnus.

B. Coelenterata
1. Phylum – Coelenterata 2. Phylum – Coelenterata
Class – Hydrozoa Class – Hydrozoa
Order – Hydoida Order - Limnomedusae
Genus – Obelia, Sarsia etc.
3. Phylum – Coelenterata 4. Phylum – Coelenterata
Class – Scyphozoa Class - Scyphozoa
Order – Coronatae Order - semaeost
Genus – Atolla. Genus – Aurdia.

C. Claetagnatha D. Annelida
Phylum – Annelida Phylum – Claetagnatha
Class – Polychaeta Class – Sagittoidae
Order – Errantia Order –
Genus – Vanadis Genus – Sagitta
E. Arthropoda
1. Phylum – Arthropoda 2. Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Crustacea Class – Crustacea
Order – Cladocera Sub-Order - Copepoda
Genus – podon. Order – Calanoida
Genus – Calanus

3. Phylum – Arthropoda 4. Phylum – Arthropoda

Class – Crustacea Class – Crustacea
Order – Euphausiacea Order - Decapod
Genus – Euphausia a. Genus – Acetes
b. Genus – Lucifer.
F. Ctenophora G. Mollusca
Phylum – Ctenophora Phylum – Mollusca
Class – Tentaculata Class – Gastropoda
Order – Cestida Order – Thecosomata ( Pteropoda)
Genus – Cestum Genus – Clio

H. Echinodermata I. Chordata J. Aschelminthes

Phylum – Echinodermata Phylum – Chordata Phylum – Aschelminthes
Class – Holothuroidea Class – Thaliocea Class – Rotatoria
Genus – Erypniastes Order – Cyclonyoria Order – Monogononta
Genus – Doliolum Genus – Brachionus
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 57
Factors effecting growth, distribution and seasonal
changes of zooplankton: [2009,10]

Introduction:
Zooplanktons are minute microscopic animal. Raining sluggish movement. In
marine environment there are several ecological parameters that influence the
growth, mortality, abundance and distribution of zooplankton directly or
indirectly.
Environment factors are two types –
1. Abiotic factors
2. biotic factors

Abiotic factors
A. Physical factors:

a. Light: -
* Light is the key factor of zooplankton growth. Several types of migration will
be occurred by the light such as diurnal migration, vertical or horizontal
migration.
* Suitable light is an important factor for primary production on which
zooplankton fully for their nourishment. It helps the growth of zooplankton by
leaving O2 from photosynthesis.
* Directly or indirectly light control the growth and distribution of zooplankton.

Light
nCO2 + nH2O n (CH2O) + nO2
Chlorophyll

b. Temperature: -
* O2 content of water decrease due to high temperature which is harmful for
zooplankton growth.
* Where temperature is higher the respiration is higher and growth rate is
decreasing.

c. Salinity: -
* Salinity controls the abundance and distribution of zooplankton. For example
– 26 ppt is very suitable foe survival of Macrobracium rosenbergii.
* Most of the zooplankton are adapted to life in water of concentrate salinity
and can tolerant only slight (a few) change in its concentration.
* Mortality is also depending upon the temperature and salinity.

d. Specific gravity: -
* We know specific gravity ∞ 1/ temp and specific gravity ∞ salinity.
* Temperature and salinity control the specific gravity.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 58
 * So production, growth, abundance and distribution of zooplankton are
indirectly affected by specific gravity.

e. Pressure: -
* With the increase of every 10 meter depth in the sea water hydrostall pressure
increased of 1 atm.
* At the lower part of water, zooplankton dies due to high pressure.
* Pressure increase with increasing of depth.
* It has direct effect on protoplasm and increase the viscosity, hence it influence
the growth and respiration of zooplankton.

f. Upwelling: -
* It brings nutrient rich water to the surface and indirectly helps the zooplankton
growth.
* Breeding of zooplankton takes place at the upwelling area and thus upwelling
increase zooplankton growth.

g. Turbulence: -
* It occurs due to the cyclone.
* It is a complex irregular movements of water in which different layer of water
mixed by vertically.
* It may promote production by bringing nutrients to the surface.

B. Chemical factors:
a. Oxygen: -
*It is essential for biotic organisms in respiration.
*Respiration of zooplankton can not go without the supply of [Link] of O2
means the death of zooplankton.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H 2O + Energy

(Respiration).

*Excess or low O2 content of water is harmful for growth of zooplankton.

A zooplankton can survive at 5-8 ml/L O2.

b. Carbon-di-oxide (CO2): -
*CO2 is an important ecological factor which limits the growth of zooplankton.
* Excess of CO2 is harmful and causes of mortality of zooplankton.
* Except CO2 , zooplankton can not manufacture their food.

Sunlight
nCO2 + nH2O C6H12O6+ nO2
Chlorophyll

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 59
c. Hydrogen ion concentration or pH: -
* The pH range of sea water is normally about 7.5 – 8.5
* The increase or decreasing of pH directly affects on zooplankton production.
* Acidic pH increase toxically which decrease the zooplankton growth.

d. Nutrient: -
*It is the key factor for the growth of zooplankton.
* PO4 and NO3 are very important for protein synthesis in all plankton.
* If nutrient is decreased the primary production is decreased ultimately
decreases the zooplankton growth.

e. H2S: -
*Created by bacterial decomposition of organic substances.
*It has destructive effect on zooplankton growth.

C. Dynamic factors:

a. Current: -
*This is an important factor which influences the distribution of zooplankton
and transport of nutrient for zooplankton.
*It disperses spores, eggs, larvae and adults to a suitable place for survival.
* Spawning of zooplankton is not possible without the help of current.

b. Tide: -
*A lot of zooplankton die when trapped in coast during high tide.
*By increasing turbidity in coastal region, tide hampers the primary production
and ultimately decreases zooplankton growth.

c. Wave:
*A lot of zooplankton comes to the coast by waves and ultimately they die at
high intensity of light.
*It is destructive factors for zooplankton.

Biotic factors
a. Food: -
* Most important factor for the survive and growth of zooplankton.

b. Grazing: -
*It has been found that with the increase of growth of phytoplankton,
zooplankton migrate there and graze on standing crops.
* Copepods and Mysids are very important grazer. Those are easily migrating to
the area of heavy phytoplankton.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 60
c. Seston: -
* Seston is taken by the organism. It is the fraction part of the phytoplankton
and zooplankton.
* If seston is higher then those zooplankton takes seston grow well.

d. Predator: -
* Important factors which limits the growth of zooplankton.
* Predator organism such as fishes, shark, whales etc directly feed on
zooplankton and thus decreases the production of zooplankton.

Conclusion: -
There are many factors that affect little on the zooplankton growth. The above
factors are the most important for growth and development of zooplankton.

Ref:
1. Gross, [Link], Oceanography, 1972, Prentice-Hall,Inc,USA

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 61
 Geographical distribution of zooplankton
Geographical distribution of zooplankton:
Geographically zooplanktons are distributed into three regions. They are –
1) Tropical region
2) Temperate region
3) Polar region

1. Tropical region: -
In this region weather is warms. The sun maintains the warmth of the tropical
surface waters and also in the summer warms the surface layers of the temperate
waters which bring about a stability of the water mass with little or no mixing
between the warm and cold layer. This junction is called a thermocline. For
thermocline little replacement of nutrient happens in the illuminated surface
water. As a result little phytoplankton grow. For a reason poor zooplanktons are
found.

Tropical

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fig – 3.1: Tropical region

2) Temperate region: -
The surface water temperature is moderate. The surface water temperate region
hence efficient nutrient salts at all the time of the year for adequate growth of
phytoplankton. The maximum phytoplankton occurs in the region in spring as a
result zooplankton found in great. But in summer the zooplankton decrease with
decreasing of phytoplankton.

Temperate

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fig – 3.2: Temperature region

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 62
3) Polar region: -
In polar region temperature is low. As a result, water is cold. In polar seas the
stabilizing effect of a thermocline doesn’t exist to the same extent. There we
have a six month period of light and phytoplankton growth and zooplankton
increase. This is occurred in the month of June and July and a six month period
of darkness and no plant growth. As a result, zooplanktons are decrease. Inspite
of these six months of darkness zooplankton is richer in polar waters than in the
tropics due to the greater of phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton is greater due to the continuous supply of nutrients and light in
summer and partly because the zooplankton tend to have a longer individual life
span in the cold water, this is due to a slower metabolic rate and they take
longer to use the same amount of food.

Polar region

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fig – 3.3: Polar region

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 63
 Vertical distribution of zooplankton
Vertical distribution of zooplankton: [2006,08,09,11]
All organisms having characteristics of animal known as zooplankton such as
Artemia, Rotifer etc. In vertically zooplankton are distributed in many zones.

1) Very surface water zone: -

Many zooplanktons avoid the very surface waters, except at night, because of
the effect of strong sunlight; which repels of the animal forms. At night these
zooplankton migrate to the very surface water for food. On the other hand, some
zooplankton seems not to be harmed by the light and they remain at the very
surface or near it, regardless of the time of day. Physlaia, Vetetha these types of
zooplankton are found the very surface water zone.

2) Near the surface water zone: -

Many zooplanktons are distributed near the surface, such as immature stage of
many Copepods, the adult stages of their Copepods, jellyfish of various species
etc many remain near the surface.

3) Upper zone: -
All herbivorous among zooplanktons live upper zone within the upper 200 m or
so. However, the destination between herbivorous and detritus feeders is not
marked and in many cases the same species will ingest which ever food
happened to be available. The present of richer food supplies in the waters near
the surface is shown by the present of zooplankton.
Some forms as the Copepods sp Mienosetella rosea are confined to upper zone.
The greater abundance of phytoplankton may cause the occurrence of
zooplankton.

4) Deep water zone: -

In oceanic area planktonic animals are known down to the greatest depth. Deep
living planktonic animals have been observed from the bathy sphere. Some
amphipods are deep living but it is perhaps among the prawn-like crustacean
that some of the most characteristics bathy belonging species are to be found.
Mysids such as Eucopia and Nebaliopsis are typically deep sea genera.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 64
 1000 3000 4000

1000

3000

5000

1300

Fig – 3.4: The abundance of zooplankton

In the pacific, the volume of plankton were much greater in the deeper layers
(500 – 1500), than at the surface, where as in the Atlantic the plankton volume
were greater near the surface.
Leavitt found that, the volume of zooplankton fell to a minimum at a depth of
1200 – 1800 m but below that level at some 1500 – 2500 m, some what greater
quantities of plankton were encounted.

Migration
Migration: - [2005,08]
Migration may be define as the periodic movement of an organism from one
place to another is a particular season or time for various purpose such as
feeding, breeding, avoidance adverse condition and also for survival aspect, due
to some temporary environmental changes but shall come back to their natural
habitat at the end of purpose is served.
Factors of migration: -
* Light intensity * Temperature change
* Geotropism * Salinity
* Turbidity * Nutrients
* Predators * pH and O2 concentration
* Hunger for food

Different types of migration of marine zooplankton: [2007]

Migration of zooplankton can be classified as follow –
1. Diurnal vertical migration
2. Seasonal vertical migration
3. Ontogenetic migration
4. Sudden migration

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 65
1. Diurnal vertical migration: - [2006,08]
The migration which occurs vertically during day-night is called diurnal vertical
migration. Many types of plankton in both marine and fresh water situation
make more or less extensive diurnal vertical migration of zooplankton. Such
migration may be towards the surface at night when temperature is low and
twilight present and down into the depth at day time when the light is excess.
Some this migration is reverse of this with the towards the surface, at day time
and back to the depth at night.
Related species of this migration are –
* Rotifer * Copepods * Crustacea * Planktonic larvae

Described the factors responsible for diurnal vertical migration:

Or, Described the major factors that play role in the vertical
migration of zooplankton: - [2007]

Factors responsible for diurnal vertical migration are as follows –

* Light intensity: -
We know from challenger expedition, the zooplankton migrates at night least
from 200 m depth to the surface. The zooplankton having diurnal migration
behavior is very sensible to light and can’t tolerate it excess. In order to keep at
their preferred light intensity they remain submerged during the day but as
sunset approaches they start to go upward reaching the surface layer the
twilight. As the light increase they again go down.

* Temperature and salinity: -

Temperature and salinity don’t influence the diurnal migration directly but
modify the vertical migration of 200 m. In case of vertical migration 16 species
of copepods which perfume marked diurnal migration. The bulk of Calanus
proportion tend to move from a zone in the day with a temperature of
approximately 9o C to near surface at night where the temperature is about 17oC
as Sagitta tends if avoid the surface during twilight and darkness if the
temperature exceed 17oC.

* Changes in pH and O2 concentration: -

The change in pH and O2 concentration of the upper most layers where owing to
photosynthesis by the phytoplankton difference between day and night have
some influence effects on diurnal vertical migration.

* To avoid predator: -
Another reason for diurnal migration is self defense. Plankton migrates to the
surface at night for feed but as day light approaches they sink into dark region.
Some predator can’t see well at night. As a result, they can’t predict the
zooplankton.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 66
* Phototropism: -
Phototropism states that each species has its own particular optimum condition
of illumination and it follows their condition of illumination up & down in the
water as day and night alternate.

Day Night

Downward Upward
migration migration

Fig – 3.5: Diurnal vertical migration.

* Hunger for food: -

The plankton would presumably remain in deeper water protects from the
penetration of light during the day time but upon the cessation of day light
hunger would cause them to shrimp up to more superficial layer where the food
organisms are more abundant, which may occurred plankton migration.

