ABSTRACT

Despite efforts at achieving the SDG goal of education for all, a critical issue remains an
increased exclusion of female child from education. This study explored the perceptions and
experiences of female learners on girl-child exclusion from primary education. The study
employed a concurrent parallel mixed methods research design. The study's population are all
female learners in Kastina State primary schools. Data was collected using In-depth interviews,
Focus Group Discussions, and a questionnaire tagged: ‘Perceived Exclusion from Education
Questionnaire’ (α = 0.84), and analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis via the
SPSS and [Link] respectively. Findings indicate positive perceptions of female learners
towards education of the female child; female learners’ experiences in being educated were
recounted; factors necessitating the exclusion of female children from primary education were
cultural, economic, environmental and personal. Strategies for mitigating the exclusion of
female children from primary education were highlighted. Some recommendations are
discussed.

KEYWORDS: Experiences, female child, perceptions, primary education, exclusion, Nigeria

Introduction
The seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) represent a bold and unifying

commitment to eradicating poverty of all forms and create a world that is fair, secure and equal

for everyone (UNICEF Citation2015). In more detail, SDG Goal 4 aims to guarantee inclusive and

equitable quality education, and to promote opportunities for lifelong learning for everyone

(UNICEF Citation2015). To achieve sustainable development, education is pivotal. The

Sustainable Human Development approach places a strong emphasis on the involvement of all

sections of society, contending that eliminating the gender gap in culture, education, the

economy, etc.; is a prerequisite for achieving long-term and sustainable development (Atama

Citation2012). All human rights could be termed to be interdependent and indivisible, including

a fundamental right to education. The importance of education for all, regardless of gender, is

further emphasised by the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1976 International

Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of

All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of

the Child (Murtala and Nasiru Citation2021). It emphasises further that by 2030, all girls and

boys should be enrolled in and complete free, equitable, and high-quality primary and

secondary education that results in relevant and efficient learning outcomes. It also calls for

ensuring that all girls and boys have access to high-quality pre-primary and primary education

as well as quality early childhood development and care.

Despite this goal, it appears that in Nigeria, especially in northern Nigeria, female children are

overly secluded from education; with several untenable reasons behind such discrimination
(Oyaremi Citation2019). The female child experiences a variety of psychosocial harms,

insecurities and adverse influences that are brought on by ingrained sociocultural, religious and

socioeconomic factors, to name a few. These factors deprive her of her right to quality

education, freedom, dignity, opportunities, peace, well-being and self-worth, leaving her

vulnerable and impeding her full development as a person (Agusiobo Citation2018). Obanya

(Citation2004) reiterates that women and female children have been casualties of a long-time

disregard, who are in dire need of an ‘education surgery’ for continued survival. One of the

most used adages in the Nigerian education fraternity is ‘if you educate a female child, then you

have successfully educated a nation’ (Okorie Citation2017; Oyaremi Citation2019). For an

equitable and sustainable society, it is essential that female children are afforded the same

access to education as boys (Obanya Citation2004; Oyaremi Citation2019). Unfortunately, the

present sociocultural construct of non-western societies has resulted in female children

experiencing discrimination, especially in education where they are being systematically

marginalised and treated with disdain (Abbagana Citation2013). It is the purpose of this article,

therefore, to explore the perceptions and experiences of female learners on female children’s

exclusion from primary education in Northern Nigeria.