* Physiological rhythm: -
It has been claimed that the zooplankton have innate periodic physiological
rhythm, during them to migrate up and down.

* Phototropism and geotropism interaction: -

Phototropism and geotropism interaction play a role on the migration of
zooplankton. Such that the animals react to swim away from the bottom but are
repelled by the light coming from above. It is obvious that many planters make
such extensive migration each day that they must actively swim down-ward,
rather than, marcly sink passively.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 67
20

40

60

80

100

Noon 2pm 4 pm 6 pm 8 pm 10 pm Mid night 4 am 6 am 8 am 10 am Noon

Fig – 3.6: Diurnal vertical migration of zooplankton.

Migration limits and speeds:

Plankter living at different depth is to migrate vertically to the desirable upper
most area. So, migration limit may very with different group of zooplankton.
We know from challenger expedition the zooplankton migrates at night at least
from 200m depth to the surface. Copepods migrate from a depth ranging 100-
200 to the surface. But most copepods migration occurs from a depth of 450-
[Link] decapods, mysids and amphipods generally migrate upward from
a depth of 600-200m. Different planktonic species have different migration
speed.

Species Upward Downward

[Link] 15 m/h 100 m/h
2. Centro pages 30 m/h 150 m/h
3. Tomopierie 55 m/h 200 m/h
4. Meganyetiphom 300 ft/h 420 ft/h

Exceptional migration patterns: -

Because of changing season and various day light longevity at different latitude
zooplankton represent some exception type of diurnal vertical migration. In the
polar region during Summer and Autumn there is different type migration in
zooplankton.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 68
 Day Night Day Day Night Day

A B

A: In summer with 24 hours of day B: In autumn with alternatings day and night

Fig – 3.7: Pattern of diurnal vertical migration of plankton in polar condition.

2. Seasonal migration: -
This phenomenon is associated with the regular shiftment of zooplankton
population from one area to another having different ecological characteristics.
Factors responsible for season migration –
a. Environmental condition
b. Food source.

a. Environmental condition: -
Environment at a certain area are changed with changing season. So
zooplanktons living in that area are to migrate another area when they subject to
changed environment.
For example, North Atlantic copepod community that favours comparatively
cool environment migrate towards more north (upto 32 to 20o N) during
summer.

b. Food source: -
There are two seasonal phytoplankton peaks in the temperate seas. Spring
(March – May) and Autumn (Sep – Oct and early Nov). During high light
phytoplankton growth in different region. Zooplankton migrate towards this
area for better feeding and reproduction from adjacent area. This type of
seasonal migration can be categorized under four different steps –
Step – 1: Inverse relation at the start of phytoplankton peak.
Step – 2: commencement of zooplankton with some grazing.
Step – 3: Having grazing on competition of migration growth of phytoplankton
on other side.
Step – 4: Return to inverse relationship and further migration of zooplankton

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 69
 Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

Step – 1 Step – 2

Step – 3 Step – 4

3. Ontogenetic Migration pattern:

This phenomenon is associated with the different life stages of zooplankton and
their suitable environment. Factor responsible for ontogenetic migration are –

a. Better feeding and survival: -

Various development stages of a species shows different distinct pattern. In
general youngest stages of zooplankton tend to be nearer the surface any appear
to be living at a higher high optimum (Rusel – 1953)
Many of deeper living members of zooplankton groups especially the
crustacean under go changes in depth distribution with age. Females of Calanus
sp lay egg in deep water (> 500-1000m) during winter in the north pacific. His
young copepodites found to the surface layers in the spring where feeding and
development take place. Copepodite descent to deeper water during June and by
November sexually mature adult predominates below 500m.

b. Tolerate of different environmental parameter:

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 70
4. Sudden migration: -
When zooplankton in an area are subjected to a great sort of ecological problem
they are to migrate other where frequently.
Cause of sudden migration –
i. Phytoplankton bloom produce toxicity
ii. Destructive storm
iii. Some large sort of water pollution.
Phytoplankton bloom: -
Cause of phytoplankton bloom is to produces some toxic substances. As a result
zooplankton migrates to another suitable place.

Destructive storm: -
For destructive storm zooplankton are migrate to another place for survive.

Some large sort of water pollution: -

When the water is polluted different substance phytoplankton can grow. As a
result, phytoplanktons are decreased. For scarcity of zooplankton migrate too
another place.

Advantages of migration:
* The dark provides relative safety from predators.
* Cooler water in deep layers lowers metabolic rate, so that energy is expanded
during the resting period.
* In some areas, surface currents move plankton away from preferred location
while they are feeding at night. By entering counter currents that flow below the
surface layer, they are lessly returned up current by day.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 71
 Food and feeding habit of zooplankton
Food and feeding habit of zooplankton: [2008,10,11]
Food of zooplankton: -
Zooplankton use foods limited in terms of size, shape and quality due to the
ability to detect different prey types and the functional adaptations of the
feeding appendages. Some zooplankton feeds larger diatoms, algal cells;
smallest food particle of many other is suspension feathers.
Mainly the feeding habit of zooplankton depends on there terms – herbivorous,
carnivorous and omnivorous are commonly used to refer to zooplankton which
feed primary on plants (phytoplankton), animals (zooplankton) or a mixture of
these food types. The terms monophagy refers respectively to zooplankton
feeding on a single prey type or many prey.
Food habits of common groups of marine zooplankton are as follows -
* Coelenterata: Mostly carnivorous but some feed on phytoplankton as small
as micro zooplankton. In general, they eat any animal coming in content with
their tentacles.
* Ctenophora: Carnivorous. They feed on a variety of prey from small
copepods to fish larvae and euphausilds.
* Heteropoda: Mostly carnivorous.
* Pteropoda: Thecosomata are considered to be ciliary mucus feeder.
Gymmosomata are carnivorous.
* Polychaeta: All holoplanktonic polychaetes, with the exception of
poccobiidae are carnivorous. Tomopteris has been observed to bite prey animals
and suck liquids from their bodies.
* Cladocera: They seem to be omnivorous suspension feeders.
* Ostracoda: Mostly omnivorous.
* Cpoepoda: Mostly omnivorous and herbivorous. Many calanoid species are
filter feeder.
* Mysidacea: Mostly omnivorous. The major food source for neretic species is
bottom sediment.
* Amphipoda: Typically carnivorous.
* Euphausiacea: Some species are carnivorous, while other species are
omnivorous suspension feeders.
* Chaetognatha: Typically carnivorous.
* Appendicularia: Herbivorous and detritivorous.
* Thalicea: Omnivorous, typically particle feeding.

Herbivorous Carnivorous Omnivorous

1. Copepoda 1. Coelenterata 1. Cladocera
2. Appendicularia 2. Heteropoda 2. Ostracoda
3. Pteropoda 3. Cpoepoda
4. Polychaeta 4. Mysidacea
5. Amphipoda 5. Thalicea
6. Euphausiacea
7. Chaetognatha
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 72
Culture techniques of commercially important
zooplankters - Artemia, Rotifer, Copepod.
Artemia
Artemia:
Artemia is a small crustacean popularly known as -shrimp. This zooplankton
naturally occurs in salt lakes (coastal or inland chloride sulphate or carbonate
rich waters). It is only occurring in the evaporation pond if intermediate salinity
levels i.e. – from about 100 ppt upto 250 ppt. The most peculiar nature of this
animal is that the embryos inside the cyst remain in diapauses as long as the
cysts are kept dry or under anaerobic conditions. It is omnivorous in food habit.
Its food consists for example of yeast, diatom, algae, bacteria and other micro-
organisms.

Systematic position:
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Crustacea
Sub-class – Branchiopoda
Order – Anostraca
Family – Artemiidae
Genus – Artemia.

Ecology:-
*Artemia are found in lakes e.g-Great salt lake, Utah and Chaplin lake Canada
and brines pond e.g – San-Francisco bay, California salt ponds.
*In these areas ecological conditions are extreme.
*Salinity can vary from 60 ppt to 300 ppt.
*Predators and food competitors are mostly eliminated.

Some species of Artemia with their locations:

Six species of Artemia with their location:-
1. Artemia salina.(England-Now extract)
2. Artemia tunisiana.(Europe)
3. Artemia fransiscana.(America)
4. Artemia monica.(Mono lake-california)
5. Artemia persimilis(Argentina)
6. Artemia urmiana.(Iran)

General distribution of Artemia: -

*So far over 300 natural Artemia- biotopes, spread over the 5 continents have
been identified.
*The distribution of Artemia is limited to biotopes where salinity always is
sufficiently high to keep out predators.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 73
*Wind and water-birds (especially flamingoes)are considered to be important
natural dispersion vectors.

Describe the life cycle of Artemia: - [2011]

Artemia undergoes various stages in its life cycle –

1. Cysts: -
a. The dehydrated dormant eggs of Artemia are called cysts.
b. They are 200 – 300 µm in diameter and appear as minute brown particle,
weight may 3.5 µm in average.
c. In dry and oxygen free conditions, they remain inactive.
d. Upon immersion in sea water (5 – 70) ppt, the bean shaped becomes spherical
or hydrated and within the shell the metabolism of the embryo is activated.
e. Few hours later, the cysts outer membrane.

2. Nauplii: -
a. A short period after the emerging of embryo, the hatching membrane raptures
and the free swimming nauplius (about .4-.52mm).0.002-0.003 mg dry is
released.
b. The first instars larvae are brownish orange due to the presence of yolk.

Figure – 3.8: Life cycle of Brine shrimp (Artemia sp).

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 74
3. Juveniles: -
a. The larvae grow and differentiate through about 15 molts.
b. The trunk and abdomen elongate.
c. The digestive tracks become functional.
d. Lateral complex eyes developed.

4. Adults: -
*From the 10th instars on artemae undergo sexual differentiations.
*Adult Artemia usually 8-10mm long.
*Adult Artemia are characterized by –

1. Stalked lateral eyes.

2. Sensorial antennules.
3. Linear digestive track.
4.11 pairs of thoracopods.
5. In, male antenna is transformed into muscular gasper.
6. A paired penis is found in the posterior part of the trunk region. IN female
airtime have degenerated into sensory appendages
7. Paired ovaries are found in both sides of the digestive track behind the
thoracopods.

Riding Pairs: -
a. Precopulation starts with the male grasping the female with its Artemae
between the uterus and last pair of thoracopods.
b. The couples can swim around in this position for several days.
c. Copulation is very fast.

Discuss about the mode of reproduction of Artemia:

Two modes of reproduction exists in Artemia –
1. Oviparous reproduction and
2. Ovoviviparous reproduction.

1. Oviparous reproduction: -
a. In oviparous reproduction, after copulation fertilized eggs are surrounded by
in the broad pouch of the female with a tough brown sell, which is then called
cysts.
b. It is predominant at high salinities (150-200) ppt and lower dissolved oxygen
concentration.
c. The cysts are released by female in water where they will not hatch until they
have completely dehydrated.
d. The embryo inside each cyst is then in a state of metabolic dormancy and will
not further developing until hydrated again.
e. at these conditions, more hemoglobin is synthesized which may account for
greater cyst formation.
f. In nature, this mostly happens when pond water washed back after rainfall.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 75
2. Ovoviviparous: -
*In ovoviviparous reproduction, after fertilization instead of surrounding by a
shell eggs are immediately developed i8nto nauplii in the broad pouch of the
female.
*These nauplii are then released in water as free-swimming nauplii
*In this reproductive cycle, a female can produce 50-200 nauplii from anew
batch of eggs in every 5 days.

Write down the feeding habits and food of Artemia.

Feeding habits: -
a. Artemia is a non-selective filter-feeding animal that ingest anything in the
size range 1 to about 50 microns.
b. It is omnivorous in food habit.
c. This animal feed on particulate organic detritus matter as well as living
organisms of appropriate size.

Foods: -
Its food consists of –
a. Yeast
b. Diatom, (eg-Nitzchia,Closterium,Sigma etc); Navicula, Blue green algae,
Euglena etc.
c. Green algae,eg-seenedesmus, quadricanola, Ankistrodesmus,
pseudomicrobiles, Amkistrodesmus arwatus, Crucigenia Caudrata, Cladophora
sp, Dunaliella salina, Stephanaptera gracitis, Stephanoptera oracillus etc.
d. Besides in cultured condition, Aretemia can be feed directly with-
1. Chicken feed.
2. Rice bran.
3. Mineed fish.
4. Chopped chicken dung etc.

Discuss the prospects/possibility/potential/ and problems

of Artemia culture in the coastal salt-pans of Bangladesh:

Prospects/possibility/potential of Artemia culture:-

Bangladesh has no naturally occurring Artemia. There is a great possibility of
Atremia culture as a by product of salt production in the coastal salt-pans of
[Link] of Artemia culture in the coastal salt-pans of Bangladesh
are given below –

*Favourable environmental conditions do occur at least during the post and pre-
monsoon season(Nov-March).In this day season salinity is being high which
may be suitable for culture of Artemia.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 76
*Bangladesh has about 17000 hact. Of salt producing area and if one tenth of
this area is modified for integrated Artemia culture. Then the country would
produce at least 48000 kg DW cyst/year and 3600 tons WW biomass/year.

*Foods of Artemia are available here.

*Coastal aquaculture is developing rapidly in our country and there need a lot of
food materials for hatchery. So, the production of Artemia cysts and biomass in
the salt pans is required to rear-up these hatchery fry.

*Geographical location of the saltpans of Baskhali, Chakria, Cox”s bazaar,

Kutubdia, Maheshkhali island is most suitable for Artemia culture.

*Besides,when we observe in the light of field experiments and economical

analysis,then it will be clear that the prospects of Artemia culture of Bangladesh
is very bright. According to Mr. Aminul Islam-“if we cultivate the Artemia in
one hectare, then we will get the following results”—

Name of input Unit cost (Tk) Total cost(Tk)

1. Rental of saltpan 15000 15000
2. Pond modification 4000 4000
cost.
3. Cost of required 1000 1000
cysts(400g)
4. Cost of lime(1.7tons) 4000 6000
5. Cost of rice bran, --- 10000
chicken manure, TSP,
Urea
6. Cost of nets, cloths, ---- 10000
bags, containers
7. Wage of two daily 6000 12000
labours
Total cost 58000Taka

Note:-The whole cost is Considered as working capital.

Sales price of Artemia salt project {1hac/season}

Name of output Quantity Price(Tk)

[Link] Biomass 3000kg × 3 72000
[Link] 8 kg 9600
[Link] 15tons 30000
Total price 111600 Taka

So, subtracting the operational cost net profit is calculated as 53600 taka from 1
hac, integrated project.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 77
In conclusion, we can say that, the future (prospect/potential) of Artemia culture
in Bangladesh looking Bright.

Problems of Artemia culture: -

The possible culture problems of Artemia culture in Bangladesh are given
below-

1. The people who live in the coastal area are poor and illiterate. So, they do not
like to take any risk of Artemia culture in their saltpans
2. People of coastal are poor, so they can not bear the primary cost for Artemia
culture.
3. In rainy season, it is not possible to grow Artemia for heavy rainfall.
4. In Bangladesh, we have no naturally occurring Artemia cysts. So, we have to
import Artemia cysts from foreign countries.
5. Salinity varies in the coastal area of Bangladesh. If salinity is > 70% and <
5%; then Artemia culture is hampered.
6. In summer season, the temperature is very high. So, Artemia cysts may die
due to high temperature.
7. Facilities are not available. There is no plan in government to develop
Artemia culture in the coastal salt pans of Bangladesh.

Uses and importance of Artemia:

The uses and importance of Artemia are given below –
* Artemia serves as an important food for early stages of shrimp and other
organisms in aquarium and small ponds having no natural foods.
* Being live food, the larvae of Artemia are readily taken by aquatic animals
under nursery conditions without fouling the aquarium water.
* Its constitute the principle ration and frequently the only food for larvae and
juveniles of many cultured species, such as – fresh water prawn
(Macrobrachium sp), shrimps (Peneaus sp), lobster (Homorus sp), crabs and
various fishes.
* Problems in the salt making created by organic metabolities from algal
blooms, can be biologically controlled by the presence of brine shrimp, Artemia.
* The dark red coloration of Crystalizers, holobacterium is directly cow tat with
Artemia presence earlier in the system.
* It creates job opportunity for both technoerals and general people. Financially
it is beneficial for the poor salt farmers of the country.
* It earns foreign currency by exporting Artemia biomass to other country.

Why Artemia sp selected for culture?

Artemia sp is selected for culture because of its outstanding characteristics
which are as follows –

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 78
* Handover:
It is convenient to handle since it can stay in the dormant stage as dry cysts
which can be easily stored, transported and hatched.
Adaptation:
It is adaptable to a wide range of environmental condition.
Capacity:
Artemia sp is a non-selective filter feeder and is capable of growing at very high
densities. [More than 10,000 individuals per litre].
Generation Time:
Artemia sp also has an unchanging food requirement high conversion efficiency,
short generation time, high fecundity rate and considerably long time span. [up
to 6 months or more].

The culture techniques of Artemia salina in the coastal

salt-pans: [2006,08,10]
Introduction:
Culture may be defined as man’s attempts to improve the yield of useful aquatic
organisms by deliberate manipulation of their rate of growth mortality
production.
Now the culture o zooplankton like Artemia salina is described below –
Collection: -
Artemia are not found available in our country. For this reason cysts are
imported from foreign countries. In our country laboratory culture of Artemia
has not yet been done.

Culture materials and methods:

1. Equipments and other inputs: -

a) Artemia cysts [e.g. – red jungle brand, USA]
b) One salt-pond. [1000 m2]
c) Equipments for monitoring water quality [pH, DO, S %o, temperature]
d) Equipments for collecting and clearing Artemia cysts.
e) Organic and inorganic fertilizer.
f) Equipments for dehydration of Artemia cysts.

2. Site selection: -
* The site should be selected in places with low rainfall and high evaporation
rate.
* Dry season last from 4 to 6 months.
* The site may be selected in existing salt production ponds.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 79
3. Pond preparation:

a. Modification of existing salt-pan: -

* The Artemia production ponds (APP) are modified to hold more bring than the
traditional ones.
* They are excavated in the 4th compartment.
* Water depth of APP is maintained to around 30 cm.
* Water temperature should not exceed (35-36)o C.

b. Construction of cysts barrier: -

* For better harvesting cysts barrier is required.
* At the dyke side of the APP, cysts barrier are fabricated with bamboo frame
and with black polythene sheet for collection cysts at case.

Supply

Reservoir

EP EP

EP EP

EP EP

EP APP APP EP

EP EP

SCP SCP

EP = Evaporation Pond, APP = Artemia Production Pond, SCP = Salt

Crystallization Pond.

Fig – 3.9: Layout of Artemia culture and production ponds in the coastal temporal salt-pan area.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 80
c. Limiting of the ponds: -
* To control the soil acidity lime is used.
* Lime is applied at a rate of 20kg/acre.

d. Prevention against Lab-lab growth: -

* To prevent lab-lab growth the pond bottom is dried and racked up and all
traces of decayed lab-lab are removing.

e. Water intake: -
* Sea water of salinity 30%o is pumped in reservoir.
* The water is passed through a screen of 1mm mesh to prevent shell are fin fish
larvae.

f. Fertilization: -
* After six days of water intake when salinity is 57 %o then pond water is
fertilized as follows –
Inorganic fertilizer – 50 kg/hack
Organic fertilizer – Chicken manure may be applied at 2 ton/hac.

[Link] for Artemia cysts for inoculation:

a) Inoculation Time: -
* Artemia may be inoculated early in the morning, late in the after noon or
preferably early in the evening.

b) Hatching: -
* 30 gm of Artemia cyst and 3 litre of sea water (35 %o) are taken in a plastic
container.
* After 30 hours the nauplii are hatched out.

c. Incubation: -
* Newly hatched nauplii are taken in a polythene bag.
* Concentrated sea water from APP is introduced slowly to help to adapt nauplii
to the temperature-salinity regime of the APP uniformly.

d. Water management: -
* Hydrological parameters of the APP are recorded at 5 days intervals following
standard method at the culture site.
* Water depth is maimed around 30 cm and water temperature is <35o C,
salinity gradually increased to as high as 153%o.

e. Observation and results: -

Air temperature – (22.5-33) o C
Water temperature – (29-35) o C
Salinity – 50%o at beginning and maximum recorded 153%o in April.
Dissolved oxygen – (4-6) ml/L
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 81
 Water depth – (24-30) cm
pH – (7.7-7.9)

5. Harvesting: -
* Whenever the cysts float on the surface of the pond water, they accumulate on
the wind ward side against the cysts barriers.
* Cysts are collected with a double screen dip net. The older screen is of 500
µm to remove adults and the inner screen of 120 µm to retain cysts.

6. Cyst Processing: -
* Soon after collection, cysts are put on a sieve and washed with several
changes of fresh water to remove larger particles if present.
* The cysts are then transferred to a container filled with water of 250-300.
Aeration is provided continuously from a tube.
* Cysts are then removed from the container and allowed to be dried in the air
avoiding direct sunlight.
* The dried cysts are transferred to screw capped containers and kept in cool
and dry place.

Conclusion: -
Artemia has manifold importance. By culturing Artemia we can fill up the
scarcity of food supply in our aquaculture firm easily. Artemia is also a good
food for shrimps. We can develop our shrimp production by the culture of
Artemia. So, culture of Artemia should be extended in the coastal salt-pans of
Bangladesh.

Problems of Artemia culture:

Technical problems are as follows –
a) Lack of cyst collection and production.
b) Lack of culture practice.
c) Lack of the planning of the culture farm.
d) Lack of the basic knowledge on the biology and habit of Artemia to be
cultured.

Major factors to be considered for culture of Artemia

salina in coastal pond/ saltpans: [2006,08]
The factors which are considered for culture of Artemia salina in the coastal
pond/ saltpans are as follows –

* Salinity – 50 ppt at beginning and maximum record 153 ppt in April.

* Water temperature – (29-35)O C.
* Dissolved O2 – (4-6) ml/L.
* Water depth – (24-30) cm.
* pH – (7.7-7.9)
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 82
 Rotifer
Rotifer:
Rotifer is microscopic, unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical, free living aquatic
animals. They are common inhabitants of fresh and marine water. Both sexual
and asexual reproduction occurs. They are usually transparent.

Systematic position of Rotifer: -

Phylum: Rotifer
Class: Eurotatoria
Sub-class: Monogononta
Order: Ploima
Family: Brachionidae
Genus: Brachionous
Species: B. plicatilis, B rubens.

Culture: - [2005,07]
Culture required environmental condition for Rotifer culture as follows –
* Salinity – (0-35) ppt [ optimum 20-32 ppt]
* Temperature – [15-35)o C ( optimum 20-30 o C]
(Growth rate increase with increasing temperature)
* pH – (6.0-9.0) [ optimum 7.5-8.0]
According to Platon, 1978 and Esther et. al, 1980, the most wanted species for
culture of Rotifer is Brachionus plicatilis. Especially this species is most
favourable for shrimp larvae.

Collection of Rotifer: -
A nylon bolting silk cloth of about 90 µ mesh size is suitable for collection
rotifer for brackish water.

Rotifer culture through Chlorella culture: -

At first Chlorella culture are taken in the tank as follows –
Preparation of media for Chlorella:
NaNO 3 – 150 mg/L of sea water.
Na2HPO 4.2H2O – 10 mg/L of sea water.
Na2SiO3 – 10 mg/L of sea water.
Micro-nutrient – 1ml/L of sea water.
After preparation of medium, Chlorella is inoculated in the tank. After 4-5 days
Chlorella cell density will be 106 cell/ml.
Then 10 numbers of Rotifers are inoculated per ml of chlorella culture tank.
After 7 days this number of Rotifer will be 100/ml of chlorella culture tank.
Besides, yeast cells are used for Rotifer culture. Each Rotifer can take 25,000 to
30,000 chlorella cell or 10,000 to12,000 cells per day. (1 gm will yield
approximately 2-3 Billions yeast cells).

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 83
 …………… ……………………………
…………………
…………… ……………………………
…………………
……………………………
…………………
……………………………
1 litre 10 litre 50 litre

………………………………………
………………………………………
………………………………………
………………………………............

* Proper aeration is provided in the culture tank.

Enrich media for 10 litre culture tank: -

Crude fertilizers:
(NH4)2SO4 – 150mg/L
Urea – 7.5 mg/L
Calcium super phosphate – 2.5 mg/L
* Transparent tank is used for 500 litre culture tank of Rotifer.
Maximum growth – After 4-5 days.
* Proper aeration is provided in the culture tank.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 84
 Phytoplankton-zooplankton relationship
Or, Described the inter-relationship between phytoplankton and
zooplankton in a marine environment: [2005,06,07,09,10,11]

Inter relationship means reciprocal relationship. Biologically, the relation which

occurs in various causes between two or more organisms or they dependent
upon each other in many ways are called inter relationship of organism. Among
the various ecological relationships of natural biological groups, phytoplankton-
zooplankton relationship is the fundamental one. Their relationship depends
upon some essential factors.
However, the most precise relationship between phytoplankton and zooplankton
and zooplankton are given below –

A. Relationship to one another for food: -

# In food chain, phytoplankton are primary producers. They synthesize nutritive
organic compounds in their body by photosynthesis, utilizing solar energy, CO2
and H 2O.
Sunlight
nCO2_+ nH2O n (CH2O) + nO2
Chlorophyll

Nutrients in sea water Energy from

Primary production
Phytoplankton

Organic materials
from excretion
Secondary production
Carnivorous, zooplankton and decay of
dead organisms.

Tertiary production
Carnivorous, zooplankton Degeneration by
Bacteria

Dissolved and particulate

organic detritus

Fig – 4.1: Systematic relationship between the recycling of organic carbon and primary, secondary and
tertiary producers.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 85
# But zooplankton can not synthesize their own food. So, they live on
phytoplankton.
# On the other hand, phytoplankton depends on zooplankton in organic nutrient
supply through decomposition of dead body and excretion.

B. Relationship to one another in Biomass pyramid: -

# In aquatic environment the relation between phytoplankton and zooplankton is
designed by a biomass pyramid.
# Graphically, it can say a triangle in which phytoplankton occupies the below
tropic level of the pyramid. Zooplankton occupies a some what larger area
immediately above phytoplankton.

Benthos

Nekton

Zooplankton

Phytoplankton

Fig – 4.2: Biomass pyramid or triangle to show graphical relationship.

C. Relationship for nutrients supply: -

# The excreted materials and dead body of zooplankton are subjected to
microbial decays. Thus organic compounds are broken down into inorganic
nutrients which are brought out in the euphotic zone by means of vertical
movement.
# In a nutrient depended medium, phytoplankton growth is not well at all.
# Many phytoplankton are depended on the zooplankton for the exogenous
changes of vitamin B12.