In the northern part of Nigeria, it is estimated that millions of children are out of school, a

majority of whom are believed to be females with school attendance at around 47.3%, resulting

from the economic and socio-cultural norms in the region UNICEF (Citation2022). This typifies

the structural barriers that restrict the female child from going to school, which in turn
maintains gender inequity as it prevents female children from being empowered through

education. Efforts to address this marginalisation are part of the British Council’s ongoing

commitment to support the development of research capacity in ensuring equal access to

education (British Council Citation2020). This initiative is crucial given the importance of the

education of female children conceived as a strategic investment and development of a nation

(Joda and Olowoselu Citation2015; Oyaremi Citation2019; World Bank Citation2017). The

education of females has a significant positive impact on the family, society and country as they

are the key catalysts for sustainable development (Egbo Citation2014; Okorie Citation2017;

Psacharopoulos and Patrinos Citation2004); promoting more equitable growth, stronger

families, better service delivery, better child health, effective involvement in government, and a

country's overall standard of living (Nkosha, Luchembe, and Chakufyali Citation2013; Oyaremi

Citation2019). Education for girls enables them to grow up to be independent adults who can

make decisions and have complete control over their lives (Okorie Citation2017). This is evident

in recent times as more females now play significant roles in several spheres of the national

economy. Due to the continuous discrimination against females, education for a female child

has evolved into a worldwide human rights issue requiring legislation in all countries (Iwalaiye

et al. Citation2016).

The position of the female child in the country's northern region is quite worrisome, and the

prevalent mentality has had a major effect on the likelihood of female children’s exclusion from

Western education (Yewande and Olawunmi Citation2023). Male children are more likely to be

educated than females because of parental bias, preference, or cultural inclination. This view

has wrongly positioned the education of a female child and is counterproductive to the
inherent national benefits that come with their being educated. Educating male children is

more favoured because, in the African culture (especially Nigeria), women are seen as the

property of males and are expected to have offspring for them (Saliu and Aleru Citation2018).

Clearly, gender equality and a change in social attitudes towards the education and

empowerment of female children are urgently needed considering the difficulties they

encountered in the region, and elsewhere.

According to Kainuwa and Yusuf (Citation2013), female children are subjected to a variety of

traditional and cultural practices, are degraded, objects of poverty, only seen and not heard,

perceived as inferior to boys, and derided as being persons who belong in the kitchen. Factors

necessitating the exclusion of the female child from education could include those associated

with family, religion, community, cultural concerns and (or) the females themselves (Okorie

Citation2017; Oyaremi Citation2019). The most frequently cited and pervasive problems

seemed to be associated with issues of poverty, cost of education and inability to pay school-

related fees, as well as general negative attitudes toward females’ education such as lack of

interest in girls’ education, early or forced marriages, and negative gender attitudes and

stereotypes (British Council Citation2020; Okorie Citation2017). The pervasiveness of

unfavourable attitudes towards the schooling of the female child is also reflected in similar

often cited obstacles such as societal stigma for resisting early marriage, fear of girls’ exposure

to sexual harassment and rape, aversion to Western education, child abuse and labour (British

Council Citation2020; Oyaremi Citation2019; Oyewole Citation2016; Saliu and Aleru

Citation2018; Yewande and Olawunmi Citation2023).

that must be addressed if the female child is to have equal access to education along with their

male counterparts. According to the federal government of Nigeria report, 10.5 million children

are out of school with over 60% of them from northern Nigeria (Egbo Citation2014). The

incidence of child marriage has a substantial impact on female child’s education possibilities in

the region, as many of them are compelled to leave school for marriage at a young age (Osita-

Oleribe Citation2007). As stated by Makama (Citation2013) and Amadi-Ali (Citation2022), in the

northern region of Nigeria, a prevalent belief persists that once a woman is married, her life

becomes confined and regulated by her husband, dictating the course of her life.

Unfortunately, this mindset often leads to the devaluation of female children education, with

many regarding it as an endeavour of little significance and thus leads to forced, premature

child-marriages, as well as recognising the female child as a second-class citizen (Amadi-Ali

Citation2022). This is because it is often held that funding for a girl's education is a waste since

she will marry, change her surname to that of her husband, and thereafter, sever ties with her

father's family (Wokocha and Wokocha Citation2013). Kainuwa and Yusuf (Citation2013)

stressed that traditional gender roles are prioritised due to entrenched ideas and gender

conventions, and as a result, females are generally expected to stay at home and attend to

domestic chores.