D. Relationship to the Grazing rate: -

# The theory of grazing was proposed by Harvey (1935). According to this
theory, in those places where zooplankton population is greeted to begin with
the phytoplankton is able to build up in large numbers.
# the inverse qualitative relationship between phytoplankton and zooplankton in
temperate seas is well known.
# In arctic waters, the mid summer phytoplankton peak is reduced by grazing
but there is delay.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 86
# In tropic waters, production of plant cells is almost continuous. Grazing by
herbivorous is steady through out the year.

= Phytoplankton
= Zooplankton

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fig – 4.3: North temperate sea.

= Phytoplankton
= Zooplankton

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fig – 4.4: Arctic seas.

E. Relation to the Exclusion: -
# The inverse phytoplankton and zooplankton relationship has been interpreted
as animal exclusion.
# Exclusion hypothesis proposes that animals areas rich in phytoplankton. E.g. –
Rhizosolenia. Because of some toxic and unpleasant factor.

F. Relation to the Gaseous exchange: -

# Phytoplankton supply O 2 through photosynthetic process in the environment,
which is essential for metabolic purpose of zooplankton.
# On the other hand, CO2 is supplied by the zooplankton through respiration.
CO2 is also essential for the purpose of photosynthesis of phytoplankton.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 87
 CO2

Zooplankton phytoplankton
Respiration photosynthesis

O2

Fig – 4.5: Mutual exchange o gases.

G. Relation to the symbiosis: -

Symbiotic relationship between the phytoplankton and zooplankton has been
reported for example – Blue-green algae are associated with certain protozoa.

Conclusion: -
In a nut shell, we can say phytoplankton and zooplankton are greatly depended
upon each other. The relationship between phytoplankton and zooplankton
plays a vital contribution in the aquatic ecosystem. Without this closed
relationship, the aquatic environment obviously becomes unbalance and
ecosystem may be destroyed.
If phytoplankton does not occur plenty, zooplankton comes into dead-body and
then animals of higher tropic level can not survive. Finally, we can say that
whole aquatic environment is totally depending up to the relationship of
phytoplankton and zooplankton.

Ref:
1. Phytoplankton – A.D. Boney
2. Elements o Marine Ecology – R.V. Tail
3. The Marine and Fresh water plankton – Charles C. Davis

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 88
 Fish-plankton relationship
Fish and plankton relationship:
Organisms living in a particular environment are closely related and depended
on each other. In marine environment there is a good relationship between fish
and plankton whose derives benefits from each other.
There are two types of relationship occur between fish and plankton. They are –
1) Direct relationship
2) Indirect relationship.
However, the most precise relationship between fish and plankton are described
accordingly –

1) Direct Relationship:

a. Feeding: -
There are five types of feeding habit are seen in oceanic environment between
fish and plankton.
* Grazing
* Predation
* Sea venging
* Deposit feeding
* Detritus feeding.

b. Parasitic relationship: -
# Several zooplanktons are parasitic to fish. Among them Crustaceans,
protozoan and worms are most important.
# Certain isopods also occur as fish parasites. The isopods mainly feed by
sucking the body fluids o the host.
Ex: Protozoan – Sporozoans
Crustaceans – Copepods.

c. Mortality relationship: -
# Mortality means dying individuals in a population under a given environment
condition.
# A radish brown discoloration of surface water caused by concentration of
dinoflagellates is also caused red tide. It gives a toxic poisonous substances
which has adverse effect, i.e. – mortality on fisheries. For example, in RS4 red
tide was occurred in west-Flourish beach and caused mortality of huge amount
of fishes.

d. Commensalisms: -
# Bacteria plankton takes shelter to the fish body and produce light organ to the
fish body.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 89
# Bacteria obtain glucose from fish body. On the other hand, fish utilize pyrovic
acid intended bacteria.

e. Migration: -
# The production, distribution and abundance of plankton are often responsible
for fish migration.

f. Balance of O2 and CO2: -

# O 2 is produced by phytoplankton through photosynthesis which is used by fish
during respiration.
# Again, CO2 is produced during respiration of fish which is used by
phytoplankton for photosynthesis.

2) Indirect Relationship:

Fish-plankton relationship in food chain: -

# In food chain fundamental part is the tropic level.
# The successive level nourishment represented by the linic of fish plan is
known as tropic level. Tropic level in fish-plan is known as tropic level. Tropic
level in fish plankton relationship is given below –

1st tropic level Producer level Diatom, dinoflagellates

2nd tropic level Primary consumer Copepods, rotifer.
3rd tropic level Secondary consumer Shrimp, crab.
4th tropic level Tertiary consumer Adult fish

Green plant

Herbivorous

Parasites Carnivorous

Decomposer
Fig – 5.1: Fish-plankton relationship in food chain.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 90
Now, I intend to discuss about the relationship between plankton and fishes of
different stages: -
a. Relationship between plankton and larval fish:

Larval fish

Phytoplankton

Macro-zooplankton

Predators
Fig – 5.2: Plankton-larval fish relationship in food chain.

b. Relationship between plankton and pelagic adult fish:

# there is a fine relationship between plankton and pelagic adult fishes in the
ocean.
c. Relationship between plankton and benthic adult fish:

Adult fish DOM = Dissolved

Organic matter
POM = Particulate
Organic matter
Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

DOM POM

Fig – 5.3: Plankton-fish relationship in food chain.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 91
Bio-geo chemical cycle: -
# Decomposition of dead plankton and fishes by bacteria make the organic
compound into inorganic forms like – CO2, N2, Si, P etc.
# These nutrients are again used by the phytoplankton and thus inter into the
higher tropic levels.

Plants Eaten Herbivorous Eaten Carnivorous

Mineral nutrients Decomposer

Excretes

Fig – 5.4: Fish-plankton relationship through Bio-geo chemical cycle.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 92
 Plankton collecting gears
Different types of Nets and Gears used for plankton sample
collection in coastal area: - [2007]
Plankton collecting gear means the equipments which plankton is caught from
the fresh water, brackish water and marine water. Net is the fast and can not
method for plankton collection. Nets are used numerous type by different way.
i. Sampling with nets
ii. Sampling with bottles
iii. Sampling with pumps
iv. Sampling with dredge.
Type of collection:
i. Vertical collection
ii. Horizontal collection
iii. Oblique collection

Horizontal

Vertical collection:
Collection from a desirable depth on bottom to surface layer is known as
vertical collection. In this method the net is sink vertically in any desirable
depth. After a while the net is taking up out side the water vertically at that time
planktons are trapped in the bucket.

Fig – 6.1: Vertical collection.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 93
Horizontal collection:
In this method the net is thrown in the water and tied behind the moving boat,
ship or trawler and pull horizontally. Plankton is trapped in the bucket of the net
and then the net are taken from the water. In the process the plankton are
collected from a particular layer.

Fig – 6.2: Horizontal collection.

Oblique collection:
For oblique collection net is sink some predominate depth and then pulled at 45o
angle in the water from the ship. It is the combination of other two types of
collection method.

Fig – 6.3: Oblique collection.

Net study:
Net: [2006]
Net is widely used apparatus for collecting plankton and it was apparently first
introduced by Johannes Miller in 1846.
The plankton net consists of filtering cone attached to a metal ring by which the
net is towed through water. The metal ring is attached with three thin rope
bridles spliced or to a smaller ring. The net bucket in which plankton sample is
collected is tied to the end of the net.
Originally the nets are made of finest silk but modern nets are also made nylon,
fiber.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 94
 Warp

Cone of bloting
silk
Bucket

Brides

Fig – 6.4: Standard plankton net.

Types of nets: [2006,08]
The plankton nets are formerly two types. They are –
1) Simple plankton net
2) High speed plankton net.

1) Simple plankton net:

It is used for qualitative and quantative sample collection. The different sample
plankton nets are named below –

Qualitative net:
Ring travel net or,
Standard plankton net.
Quantative net:
1. Nensen net
2. Nansen net
3. Indian ocean net.

2) High speed plankton net:

There are different types of high speed plankton nets. These are –

I. Clark-Bumpus net

II. High gulf – 3 samples

III. Hardy continuous plankton recorder.

IV. Modern otter trawl.

Clark-Bumpus net:
Structure: -
Length – 1.52 m long

Mesh size – 1.57 µm

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 95
 Weight – 11 kg.

Collecting organisms: Zooplankton and Crustacean larvae.

Advantage: -
Horizontal collection is possible from desired depth without contamination.

Disadvantage: -
i. It is difficult to handle.

ii. It can be operated to a limited area.

iii. It is not suitable for fast moving organisms.

iv. It is failed to collect larger plankton.

High gulf – sample:

Invented by Gehringer in 1961. A torpedo shaped open mouthed cylinder is
used to form this net. A net made of monel metal is placed inside the cylinder
and a flow meter at the end of the cylinder measure the water mass passed
through it. It is suitable for qualitative and quantitative collection. It is 5 m long.

Hardly continuous plankton recorder: -

Hardly invented a continuous plankton recorder (1936,1939) which can be
towed behind the research vessels at full speat. It is now in used on several
shipping lanes.

Modern otter trawl: -

This net is a bag like with mouth aperture usually of 8 m. it is used in our
country in lakes, river for ichthyo-plankton collection.

Description of qualitative nets:

Describe the methods used for qualitative collection of plankton and
mention the advantages and disadvantages of the methods: [2011]

Ring travel net: -

A qualitative net of this type is also called a standard plankton net. The basic
shape of this net is like a cone which is made of bolting silk or equivalent
material. The mesh size of this net is vary from (300 – 500) µm. it is usually
100 cm in dia and 4 m length and used for qualitative collection.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 96
Structure: -
Length – 4 m
Diameter – (50-100) cm
Mesh size – 500 µm
Weight – 30 kg

Warp

Neling

Cone

Weight

Fig 6.5: Ring travel net.

Collecting organisms: -
# Small plankton
# Small carly stage of plankton and smallest fish larvae, plant,
zooplankton, phytoplankton.

Advantages: -
i. Net covered a vast area.
ii. Generally low cost.
iii. Operation is easy.

Disadvantages: -
i. Anything smaller than the mesh size can not be trapped.
ii. Some plankton may damage in this process.

Collecting process: -
When the net is towed for collecting plankton, water enter the mouth of the net
and out through the mesh. But anything larger than the size of mesh is trapped
by the nylon around the mesh and thus plankton is collected.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 97
 Determination of plankton biomass, occurrence,
abundance, species richness.
Biomass: [2009]
Biomass is the total weight of the living organisms (plant and animals) in a
given population. It is usually expressed as the weight of organic carbon per
volume of sea water (i.e. mgc/m3). It can also be expressed as total organisms in
the water under a specific area of sea water or grams per square meters.
Diagrammatically, the total biomass of all tropic levels in a food chain can be
represented by a ‘Pyramid’ of biomass. The biomass decreases slightly at each
successive level up to the food chain.

Man/fish Tertiary consumer

Small fish Secondary consumer

Zooplankton Primary consumer

Phytoplankton Producer

Fig – 7.1: Biomass pyramid.

Average biomass in different parts of the ocean are shown below –

Coastal zone – 100-500 g/m2
50-200 m – 200g/m2
About 400 m depth – about 5 g/m 2
Central parts of ocean – 0.01 g/m2

There are different methods for determination of biomass, such as –

1. Settlement volume method
2. Displacement volume method
3. Measurement of dry weight method
4. Measurement of wet weight method
5. Measurement of ash free dry weight method

Significance of Biomass: -
# It is the index of fertility of the sea
# It provides the information of fishery potentialities.
# It gives adequate picture of population dynamics and diversity.
# To determine the productivity and nutritional condition of the species in
question.
# To assers the role of the species in the food chain.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 98
 Determination of biomass
Determination of biomass: [2009]
The biomass of zooplankton is nothing but the total weight or volume of
zooplankton recorded from a unit volume of water at a fixed time. The method
of determine biomass is –
1. Volume method
2. Gravimetric method
3. Individual species – dry weight method.

1. Volume method: -
The volume of zooplankton catch can be determined two ways –
a. Settlement volume
b. Displacement volume

Displacement method: -
In this method the space occupied by the process is measured in terms of the
equivalent volume liquid that they displace.
At first collected through plankton net which is depending on the amount of
concentrated plankton. A micro burette or an ordinary burette is filled with
water to known level, say 0 or 5 ml (initial reading) . The concentrated plankton
is carefully added to the burette and the change in volume (final reading) is
recorded. The difference between the final reading and the initial reading is
recorded as the displacement volume of the zooplankton.

2. Gravimetric method: -
These donate the total weight of planktonic organisms of a concentrate obtained
from a known volume of water. The various gravimetric methods are –
a. Wet weight
b. Dry weight
c. Ash-tree dry weight.
Here, the weight measurement is describe below –

a. Wet weight: -
This is the raw weight of the planktonic organisms with their body fluids. The
collected and concentrated zooplanktons are washed thoroughly with distilled
water to remove adhering sea water. They are than blotted with dry filter paper
and transferred to a pre-weighted dry paper. The weight o the zooplankton and
paper is taken in a monopar balance to the nearest 0.01 mg. the difference
between the final weight and the paper weight is considered the weight of the
zooplankton.

3. Individual species dry weight method: -

The biomass of zooplankton based an individual species dry weight therefore
provides a more realistic determination.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 99
In this method the species dry weight is first obtained by weighting the
individuals of different species of zooplankton collected during the different
periods. These are then dried on pre-weighed cover slips for 24 h at 60o C. the
standered mean weights of such organisms are tabulated from a given table and
taken for the biomass determination.
The individual species biomass is determined by multiplying the mean dry
weight with the density of the species of given sample.
The biomass of the total zooplankton sample is then determined by summing
The dry weight contributions of each zooplankton species.