In Nigeria, poverty is another momentous barrier to the education of the female child (World

Bank Citation2017). Due to financial restrictions, families prioritise the education of boys over

girls (Uyanga Citation2009), perpetuating the cycle of gender inequity and inequality. In low-

income households, education for boys is generally favoured over girls, which contributes to a
disparity between the sexes in terms of exposure to formal education (Akinbi and Akinbi

Citation2015; Effiom, Undiyaundeye, and Akpama Citation2021). This is an indication that low

income (poverty) could lead to a lack of educational opportunities for the female child in

Nigeria. The consequences of this bias as revealed by Effiom, Undiyaundeye, and Akpama

(Citation2021), can be seen in the educational disparity between boys and girls, with girls facing

greater challenges in accessing and completing formal education while hampering their overall

development and empowerment in society (Kainuwa and Yusuf Citation2013).

Furthermore, in areas affected by insurgency and war in the region, security concerns pose a

serious threat to the education of female children. Specifically, the insecurity prevalent in

northern Nigeria has had a detrimental impact on the overall access to education for females

(Abodunrin, Adeyeye, and Oloye Citation2021). According to Abiodun et al. (Citation2020), the

attacks on schools by Boko Haram (an insurgent group) have created an atmosphere of fear,

instability and closure of schools. Parents, deeply concerned about the safety of their children

(mostly daughters), are often reluctant to send them to school due to the hazardous

environment and for fear of being kidnapped (Bakwai, Yisa, and Jega Citation2014). The authors

further state that the presence of armed groups and frequent assaults on schools, results in a

significant decline in enrolment rates, particularly among females. These have deprived female

children of the right to education, as their parents opt to keep them at home to protect them

from potential violence or kidnapping, thereby exacerbating the gender gap in education.

The influence of patriarchy and cultural practices on the education and empowerment of

female children and women in Nigeria cannot be overemphasised. The traditional belief that
females are subservient, contributes to their limited access to education, as they are solely

responsible for domestic chores and face marginalisation in contributing directly to public

issues (Olaleye Citation2008). According to Osarenren-Osaghae, Imhangbe, and Irabor

(Citation2019), male dominance and control in societal structures hinder women's progress,

restrict their decision-making power, and perpetuate ignorance. Cultural biases against

educating girls, fear of promiscuity, and the emphasis on preserving chastity further impede

their educational opportunities (Obi Citation2011). Cultural prejudices and societal pressures

also discourage women from challenging traditional roles, and those who attempt to disaffiliate

from these norms face ostracism and derogatory labels (Adeniran Citation2010).

As an aspect of their domestic responsibilities, female children learn to take care of their

younger siblings, organise the home, and perform their share of the housework. As children,

they are considered to be the property of their parents, then as wives to their husbands to

whom they must serve (Saliu and Aleru Citation2018). Under such circumstance, the female

child's options for school and personal development become significantly impacted by this

societal attitude. Parental and community involvement in female child education is paramount

(Oyaremi Citation2019). Parents frequently believe that the female child should be married off

before reaching adulthood, which leads to their exclusion from education (Yise Citation2020).

This practice is profoundly ingrained in societal norms and expectations of the region, as

females are given domestic chores which discouraged them from seeking formal education.

Abu-Saeed, Abu-Saeed, and Parakoyi (Citation2012) discovered that parental attitudes towards

the education of female children are influenced by societal pressures and gender expectations.
Many families continue to prioritise early marriage for their daughters because they are afraid

of social stigma that could arise from delayed marriages resulting from long years of schooling;

these are necessitated by their being poor. According to Driscoll and Nagel (Citation2010) and

Okeke et al. (Citation2012), poverty-related problems, such as the inability to pay school fees

and needed academic supplies, contribute to the exclusion or withdrawal of females from

education. When poverty is pervasive and family resources are limited, the female children are

demanded to work (mostly hawk), with the hope of helping their parents raise money to send

their brothers to school (The British Council Citation2017)