Zooplankton sp Dry weight

Amphipods 22.5
Prawn 1.2

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 100
 Zooplankton in the coastal water of Bangladesh

Utility of Zooplankton:
Zooplankton abundance and distribution are an index to the fertility of an area
and provides information on the fishery potentiality. It is well recognized that
the richest fishery of the world are closely related to the plankton production
(fraser, 1962)
Zooplankton, consisting to some extent of seawater, contains all the necessary
minerals and contributes to the formation of oil. Zooplankton remains as a huge
reservoir of concentrated vitamin A. The Cyclops, Rotifer and Artemia are
commonly cultured for fish or shrimp larvae as live feed. Acetes and Jelly fish
are used as food in many countries.

Zooplankton in the coastal water of Bangladesh:

* Bangladesh coastal waters are very rich with varieties of zooplankton.
( Jafor,1992,Zafor and Mohmod,1989).
* A survey report of FAO (1985) described that the tidal area of Bangladesh are
relatively rich in zooplankton.
* The estimated number of species of holoplanktonic animal in the world is
about 6000(Omori and Ikeda,1984).
* About 18 major groups of zooplankter were reported from Bangladesh coastal
waters.
* Copepods, Mysids, Lucifers, Acetes, Hydromedusae, Rotifers, Isopods,
Amphipods, Chaetognathus are the common group of permanent zooplankton.

Holoplankton: -
* A total of sixty three species of marine holoplankton belonging to different
toxa namely: Tihtinnide: - Brachionus, Calanoida, Cladocera, Cyclopoida,
Sagitta, Lucifer, Acetes, Mysidacea and Amphipoda have been identified from
the coast of Bangladesh.

Meroplankton: -
* Meroplankton includes all forms of planktonic larvae, both fish and Macro-
invertebrates. More than 125000 species of fauna have a free swimming larvae
stage in the marine environment. A total of 72 species of post larvae were been
found under 41 families and the clupeiforms was recorded as the highest order
representing many species 15 species of shrimp post larvae were recorded under
the family penacidae and belongs to the pelaemonidae.

Percentage composition: -
* Generally copepod is the most dominant group in the oceanic environment. In
the mangrove area of Bangladesh Mysids was the dominant group. The yearly
percentage composition of zooplankton groups in order of abundance were
Mysids 65.19%, Copepods 15.87%, Amphipods 6.07%, Crab larvae 3.02%,
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 101
Acetons 2.85%, Chaetognathas 1.64%, Shrimp larvae 1.22%, Finfish larvae
1.05%, Hydromedusae 0.06%. Lucifer 0.05%, Polychates 0.02%, Squilla larvae
0.005%, Horse shoe crab larvae 0.00005 % and other zooplankter occupied
2.98% in the Sathkhira estuarine area.
* Copepod was the most dominant group and occupied 94.3% in zooplankton
population in the Kutubdia channel. Mysids were the top dominant group and
obtained 43.39% of the zooplankton in the Naf River.

Abundance: -
Higher density of zooplankton was recorded in monsoon period (June-
September). Generally zooplankton abundance is positively corrected with
phytoplankton, because zooplankton feed on the phytoplankton. In the coastal
area of Bangladesh abundance of zooplankton not showed significant
relationship with phytoplankton especially in the monsoon period.

Distribution:
Temporal: - [2008]
The maximum number of zooplankton was found during monsoon in the coastal
water of Bangladesh. TWINSPAN analysis reveals that hydromedusae, mysids
and squilla larvae were the major indicator group and they represented only <
1% of the zooplankton population. All the dominant groups (Copepods
Chaetognathas, Crab larvae, fish larvae, Shrimp PL, mollusk larvae etc.)
showed similar seasonal variations and their peak recruitment during south-west
monsoon period (April-September) in the Kutubdia channel.

Spatial: - [2008]
Different groups of zooplankton are generally varies one place to another due to
the influence of physico-chemical, geo-morphological and biological
parameters. PCA analysis in the Kutubdia channel of four sampling stations
clearly showed the variation in different group of zooplankton.

Surface-bottom: -
Surface bottom variations were showed two species of Lucifer ([Link] and L.
orientalis) in the Mathamuhuri confluence of Chakaria Sundarban area during
May 1982-April 1983.

Day-night: -
Acetone abundance showed significant difference between day and night
occurrence in the Goalarkoom area of Mathamuhuri river confluence (P =
0.030, F = 4.97, N = 48). The maximum occurrence was recorded at night
except in monsoon months (August-September), in the period of May1982-
April 1984.

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Ecological role of zooplankton:
* Lambeuf (1987) and Zafar (1989) started that the geo-climatic environment of
the Bay of Bangle, particularly the Bangladesh portion, is dominated by three
factors.
a) Wind direction
b) Precipitation under the influence of tropical monsoon climate
c) River discharge
also related to the monsoon but intensified by the fact that major river system in
India, Bangladesh and Myanmar empty into the Bay of Bangle. These factors
have strong influence on the marine environment as they affect, to a varying
extend and in varying time sequence, the water circulation, salinity, turbidity,
productivity and bottom topography. A marked seasonal fluctuation in salinity,
dissolved oxygen, water temperature and suspended particles were observed in
the Kutubdia channel.
* In that area southwest monsoon was promoting productivity of zooplankton,
which is subsequently correlated to the highest biological activities and on the
other hand decreasing phytoplankton concentration.

Biochemistry analysis: -
Zafar (2000) studied the bio-chemical composition of two dominant planktonic
Acetes shrimp (A. indicus, A. erythraeus) of the Mathamuhuri river confluence.
A significant amount of protein, 13-14 % of the weight and (65%) of sun dried
samples, high amount of calcium (1 ± 0.010 g/100g) and lower concentration of
radioactivity (137 Cs 0.09 ± 0.02, 40 K 9.83 ± 0.79, 138U 0.8 ± 0.01 and 232 The
0.32 ± 0.09), and chitin contents (3.9 ± 0.2 g/ 100g) were recorded.

Conclusion: -
The coastal area of Bangladesh has endless plankton resources, which have not
yet been surveyed properly. So it is clear that a lot of research works will be
required to fill the knowledge as regards to marine plankton of Bangladesh
coastal waters especially in the fields of taxonomy, biology, culture system, bio-
chemical composition and calorific value etc.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 103
 Short note
Standing Crop
Standing crop:
In general terms the “Standing crop” is the weight of plant materials that can be
sampled or harvested by normal methods at any given time from a given area.
The “Standard crop” of plankton is used to express the amount of organisms
present at a given time of a given area per unit volume.

Environmental factor: -
Light and water turbidity determine both the variable depths of photosynthesis
zone and light intensity. Rate of cropping and degree of turbulence are
significant for carrying large number of cells below the photosynthesis zone for
long period. Temperature changes the rate of growth in light and to higher
respiratory losses in dark.

Productivity: -
The productivity of standing crop is low in the central gyres, a condition termed
oligo-trophic. The sub-polar gyres, by contrast, are high in productivity, a
condition termed eu-trophic.

Measurement: -
The standing crops of phytoplankton in the oceans are a difficult actor to
measure accurately. Two methods are used for measuring the standing crops –
1) Chlorophyll method
2) Biomass method.

Significance of standing crop: -

# It is the index of the fertility of the sea.
# It provides information of fishery potentialities.
# It gives adequate picture of population dynamics.
The standing crop is the result of the difference between the factors tending to
increase the number of individuals, namely reproduction and growth and those
factors tending to decrease the numbers of individuals death and sinking. If
reproduction and growth rate is high and death and sinking rate is low, then
standing crop will be high and “vice-versa”

Biomass

Biomass: [2008,11]
Biomass is the total weight of the living organisms (plant and animals) in a
given population. It is usually expressed as the weight of organic carbon per
volume of sea water (i.e. mgc/m3). It can also be expressed as total organisms in
the water under a specific area of sea water or grams per square meters.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 104
Diagrammatically, the total biomass of all tropic levels in a food chain can be
represented by a ‘Pyramid’ of biomass. The biomass decreases slightly at each
successive level up to the food chain.

Man/fish Tertiary consumer

Small fish Secondary consumer

Zooplankton Primary consumer

Phytoplankton Producer

Fig: Biomass pyramid

Average biomass in different parts of the ocean are shown below –

Coastal zone – 100-500 g/m2
50-200 m – 200g/m2
About 400 m depth – about 5 g/m 2
Central parts of ocean – 0.01 g/m2

There are different methods for determination of biomass, such as –

6. Settlement volume method
7. Displacement volume method
8. Measurement of dry weight method
9. Measurement of wet weight method
10. Measurement of ash free dry weight method

Significance of Biomass: -
# It is the index of fertility of the sea
# It provides the information of fishery potentialities.
# It gives adequate picture of population dynamics and diversity.
# To determine the productivity and nutritional condition of the species in
question.
# To assers the role of the species in the food chain.

Methods of biomass measurement

Methods of biomass measurement:
Different methods of biomass measurement are as follow –
# Chlorophyll – a method
# ATP method
# Dry weigh method
# Cell surface method
# Bio – volume method
# Nitrogen method.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 105
Chlorophyll–a method:
Chlorophyll – a is a algal biomass indicator. By assuming that chlorophyll
constitute of the average 15% of the dry weight organic matter of algae. It can
estimate the biomass by multiplying the chlorophyll content.

Equipments and reagent: -

1. Filter paper
2. Steam
3. 90% acetone
4. Spectrophotometer
5. Calorimeter

Producer: -
In order to remove zooplankton the water is first filtered through a coarse net.
The remain in the filter which contains bacteria and detritus as well as
phytoplankton is kept in steam for 45 second to breakdown the chlorophylls.
Then highly dried and bought into 90% acetone for 20 hours and put in dark.
To estimate the chlorophyll, the extinction of the acetone extract is determined
in a spectrophotometer at length correspond to the absorption maximum for
chlorophyll a, b, c.

Calculation: -
The equation for calculation the quantity of chlorophyll is –
Here,
µg chlorophyll/m3 = e/v V = volume of water filtered
e = volume of calculated from the formula

e( chlorophyll) = 11.6E665 – 1.31E645 – 0.14E630

Here,
E665 = The extinction measured at 665nm.
E645 = The extinction measured at 645nm.
E630 = The extinction measured at 630nm.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 106
ATP – Method:
The most recently develop method o measuring ATP in plankton provided the
only means of determine total available plankton biomass. ATP occurring to
plants and animals but only in living cells. It is not associated with non-living
particulate materials. The ratio of ATP to biomass varies some what from
species to species, but appears to be biomass from ATP measurement.

Equipment and reagent:

1. Glass ware, clean sterile, dry Pyrex flasks, beaker and pipette.
2. Filter-47 mm, 0.45 µm porosity membrane filter.
3. Boiling water.
4. Freezing -20o C.
5. Filtration equipment.
6. Detection instruments, designed specially for measuring are
currently available.
7. Micro-sysing; 10,25,50,100,250 ml.
8. Reaction euventters and vials.
9. Tris-buffer
10. Lucifer in.
Purified ATP standered for instrument calibration. Dissolve 12.3 mg disodium
ATP in litter distilled water and dilute 1.0 ml – 100 ml with tris-buffer.

Calculation:
Following equation is used to calculate the calibration factor.

Fs = E/SA Here,
Fs = Calibration factor at sensivity.
e = concentration of ATP in standard solution mg/ml
SA = Peak reading or means area under standard ATP carve
correlated or back.
The concentration of ATP is a sample is calculated by using equation below –
Here,
CA× Ev× F CA = Mean correlated area under extract
carves.
ATP mg/L = EV = External
V V = Volume of sample
Fs = Calibration factor.
The total plankton biomass is given below –

PB/mg/L = ATP/mg/L Here,

2.4×100 PB = Plankton biomass as dry weight
Organic matter.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 107
 Red Tide
Red tide: [2011]
Some times the abundance of phytoplankton in the sea water becomes so greater
as to discolour the water to reddish or yellowish blue. Some occurrence of
reddish colour in water body also associated with dinoflagellates is termed as
red tide.
Or,
Discoloration of surface seawater owing to high concentration of microscopic
organisms (especially dinoflagellates) is called the red tide. Actually red tide is
a–
1. Reddish brown discoloration of surface water.
2. Usually takes place in coastal areas.
3. Caused by high concentration of microscopic organisms usually
dinoflagellates.
If dinoflagellates extremely abundant (2-8 million/L) the cumulative effect of
all the toxics released such extreme concentration or bloom of dinoflagellates
causes red tide. It is responsible for the massive mortality of organisms
especially fish and invertebrates.
The organisms associated with red tide belong to three main groups. They are –
i. Diatoms
ii. Dinoflagellates: Gymonodinium brevis, Gonyavl tamarensis,Noctiluca
miliaris etc.
iii. Blue green - algae: Trichodesmium
In estuaries and tropical waters blue-green Trichodesmium sp is responsible for
red tide. In temperate waters, dinoflagellates responsible include Noctilvca
miliaris, Gonyavlax sp etc.

Effect of red tide: -

# Toxins produce by dinoflagellates may kill fish directly.
# The fishes of red tide regions are toxic. These fishes are suitable for man’s
food.
# When men take red tide regions water, they can have vomiting. Even if men
bathe in the red tide waters, they may suffer skin diseases.
# The over blooming organisms of red tide region may use up the O2 in the
surface water to cause suffocation of many animals.

Control of red tide: -

1. Introduction of vit-B12 destroying bacteria.
2. Encouragement of nature predators that eat phytoplankton.
3. Copper poisons to control the production of red tides.