Kpee and Chuu-Uzomah (Citation2015) and Shaheen, Butt, and Afzal (Citation2019) highlight

the impact of patriarchal culture on the exclusion of the female child from education in

northern Nigeria. They argue that societal norms and practices subordinate females by giving

them tasks centred on domestic chores and early marriages. Parents play a fundamental role in

guiding and providing for their children, making their perception about female child education

crucial in shaping the type and quality of education the child receives. The attitudes, beliefs and

values held by parents meaningfully influence their support, encouragement and investment in

their female child’s educational pursuits (Oyaremi Citation2019). Parent's perspective acts as a

guiding compass that can empower and uplift the female child or potentially hinder her

educational advancement. This is an indication that the parent is the foremost stakeholder in

female child education.

Yise's (Citation2020) study on the perspectives of parents toward female child education in

Plateau State, Nigeria, revealed through a survey that many parents believe that females should
be married off at a young age. The study found that when parents prioritise their daughters’

education over early marriage, they endure societal pressure and condemnation from friends

and family members. On the contrary, Abu-Saeed, Abu-Saeed, and Parakoyi (Citation2012)

conducted a study in Okene, in same northern Nigeria, on parents’ perspectives, attitudes and

practises regarding female child education through a survey. Most parents in the study had a

positive opinion and attitude toward education and sending their daughters to school,

recognising education as a fundamental right, and emphasising the need to enrol females in

primary schools. It was further revealed from the study that despite these positive viewpoints,

there was still a large discrepancy in primary school completion rates, with female dropouts

outnumbering male dropouts (Abu-Saeed, Abu-Saeed, and Parakoyi Citation2012).

The British Council (Citation2017) revealed that because males are regarded with higher self-

esteem and significance, and are given many educational possibilities, females have been

denied their entitlement to proper education as a result of gender socialisation. This is because

families seem to spend more money on their sons’ schooling. Particularly in Nigeria, this

condition continues to jeopardise the education of girls (Gitonga Citation2009). The female

children are usually indoors and are deprived from communicating with the outside world

(especially those that have to do with Westernisation), and this negatively affect their mindsets

and self-esteem (Gitonga Citation2009). According to Okorie (Citation2017), the female child is

frequently mocked, made fun of, laughed at, abused and mistreated if they are not married.

These kinds of encounters limit their general knowledge, abilities and aptitude toward

education.
Murtala and Nasiru (Citation2021) cited cultural gender bias and preferences, poverty,

ignorance, religious misunderstandings, teenage pregnancy and early marriage among other

issues as reasons for the exclusion of females from education in Nigeria. Poor family

background, religious exclusion, being handicapped, early pregnancy and marriage, gender-

driven violence, cultural prejudice, and views towards women and their duties are some of the

causes of the girl child's educational exclusion (Okorie Citation2017). The British Council

(Citation2017) also notes that early school dropout, which is common among female children, is

worsened by poverty, gender norms and traditional practices, such as early marriage. The most

frequently cited and pervasive problems seem to be associated with issues of poverty, cost of

education and inability to pay school related fees as well as general negative attitudes towards

female child education, lack of interest in their education, early marriages and negative gender

attitudes and stereotypes (Okorie Citation2017). ILO (Citation2010) states that parents’

demands for their daughters’ education are minimal, which reflects both cultural norms and

the work that females do at home and in the community.

The socio-cultural context and patterns of behaviour, beliefs, preferences, conventions and

traditions, which account for gender-based inequalities within a society, are highlighted by

Arowolo, Arowolo, and Adaja (Citation2016) as aggravating reasons for female school dropout

or isolation in Nigeria. Oyaremi (Citation2019) posits that withdrawal of the female child from

schools for early marriage, teachers’ preference to work in urban areas, poverty, non-adoption

of female responsive pedagogy, and