Not all red tide are toxic. Nocticula a dinoflagellates may turn the sea water
colour of tomato soup, but it is not toxic. The red sea and Gulf of California at
times get their red colour from certain species of blue-green algae
(Trichodesmium sp) which is not toxic.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 108
 Red-Sea
Red-sea:
Area the Red sea: Red sea is extending from 12o N – 30o N Latitude. It is
extends 1900 km north at the narrow straits of Bab- et-Mandeles, to the northern
tip of the Sinaipeninsula from African main land.
Forming the eastern boundary of the Senaipeninsula is the Gulf of Aqaba, which
is an eastern branch of the northern end of the Red sea.
The maximum width of the Red-sea is more than 300 km occurs in the southern
end between Ethiopia and Yemen.

Ecological condition: -
# Surface salinity – 42.5 ppt
# Surface temperature – 30o C during summer and 18oC in winter.
# Deep sea temperature – (21 – 27) o C
# Deep water salinity – 40.6 ppt
# Dissolved O2 – 2-3 ml/L in the bottom.
# Maximum depth – 2800 m
# Minimum depth – 100 m

Organisms: -
The Red sea lies in a highly arid region. The deeper parts of the bottom are
colonized chiefly by gastropods and decapods crustaceans. Many groups of
animals such as – sponges, echinodermata etc are found in the shallow water.

Nanoplankton
Nanoplankton: [2005,07,09,11]
The composition of both plant and animals is known as nanoplankton. It is very
minute planktonic organisms. In plankton, those organisms whose size is about
5 to 6 µ are called nanoplankton. It is included the diatom, dinoflagellates,
coccolithophores, protozoans and bacteria.
The whole nanoplankton are divided into two orders –
1. Coccolithophores
2. Microflagellates.

1. Coccolpthophores: -
Family – Coccolithophoridae
Sub family – 1. Coccolithophorinae
2. Syracosphaeninal.

Characters: -
# 5 – 20 µ in size
# Cells are motile
# Calcareous (CaCl3) present.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 109
2. Microflagellates: -
Family – Diliocoflagedae

Characters: -
# 1 -20 µ in size.
# Generally planktonic.
# Unicellular.
# Siliceous substances are present.
# Skeletons are present.
Use: -
The nanoplankton plays an important role in the grazing food chain in the
ocean.

Diurnal migration
Diurnal migration:
Migration may be define as the periodic movement of an organism from one
place to another is a particular season or time for various purpose such as
feeding, breeding, avoidance adverse condition and also for survival aspect.
In aquatic environment, it is the movement of fish or any other invertebrates and
vertebrates from feeding ground to spawning ground or back again from nursery
ground to feeding ground and from spawning ground to nursery ground.
The migration which occurs during day-night is called diurnal migration. Many
planktons in both marine and fresh water situation make more or less extensive
diurnal migration. Such migration may be towards the surface at night when
temperature is low and twilight present and down into the depth at day time
when the light is excess. Some this migration is reverse of this with the towards
the surface, at day time and back to the depth at night.

Causes of diurnal migration: -

Aber of attempts has been made to explain the stimulus that regulates diurnal
migrations. The most important of these are –
# Phototropism
# Interaction of phototropism and geotropism.
# Temperature change
# Hunger
# Physiological rhythm.

Merits: -
1. It provides the elimination of gross and net production and respiration at a
time.
2. Required instruments and reagents are available, inexpensive and convenient
in handling.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 110
Demerits: -
1. If water samples enclosed in bottles for period, the results can very.
2. This method has limitation to high production rates exceeding about 50
mgc/m2/day.

Precaution: -
The O2 concentration of initial bottle is measured as quickly as possible.

Light and Dark Bottle method

Light and Dark Bottle method:

The systematic discussion of ‘Light and Dark bottle method’ which is described
originally by wrinkler for the measurement of primary production is given
below –

Principle: -
During photosynthesis O2 is produced along with organic matter. O2 is produced
in amounts directly related to the rate of organic production. Therefore,
productivity can be measured by determining the amount of O2 produced in
given period of time with respect of photosynthesis process.
Sunlight
nCO2 + nH2O (CH2O) n+ nO2
Chlorophyll

Instrument: -
ii. A nansen bottle for water sample
iii. BOD bottle for each measurement – one is pointed and another is
transparent.
iv. Burette
v. Pipette
vi. Conical flask
vii. Other materials.

Reagent: -
i. Potassium iodide (KI)
ii. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
iii. Sodium thiosulphate ( Na2S2O3)
iv. Starch solution

Procedure: -
1. At first water sample are collected from the different depth of the selected
station by dark and light bottle.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 111
2. Then samples from each depth are taking using the technique. Two lights and
one dark bottle are used for each depth.
3. Then one dark and one light bottle are returned to their original depth for
incubation. The time is recorded.
4. Removing the bottles from each depth are fixed with wrinkler oxygen
reagents and O2 concentration of water sample is determined by titration.
5. After 24 hours the suspended bottles are recorded and O2 concentration is
determined.

Calculation: -
From the different O2 concentration measured we can calculate –
Respiration(R) = IB – DB
Net production (NP) = LB – IB gc/m2/day
Gross production (GP) = NP+R gc/m2/day Where,
= LB – IB +IB – DB IB= Initial bottle
= LB – DB R = Respiration
NP = Net production
LB = Light bottle
DB = Dark bottle
GP = Gross production

Indicator Species
Indicator species: [ 2008,09,10,11]
Many species are carried passively by currents into different areas from those in
which they normally live and breed. If now we consider the problem
conversely, those exotic animals whose development history, habitat, and
source are known become invaluable indication of the source of the currents or
water masses in which they are found. For most reliable use of indicator species
the following pre-requirements are necessary –
# Exact identification of the species because varieties of organisms involved
must be possible.
# Their preparative and sterile distribution must be satisfactorily known.
# Their morphological stages of development in the life history must be known
or must be deducible because it indicates their groups to which they belong.
# It should be known to what extent ecological adjustment can be made by
migrations into deeper or shallower water in the extended geographical
distribution.
# A clear distinction must be made between the animals brought in form from
outside geographical distribution.
# Organisms transported from a common centre of distribution are of more
valuable than those occasionally strays.
Ex. Copepods and Mysids are considered as the indicator species.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 112
 Nekton
Nekton:
The term ‘Nekton’ may be defined as the larger aquatic animal which can swim
sufficient strongly and to be able to control their movement irrespective of wind
and currents.
The nekton comprises those organisms that have developed power of
locomotion. Such animals are not only capable of determining their own
position within relatively small areas of the ocean but also capable in many
cases of long migration. In fact, they are capable of moving at will through the
water.
The oceanic nekton is composed of a wide variety of bony fishes, sharks, rays,
squid, marine mammals and marine reptiles.

Fig: A representative of Nekton.

The freely moving nektons, with some exceptions, are not able to move. By the
presence of invisible barriers, they are effectively limited in their lateral range.
Gradual changes in temperature, salinity, viscosity and availability of nutrients
create impenetrable barriers.
Nekton appears to be every where but is normally considered to be more
abundant near continents and islands and in colder waters. But they are able to
migrate for breeding purpose. Nektonic fishes also undertake extensive
horizontal migrations that are equivalent in distance of those taken by the air
breathers.
Example: Bottle nosed dolphin, Nurse Shark, barracuda, striped bass, deep
ocean fishes, squid, angler fish, lantern fish, gulper etc.

An Ideal Plankton Net

An ideal plankton net: [ 2009]
The apparatus which is generally used for collecting plankton is called plankton
net. His net is used most probably from the very beginning of the plankton
collection.
Inventor: -
The plankton net was introduced by Johannes Melter in 1846.
Shape: -
The basic shape of plankton net is cone. It is made up of silk, that’s why this net
is still sometimes called the silk tow net.
Different parts of plankton net: -
Generally an ideal plankton net is made up of the following parts –
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 113
a) Bucket: -
# Sample collector.
# Made by plastic or glass jar.
# Attached with the terminal portion of the net by nylon rope.
# It is may be of many designs.
b) Net: -
# Main parts of the net which is made up of silk. But modern net are
almost made of nylon.
# Mesh size depends upon collecting plankton.
# Attached to canvas cloth in front and terminal portion of the bucket
behind.

c) Ring: -
# Round and strong.
# Made by brass.
# Waters run through this portion.
d) Bridle: -
# A con of blotting silk mounted on a ring or hoop to which are attached
three thin ropes.
# Made by cod or wire.
e) Warp: -
# attach with the picks of bridles and back portion of tow net.
# Made by wire or rope.
f) Mesh size: -
# Mesh size of 500 µ for quantitative samples collection.
# Mesh size of 150-175 µ for fish larvae.
# Mesh size of 30-35 µ for early stages of fishes and plants.

Warp
Net ring
Net

Bucket
Bridle

Weight

Fig: An ideal plankton net

Collecting process: -
An ideal net is towed from the boat horizontally or vertically. The water will
enter into the mouth and pass out through the mesh. Anything larger than the
size of mesh will be trapped by the nylon around the mesh and so captured.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 114
 Critical Depth
Critical depth:
The depth to which plants can be mixed and at which the total photosynthesis
for the water column is not equal to the total respiration (of primary producer) is
known as critical depth.
Photosynthesis rate = Respiration rate.
In other word, the depth below the surface at which mechanical mixing can
disperse the phytoplankton before the net primary productivity becomes zero is
known as the critical depth. At critical depth, total photosynthesis is less than
respiration. i.e. –
Photosynthesis rate < Respiration rate.
The depth below the surface at which mechanical mixing can dispose the
phytoplankton before the net primary productivity become zero.
Prediction: -
The concept of critical depth was first suggested by Gram and Braarud (1935)
and developed into a mathematical model by Severdrup (1953).
Characters: -
# The average light intensity for the water column is equals the compensation
light intensity.
# Light can not penetrate because it is 200 m below.
# Phytoplankton can not survive due to lack of light.

Io
Photosynthesis
(P)

Depth

Compensation depth
(Pc =Rc)

Critical depth (Pc < Rc)

Fig: Showing the critical depth.

Critical depth of any water column can be determined by the following equation
–
0.5 Io Here,
Der = Io = Surface radiation
Ick Ic = Compensation light intensity
K = Extinction co efficient

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 115
Productivity: -
At the compensation depth the photosynthesis of a cell (pc) is equal to its
respiration (Rc); above this depth there is a net gain from photosynthesis, i.e.
Photosynthesis > Respiration.
And below this there is net loss, i.e.
Photosynthesis < Respiration.

Compensation Depth
Compensation depth: [ 2007]
The depth where the material produced by the photosynthesis is equal to the
material requirements of plant respiration.
In other word, the depth at which the rate of Respiration of a plant is just equal
to the rate of photosynthesis is called the compensation depth. i.e.
Photosynthesis = Respiration.
Depth: -
The compensation depth is always less than the critical depth, i.e.
Compensation depth < Critical depth.

Variation of depth: -
The compensation depth varies over the world oceans because it is depend upon
the clarity of water. The clearer the water, the greater the light penetration and
the deeper the compensation depth. In general the compensation depth is deeper
in clear open ocean waters and shallower in inshore waters where large amount
of particulate matters are found.
The compensation depth varies not only in different geographic areas of the
world’s ocean but also from day to day and season to season.
Remark: -
A population can not be sustained below this depth which will be greater in the
open ocean than the near shore.
Productivity: -
Above this depth, photosynthesis exceeds respiration and there is a net primary
production. This area is also called the trophogenic zone. Below the
compensation depth respiration dominates. This area is called the tropholytic
zone.
Cyclopoid Copepod
Cyclopoid copepod:
Cyclopoid copepod is a zooplankton. Under the class crustacean of the phylum
Arthropoda. The systematic position of cyclopoid copepod is –
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Crustacea Calanoida
Sub-Class – Copepoda
Order – Cyclopoid Cyclopoida
Family – Cyclopoidae Harpacticoida
Genus – Cyclopoida
Species – Cyclopoida sp.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 116
Characteristics: -
# The locomotory antennules are very large.
# Antennae is relatively short and uniranious.
# Five pairs of thoracic segments present.
# A pair of caudal styles present.
# Single median eye is present on the dorsal surface of the carapace.

Fig: Cyclopoid copepod

Considered as an indicator species: -

# A seasonal migration is observed in cyclopoid.
# The zooplanktonic cyclopoid copepod is an active Glimmer.
# It makes sudden Jerk movement.
# The mouth parts of the cyclopoid contribute little to swimming and it depend
primarily on the antennae and thoracic legs. So, it is moderately and good
swimmers.
# Because of its interesting activities it is considered as an indicator species
among the zooplankton.

Rotifer
Rotifer:
Rotifer is microscopic, aquatic animals which are the feed for different kinds of
larvae. Branchionous, Pliocatilis is a well known rotifer.

Characteristics: -
# Tiny structure, generally microscopic and multicellular organisms.
# Bilaterally symmetrical organisms.
# No special mouth to take food.
# Circulatory and respiratory system are absent.
# Body consists of small cells.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 117
 Krill
Krill: [2007,10]
The name krill is derived from Norwegian ‘Krill’ which means whale food is
generally used to refer to a group of about 85 species of crustaceans.

Characteristics: -
# They are planktonic, shrimp like crustacean of moderate size up to 6 cm (2.5
inches)
# Head is fused with some of the body segments.
# Carapace present that covers the anterior half of the body like armour.

Habitat: -
They are extremely common in polar waters.

Food habitat: -
Most of the krill are filter feeders that feed on diatom and other plankton.

Uses: -
# They are exclusive food for whales, penguins and many types of fishes.
# They are rich in protein and vitamin. So people have been slow to develop a
taste for krill.

Seston
Seston:
The suspended particles those are present in the sea water collectively known as
seston. The suspended particles may be from both plant and animals. It is one of
the biotic factors of plankton that affects on growth, abundance and distribution
of plankton directly or indirectly. It has two main components namely –
ii. The living plankton
iii. The mass of non-living suspended matters.
The second group contains two types of substances –
a) The decayed organisms and
b) Fragments
Seston is biologically important in several different purposes, such as –
# Light is absorbed by suspended particles, which is important only in the
surface sea water for proper phytoplankton production. Because some of violet
and ultra-violet rays are harmful for production.
# The organic constituents of the seston represents as the source of food for
many pelagic animals.
# Some components of the seston serve as the substrate for micro-organisms.
Seston is harmful in some purposes –
It absorbed light from the euphotic zone, reduces the depth of the photosynthetic
zone and also the compensation depth. So, it is very harmful for phytoplankton
production, abundance and distribution.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 118
 Upwelling
Upwelling:
The process by which water rises from a lower depth to a higher depth usually
as a result of divergence and offshore currents is known as upwelling.

Depth: -
In the mixing process of deep water with surface water, the depth may more
common between 100 m to 200 m.

Occurrence: -
Upwelling most prominent wind blow parallel to a coant line so that resultant
wind drive current sets away from the coant.

Importance: -
# Upwelling constitutes a distinct climatogenic influence by bringing colder
water to the surface.
# The upwelling water besides being cooler is rich in plant nutrients so this
region is rich in fisheries e.g. Caribbean current, Peru current, Venezuela
current, California currents, West Australian current which all are the upwelling
areas and these areas are highly productive when upwelling occurs.
# About 90% of the world’s fin fish fisheries occurs in areas of upwelling which
constitute only 3% of the total area of the ocean.
# In the northern Hemisphere the winds must blow south along the cort to
upwelling to occur in the southern Hemisphere this prolen is reverse. So coastal
upwelling keeps with the.

Upwelling area is rich in fishery

Upwelling area is rich in fishery: [2005,07,08,10]
The process by which water from a lower to higher depth usually as a result of
divergence and offshore currents. Thus process mixing depth water with surface
water.
Upwelling of deeper water occurs when currents carry away the surface water.
It brings the nutrients to the surface lighted area. It is very helpful for the
growth of the phytoplankton. Thus it becomes most production in marine area
covering 20% of the ocean surface and gets great biological significance. Food
particles are the key actor of plankton living conditions. For this the plankton
showed greatly relationship between them in that condition. It is true that the
richest fisheries are of the world are related to the richest plankton production.
Basically the whole lives of fish growth, breeding, migration are closely related
with plankton.
In major upwelling areas relatively deep waters from 100-200 m is brought up
in the surface and constant supply of nutrients is carried in the upper lighted
zone.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 119
An adult pelagic fish such as herrings, rackers, tune directly plankton feeds. The
copepods mainly Calgun is an important part of the herring food. For this
upwelling area is important both to the phytoplankton density and the
zooplankton and ultimately to the nekton. Those who are carnivorous or
herbivorous that survives in this region. So upwelling area is rich in both
plankton and fishery.

P/B Ratio
P/B ratio: [2005, 06, 07]
P/B ratio means productivity of biomass ratio. Before showing P/B ratio we
have to know about the definition of productivity and biomass.
The amount of organic matters are synthesized by organisms from inorganic
substances in unit time is a given volume of water is termed as productivity. On
the other hand productivity of an aquatic ecosystem refers to an increase in
production of the rate of change of a population per square meter or per cubic
meter of water.
Biomass is the total weight of living matter in a population. This usually
expressed in term of living or dry weight per unit area. It may be compared to a
standing crop in a field or land.
There is a great inter-relation between biomass and productivity. If biomass is
increased, the productivity is decreased. For example – in a forest land the
biomass is very large, but the productivity rate is very low.

Bacteria : Phytoplankton : Zooplankton : Small fish : Higher organism

10,000 : 1,000 : 100 : 10 : 1

Factors to be considered during laboratory culture for

phytoplankton:
I. Light – around 700 feet candle.
II. Temperature – (21-28)o C.
III. Salinity – (0-28) ppt (best growth 20-24ppt).
IV. pH – (7-7.5)
V. Nutrients – Phosphorus and nitrogen.
VI. Element – 0.50 mg/L
VII. Inhabitors – Nitzchia sp act as an important inhabitor for diatom growth.

“Fluctuation of salinity greatly influences the physiology of

planters”. Justify the statement with special reference to osmotic
regulatory system.
The usual measure of the constituents of the sea water is called sea water
salinity. Salinity can be regarded as the total amount of dissolved salt in grams
contained in one kilogram of sea water.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 120
Salinity of water is most important factor in maintaining the proper osmotic
relationship between the protoplasm and surrounding water. The physiology of
any aquatic organism may keep balance osmotically by three possible condition
of concentration of water and salt in the body composition to the environment.

1. Isotonic: -
Salt solution of both inside and outside of the body is equal such as plankton of
fresh water.

Fresh water
Plankton body

2. Hypotonic: -
Salt solution in the body is below than that of environment such as brackish
water plankton.

Brackish water

Plankton body

3. Hypertonic: -
Salt solution in the body is higher than that of surrounding such as marine water
plankton.

Marine water
Plankton body

We are fluctuation of salinity in plankton body as below –

Plankton Salinity
Phytoplankton > 20 ppt
Zooplankton 32-35 ppt
Generally 25-35 ppt
More 25-35 ppt
Less 0-0.5 ppt

On the basis of mentioned fluctuation of salinity we can classified all marine

organisms into two types –
1. Stenohaline (narrow range salinity tolerance)

2. Euryhaline (wide range salinity tolerance)

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 121
The variation of salinity selected the composition or type of species that make
the population. It is not same every where in the ocean and particular organisms
has a particular range of salinity tolerance beyond which it will die. So, we see
that the fluctuation of salinity greatly influence the physiology of plankters.

Further in sea water, the principal captions are Na, Mg, Ca, P where as the
principal anion are Cl2, SO4, Bo and bi-carbonate which greatly influence the
physiology of plankters. The ionic composition of their concentration of
potassium, Mg, sulphate.

There is a rather higher proportion of potassium to sodium in the fluids where as

less magnesium sulphate. External salinity changes usually produce
corresponding changes in the concentration of internal fluids by passages of
water in or out of the body.

These changes are often accompanied by alternation in the proportion of the

constituent ions of internal fluids. Beyond limits which differ for different
species departure from the internal medium, causes metabolic disturbances and
eventual depth.

So, we can easily comment that the fluctuation of salinity greatly influence the
physiology of plankters osmotically and ionically.

The temporal distribution of ichthyo-plankton in the south

eastern coastal waters of Bangladesh/Kutubdia channel:
[2005,07,11]
Due to changes in temperature, nutrients, salinity, light transparency and
rainfall, Ichthyoplankton in the south eastern coastal waters of Bangladesh show
temporal distribution which are represented below –

November – February: -
In this period rainfall is negligible and transparency of nutrients is less to fish,
so a peak of ichythyoplankton is seen.

March – April: -
No peak is seen due to less transparence of water and nutrients.

May – August: -

Rapidly decreased ichthyoplankton in June due to light rainfall but in July a

high peaks to seen for optimum salinity. And again peak decreased in August.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 122
September – October: -
The greatest abundance of ichthyoplankton is seen in this period due to
enrichment of nutrients.

Diagrammatically the temporal distribution of ichthyoplankton represented

below –

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

N D J F M A M J J A S
Fig: Temporal distribution of ichthyo-plankton.

High speed plankton net

High speed plankton net: -
There are different types of high speed plankton nets. These are –

V. Clark-Bumpus net

VI. High gulf – 3 samples

VII. Hardy continuous plankton recorder.

VIII. Modern otter trawl.

Clark-Bumpus net:
Structure: -
Length – 1.52 m long
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 123
 Mesh size – 1.57 µm

Weight – 11 kg.

Collecting organisms: Zooplankton and Crustacean larvae.

Advantage: -
Horizontal collection is possible from desired depth without contamination.

Disadvantage: -
v. It is difficult to handle.

vi. It can be operated to a limited area.

vii. It is not suitable for fast moving organisms.

viii. It is failed to collect larger plankton.

High gulf – sample:

Invented by Gehringer in 1961. A torpedo shaped open mouthed cylinder is
used to form this net. A net made of monel metal is placed inside the cylinder
and a flow meter at the end of the cylinder measure the water mass passed
through it. It is suitable for qualitative and quantitative collection. It is 5 m long.

Hardly continuous plankton recorder:

Hardly invented a continuous plankton recorder (1936,1939) which can be
towed behind the research vessels at full speat. It is now in used on several
shipping lanes.

Modern olter trawl:

This net is a bag like with mouth aperture usually of 8 m. it is used in our
country in lakes, river for ichthyoplankton collection.

Micro-nutrients
Micro-nutrients:
Allen and Nelson(1910) suggested that even all the known inorganic nutrients
were available in sufficient quantities the culture would not flourish. So, it is
clear that the need of both organic and inorganic micro-nutrients. The micro-
nutrients or vitamin like substances must be present in sea water in small
amounts for healthy growth of many phytoplankton or marine algae.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 124
Vitamins of the B-complex are obviously commonly needed. Vitamin B-12 or
cobalamin is essential for the growth of a number of dinoflagellates, diatoms
such Skeletonema coastatum.

Inshore water it is present the amount of 5-10 mµg/L and offshore water 2
mµg/L and euphotic zone 0.6 mµg/L which is very important for phytoplankton.
Other vitamin much thiamin and biotin is growth promoting and inhabiting.

With this some vitamin like substances cystine and divalent sulphur is essential
for the growth o some diatoms. Some time this substance gottened toxicity like
“red tide” is very harmful for plants and animals.

Lastly it is clear that this micro-nutrients influence the settlement, distribution

and also breeding of marine organisms. So, the productivity of sea is affected by
the most important substance such as vitamins.

Seasonal succession
Seasonal succession: [2005]
The changes in dominant species from season to season are called seasonal
succession. It would appear to be a very wide spread phenomenon among the
phytoplankton. Phytoplankton normally consists of hetegenous collection of
[Link] seasonal succession of plankton communities are also varied in
different region due to their environmental condition.

Causes of seasonal succession: -

The main causes that influence the seasonal succession are follows-
1. Changes in temperature
2. Changes in light intensity.
3. Changes in nutrient concentration.
4. Occurrence of herbivorous animal.
Among the mentioned causes temperature is a major factor affecting the
succession of [Link] species undoubtedly have different temperature
and light requirements and it could be particular species predominant at a
particular season because the prevailing temperature and light condition furious
it.
Salinity with the intensity, quality and daily duration of light has so many
possibilities of adaptation and interaction with other factors.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 125
 Phytoplankton bloom
Phytoplankton bloom: - [2006]
Plankton bloom is the excess growth of a group of plankton or one species of
plankton caused by the excess of nutrients like N2, P, and other favourite
environment effects in an ecosystem.
There are mainly two types of plankton bloom.
a. Seasonal plankton bloom.
b. Non-seasonal plankton bloom.
Again, seasonal plankton bloom are two type, they are-
1. Spring bloom.
2. Autumn bloom.

The causes of phytoplankton bloom:

Or, The factors responsible for phytoplankton bloom:

It is very difficult to determine precisely all the causes of phytoplankton

[Link] common causes of phytoplankton bloom is described below –

1. Nutrients:-
In cases of general blooms of phytoplankton it seems obvious that the most
frequent cause lies in an increase of available plant nutrients, such an increase
may come about in one of a number of ways.

2. Wind:-
Most phytoplankton appears during the season when the trade winds are
[Link] wind stored up the bottom deposits, liberating accumulated
nutrients into the water and this way passing the way for increasing
phytoplankton production.

3. Upwelling:-
An increase of nutrients sometimes also come about by an upwelling of water
from the aphotic zone,such upwelling may occur in conjunction with high off
shore winds,which drive surface water away from the shore and thus force
deeper water upto the surface or upwelling may occur as a result of diverging
currents.
According to Sverdrop & Allen (1934), few diatoms are found water masses
which have existed as surface water for a long time and large population of
diatoms are found only in water masses which have spent relatively a short time
as surface waters.

4. Seismic disturbances:-
Seismic disturbances occasionally may lead to the enrichment of the water,
either by causing upwelling of deed water or by stirring upto the bottom muds.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 126
5. Rains and floods:-
Heavy rains and floods frequently carry rich supplies of nutrients from the land
into the water and thus pass the way for a blooming of phytoplankton.

6. Break down of food chain:-

If the food chain of any ecosystem break down then there is remained a large
amount of unused phytoplankton and may create phytoplankton.

Effects of phytoplankton bloom: -

Excessive phytoplankton blooms may have a number of different biological

effects:

Bad effects:-
One of the most conspicuous effects is extensive animals mortality, such
mortality may be due to directs or indirect production of one sort or another.
# Animal mortality may be due to suffocation. Suffocation may be caused for
examples, during the darkness when photosynthesis is not taking place and
when the metabolism of the large number of phytoplankters are being up the
available oxygen or it may be caused by the depths and decay of large qualities
of the phytoplankters. The process of decay of cource will use up the oxygen.

# Animals mortality may also occur through poisoning caused the

phytoplankton bloom. Continuation of decay of phytoplankton under an aerobic
conditions would there upon result in the production of toxic hydrogen suphide
gas.

# There may be an actual direct production of poisons by phytoplankters

themselves, as often appears to be the case of during blooms of
[Link] of dinoflagellates is termed as “red tide” often these “red
tide” have been accompanied by the mortality of large numbers of fish and other
marine [Link] 1946-47 the red tides along the west coast of “Florida”
resulted in very heavy mortality.

# In many cases it may produce an obnoxious sliming of the water or unpleasant

[Link] odors are especially objectionable when become reservoirs or in
other bodies of water used by cities or towns as a source of drinking water.

Good effects:-
# Extensive phytoplankton blooms are not always bad in their effects.
# The increased quality of phytoplankton present may act as basic food of an
increased quantity of animal life and ultimately may result in an increase of the
fish population.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 127
 Single species bloom
Single species bloom:
It would appear that physical and chemical environmental condition was
favourable for several to many species, simultaneously at the time bloom, yet
often only one species bloom. This bloom consists of a great growth of a single
species, rather than a heterogeneous bloom of a number of different species
together. This type of bloom known as a single species bloom.

Causes of single species bloom: -

The ultimate stimulating of the single species cause of the bloom. In the
environment Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) ratio is 1:10, when this found
above 1:10, in aquatic environment, then the single species bloom occur.

Problems of single species bloom

Problems of single species bloom: [2008,10]
Problem of single species bloom are –

a. Produce toxic substance: -

When the single species bloom occur in water, they produce toxic substance
such as excess of dinoflagellates sp produced red tide in water. They produce
toxic substance and kill the animals.

b. Break down the food chain: -

In a single species bloom only one species are found. But in the water, where
lives various types of animals which feed directly the phytoplankton. As a result
for scarcity of food, zooplanktons are decreased and other animal which live on
zooplankton also decrease. As a result food chain is hampering.

c. Create unpleasant odours: -

Sometimes single species bloom creates unpleasant odours which effect the
aquatic environment.

d. Effect of photosynthesis: -
Excess growth single species causes the decrease of phytoplankton because
light can’t illuminate.

e. Decrease of O2: -
Excess growth of single species also decreases the O 2. As a result animals
migrate to the other place for O 2.

f. Light illumination: -
Massive single phytoplankton bloom specially floating patches out off light
illumination.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 128
 Diatoms
Diatoms: [2008]
*The majority of the diatoms are unicellular, uninucleate plants with a size
range of about 15 um to 400 um in maximum dimension, although some smaller
and a few considerably larger forms exists.
* The diatom cell known as frustules, consist of silica (SO2)
* Fully 55% of energy of sunlight absorbed by a diatom.
* It contains chlorophyll a and c and accessory pigment xanthophylls.
* Diatom store energy as fatty acids and oils.
* Respiration is asexual and bisexual.
* More than 5600 species of diatoms are known to exist.
* Most are round, but some are elongated or branched or triangular.

Fig: Reproduction of mean cell-size in diatoms following cell division.

* Diatoms reproduction by cell division and auxospore formation.

* Diatom means ‘‘to cut through’’. (Dia = Through, toms=to cut)

Economic importance of Diatom: -

* They are important as food of aquatic organisms.
* Used in the surgical treatment.
* Controls high temperature in hatchery.
* Used as human food in many countries.

On the basis of shape, diatoms are grouped into four broad

categories as follows –
1. Pillbox shape or Box shape
2. Roder needle shape
3. Filamentous shape
4. Branched shape

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 129
“Photosynthesis is more important in the ocean than the land”-
explain.

Almost all living thing ultimately get their energy from their energy from the
sun by a process called photosynthesis. It is one of the most important natural
reactions. The overall chemical reaction may be as follows-

Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
In photosynthesis, plant and other organisms combine carbon-di-oxide and
water to make simple sugar like glucose. The energy for this comes from
sunlight. Oxygen is given of as a bi-product. This reaction is taken place in all
photosynthetic organisms.
The ocean contains 78% of the world earth surface. Photosynthetic organs are
diverse and wide-spread in the world ocean; This includes the pelagic
phytoplankton cyanobacteria, benthic micro-algae, benthic-macro-algae (sea
weed, sea grass, mangroves, salt marshes plants) and symbiotic algal cell in
coral and other animals.
In the ocean b the process of photosynthesis organic matter and oxygen is
produced. Living being requires energy and for this oxygen is necessary.
Respiration can not occurs without the supply of [Link] take O2 and release
Co2.Co2 is necessary for the zooplankton in the formation of calcified cells.

Photosynthesis
Light + CO 2 + H2O + minerals organic matter + O2 + heat

Light + CO 2 + H2O + minerals organic matter + O2

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 130
 Difference
# Difference between Diatom and Dinoflagellates:
Diatom Dinoflagellate

1. Diatoms cells are ubiquitous 1. Dinoflagellates are mostly

having a rigid cell wall consisting of unicellular and autotrophic.
two parts with one (epithica) and the
other (hypothica).

2. Cells bear no flagella. 2. The cells bear paired flagella.

3. Figment contains small bodies in 3. Pigment in dinoflagellates is born

diatom called plastid. The plastids accompanying the chlorophyll and
also contain a yellow pigment occasionally a red pigment.
xanthophyll and carotenes.

4. Preserve substances include lipid 4. Starch and oil are the principal
volition, globules and levcasin in preserve substance.
concentrated solution.

5. Diatoms are not much ancient than 5. Dinoflagellates probably are the
dinoflagellates. much ancient than diatoms.

6. Diatoms usually dominate the 6. Dinoflagellates commonly in

phytoplankton in cold water. tropical and sub-tropical water.

7. Diatom is bigger than 7. Dinoflagellates are the much

dinoflagellates. smaller than diatoms.

# Difference between Eutropic lakes and Oligotropic lakes:

Eutropic lakes Oligotropic lakes
1. These water body are shallow. 1. These water bodies are deep.

2. Generally low circulated. 2. Generally well circulated.

3. Usually low oxygenated. 3. Usually high oxygenated.

4. Having many rapidly decaying 4. Having small amounts of slowly

organic materials in the bottom. decaying material in the bottom.

5. Having abundant nutrients and 5. Having small amount of nutrients

show high productivity. and show low productivity.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 131
# Difference between Pelagic food chain and De’marsal food
chain:
Pelagic food chain De’marsal food chain

1. Takes place in the phytoplankton. 1. Takes place in the fish, cilia,

protozoa and bacteria.

2. Micro-organisms are not related in 2. A huge micro bacteria are related

pelagic food chain. in de’marsal food chain.

3. Primary productivity is high. 3. Primary productivity is low.

4. Aerobic organism is present and 4. Both aerobic and anaerobic

anaerobic organisms are absent. organisms are present.

# Difference between Plankton and Nekton:

Plankton Nekton

1. Passively drifting or weakly 1. Pelagic animal that can determine

swimming organisms that are their position in the ocean by
depended on current, wave or tide. swimming.

2. Includes microscopic algae, 2. Includes squid, fish, mammals.

protozoa, larval form of higher
animals.

3. All plankton is not nekton. 3. All nekton are plankton.

4. They can not move themselves 4. They can move freely.

adequately.

5. Concern with phytoplankton and 5. Concern with only zooplankton.

zooplankton.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 132
# Difference between Centric diatom and Pennate diatom:
Centric diatom Pennate diatom
1. Generally found in marine water. 1. Generally found in fresh water.

2. Raphae and pseudoraphae are 2. Raphae and pseudoraphae are

absent in cellulose. present in cellulose.

3. Microspore present. 3. Microspore absent.

4. One chromatophore is present in 4. One or more chromatophore is

each cell. present in each cell.

# Difference between O2 method and C14 method:

O2 method C14 method

1. According to the reaction 1. According to the reaction

Light Light
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6+ 6O2
Chlorophyll Chlorophyll

The amount of CO2 absorbed in The photosynthetic capacity of a

carbon assimilation is proportional to phytoplankton population depends
the O2 liberation by plants. So the on CO2 uptake. So, the productivity
amount of carbon assimilated can be can be measured by supplying traced
calculated from the amount of O2. carbon (C14).

2. It can be calculated from the 2. It can be calculated from the

equation below - equation below -

NP = LB – IB; GP = LB – DB. DPM × 25000 mgc/m3/hr.

DPM added × t

3. In O2 method, there is no problem. 3. C14O2 is not assimilated as the

same rate of C12O2 and correction
factor is required.

4. It may not so accurate and 4. It may very accurate and sensitive

sensitive method. method.

5. It is convenient to handle and low 5. It is difficult to handle and costly

expensive. method.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 133
Distinguish between oviparous and ovoviviparous
reproduction of Artemia. [2006,08]

Oviparous Ovoviviparous
1. In oviparous reproduction, eggs 1. In ovoviviparous reproduction, the
develop to cysts. embryo develops to free swimming
nauplii.
2. Eggs hatched outside the mother 2. Eggs hatched within the mother
body. body.
3. It is predominant in high 3. It is predominant in salinities less
salinities(150-200ppt) than that of oviparous mode.
4. It takes place at lower dissolved 4. It takes place to higher dissolved
oxygen. oxygen.
5. The number of offspring is generally 5. The number offspring is generally
lower. higher.
6. Strong oxygen fluctuation. 6. Minor oxygen fluctuation.
7. Fe-rich food. 7. Fe-low food.

Distinguish between male and female Artemia.

Factors Male Artemia Female Aretmia
1. Size of grasper 1. The male Artemia has 1. The female
large hooked grasper. Artemia has
smaller hooked
grasper than those
of the male.
2. Function of the hooked 2. The hooked grasper 2. The hooked
grasper changed into organ that grasper consists of
contributes in copulation. sensory nerves.
3. Location of reproductive 3. The penis is located at 3. The pair of
organ the posterior of the thorax. ovaries is located
parallel to the
digestive track near
the posterior of the
thorax.
4. Location of graspers 4. Graspers present in front 4. The graspers are
of the head. not such like.
5. Number of copulating 5. Copulating organ is only 5. Copulating
organs a single penis. organ is only a
uterus.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 134
# Difference between Qualitative net and Quantitative net:
Qualitative net Quantitative net

1. No attachment with instruments. 1. Attachment with instruments.

2. Sample may be collected from 2. Sample may be collected from a

near distance. great distance.

3. It is used for collecting 3. It is used for collecting

ichthyoplankton, zooplankton and phytoplankton and zooplankton
fish larvae etc.

Ex - * Standard plankton net Ex - * Hansen net

* Ring trawl net. * Nansen net.

# Difference between Plankton and Algae:

Plankton Algae

1. Plankton are floating or drifting 1. Algae are not drifting organisms.

organisms.

2. Planktons are mostly pelagic. 2. Algae are both pelagic and

benthic.

3. They are carried by movement of 3. They may be attached to

water. something.

4. They are autotrophic and 4. They are mostly autotrophic.

heterotrophic.

5. They are minute and microscopic. 5. They are not microscopic.

# Difference between L-size and S-size Rotifer:

L-size Rotifer S-size Rotifer

1. Long size rotifer 1. Small size rotifer
2. General length is more than 100 µm 2. General length is less than 100 µm
to upto 400 µm
3. Capture rate is low and have less 3. Capture rate is high and have high
nutrient. nutrients.
4. Less use as culture food. 4. Higher use as culture food.
Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 135
# Difference between Inster – 1 and Inster – 2:

Inster – 1 Inster – 2

1. Newly born free swimming 1. After 12 hours of born nauplii

nauplii are called Inster-1 which is mouths into 2nd larvae stage which is
brownish color due to presence of called Inster-2.
yolk.

2. Take no food. Take food.

3. Nauplius stage. 3. Larval stage.

4. All the organs not become 4. All the organs become functional.
functional.

# Difference between Epilimnion and Hypolimnion:

Epilimnion Hypolimnion

1. The water mass above the 1. The water mass below the
thermocline layer is called thermocline layer is called
epilimnion. hypolimnion.

2. Temperature is relatively high and 2. Temperature is relatively low.

uniform.

3. High O2 content. 3. Low O2 content.

4. Favourable chemical and physical 4. Not favourable.

condition.

5. Have no toxin compounds. 5. Reduce the O2, result in the

formation of toxin H 2s.

6. Both abundance of planktonic 6. A number of protozoa, worms,

plants and animals. mollusks and aerobic bacteria found.

Sanjit,IMSF,CU,17/09/11 136
# Difference between Compensation depth and Critical depth:
[2006,09,10,11]

Features Compensation depth Critical depth

1. Definition The depth of which the O2 The depth of which the O2

production and O2 production and O2
consumption are equal is called consumption are not equal is
the compensation depth. called the critical depth.

2. Photosynthetic Photosynthetic process always Photosynthetic process

process occurs and O2 released. always occurs but O2 is not
released.

3. Respiration Respiration = Photosynthesis Respiration > Photosynthesis

4. Light intensity Light intensity is well. Light intensity becomes

towards less with the
increasing of depth.

5. Plants and Both plants and animals Only animals are present with
animals numerously present. special characteristics.

6. Plants survive Plants can survive. Plant is absent.

7. Net production Net production present. Net production absent.

8. Fluctuation of The compensation depth The critical depth depends

depth fluctuates with the change of upon the type of bottom of
illumination due to time and the sea.
place.

9. Tropic region In clear water, intropics the In this region, the critical
noon compensation depth may depth decreases.
be below 100 m through out
the year.

10. High latitude In high latitude, at noon this In high latitude, this depth
depth lies between 10 to 60 m. increases.

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