Programmable logic controllers (PLC)
PLC is a solid-state control device or computerized industrial controller that performs discrete or sequential logic in
the factory or automation environment.
The history of the PLC
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) emerged in the late 1960s as a response to the limitations of hard-wired relay
systems in industrial automation. Relay logic was difficult to modify, expensive to maintain, and prone to wear,
making it unsuitable for rapidly changing production environments. In 1968, General Motors Hydramatic Division
specified the need for a flexible electronic controller, leading to the development of the Modicon 084 by Dick Morley
in 1969, which became the first widely recognized PLC (Bolton, 2015; Parr, 1999). This innovation allowed engineers
to reprogram systems without physically rewiring, revolutionizing industrial control (Gorla, 2011).
By the 1970s and 1980s, PLCs advanced significantly, incorporating greater memory capacity, faster processing, and
the adoption of ladder logic, which mirrored relay diagrams and eased the transition for technicians (Bolton, 2015).
Later developments included networking, analog signal handling, and integration with Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) systems, enabling large-scale automation. Today, PLCs remain essential to industries such as
manufacturing, energy, and transportation, valued for their adaptability, reliability, and ability to handle increasingly
complex automation tasks (Parr, 1999; Gorla, 2011).
Hardware of a PLC
The hardware of a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is made up of several key components that work together to
control industrial processes. At the core is the Central Processing Unit (CPU), which acts as the “brain” of the PLC.
The CPU executes the control program stored in its memory, processes input signals, and determines the appropriate
output actions. It usually consists of a microprocessor, memory (RAM, ROM, and sometimes flash), and a power
supply. The memory stores the user program, operating system, and data, while the power supply unit ensures stable
voltage for the PLC and its modules.
In addition to the CPU, PLC hardware includes input and output (I/O) modules. Input modules receive signals from
field devices such as sensors, switches, or measuring instruments, converting them into electrical signals that the CPU
can interpret. Output modules send commands from the CPU to devices like motors, actuators, lights, and relays,
allowing the PLC to control machinery. PLCs also often include communication modules, which enable connection
with other PLCs, computers, or networks for data exchange. The entire system is typically mounted in a rack or
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chassis, with modules that can be expanded or replaced as needed. The modular design of PLC hardware makes it
flexible, reliable, and suitable for a wide range of automation tasks.
Power Supply – provides stable voltage to the PLC and modules.
CPU (Processor & Memory) – the “brain” of the PLC, executes the program and processes signals.
Input Module – receives signals from field devices (sensors, switches).
Output Module – sends control signals to actuators, motors, or lights.
Communication Module – enables networking with other PLCs, SCADA, or computers.
Software of a PLC
The software of a PLC is what allows it to perform control functions. It consists of the operating system (firmware
provided by the manufacturer) and the application program (written by the user). The operating system handles basic
tasks such as managing memory, communication, diagnostics, and executing the control cycle, often referred to as the
scan cycle. The scan cycle continuously repeats the following steps: reading input signals, executing the user program,
updating outputs, and performing internal checks. The application program is created by engineers to control specific
machines or processes, and it can be edited, tested, and downloaded into the PLC’s memory via programming
software.
PLCs support different programming languages, which are standardized under the IEC 61131-3 standard. The most
common ones include:
Ladder Diagram (LD): Graphical language resembling electrical relay logic diagrams; widely used because it is easy
for technicians and electricians to understand.
Function Block Diagram (FBD): Graphical representation using interconnected blocks to describe signal and data
flow.
Structured Text (ST): High-level, text-based language similar to Pascal, suitable for complex mathematical operations
and algorithms.
Instruction List (IL): Low-level, assembly-like language (less commonly used today).
Sequential Function Chart (SFC): Graphical language for step-by-step sequential control of processes.
Manufacturers like Siemens, Allen-Bradley (Rockwell), and Mitsubishi provide their own software environments
(e.g., TIA Portal, RSLogix/Studio 5000, GX Works), which support these languages and include tools for simulation,
monitoring, and troubleshooting.
Hard wiring vs soft wiring
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Hardwiring = physical wiring of logic functions, while soft wiring = programming logic in a PLC.
Hardwiring
Definition: Refers to the physical wiring of relays, timers, and switches to perform control logic before PLCs were
widely used.
Implementation: Each control function required manual wiring connections between devices. For example, adding a
timer meant installing a physical timer relay and wiring it into the circuit.
Flexibility: Very limited—any change in control logic (e.g., adding a new condition) required rewiring the entire
circuit.
Cost and Maintenance: More expensive and time-consuming due to the large amount of wiring, troubleshooting
complexity, and space required for panels.
Reliability: Prone to wear and tear since it depended on mechanical relays and components.
Soft-wiring
Definition: Refers to implementing control logic through PLC programming rather than physical wiring.
Implementation: Inputs and outputs are wired once to the PLC, and the control sequence is created or modified in
software (using ladder logic, function block diagrams, etc.).
Flexibility: Highly flexible—changes can be made by editing the program instead of rewiring hardware.
Cost and Maintenance: Reduces installation cost, wiring complexity, and maintenance time; easier to troubleshoot
using PLC diagnostics.
Reliability: More reliable, as it relies on solid-state electronics and software rather than mechanical relays.
The program scan cycle
The program scan cycle is the continuous process that a PLC follows to monitor inputs, execute the control program,
and update outputs. It ensures that the PLC reacts in real time to changes in the system. The cycle is repeated
continuously and usually happens very quickly (in milliseconds), giving the impression of instantaneous control.
➢ Input Scan:
The PLC reads the status of all input devices (e.g., switches, sensors) connected to the input modules. These
values are stored in the input image table (a memory area).
➢ Program Execution:
The CPU executes the user program (ladder logic, function block diagram, structured text, etc.) using the stored
input values. Based on the logic, it decides what the output states should be.
➢ Output Scan:
The PLC updates the status of output devices (e.g., motors, lamps, actuators) by writing the results of the program
execution to the output image table and then to the output modules.
➢ Diagnostics:
The PLC performs internal checks, communication tasks, and diagnostics (e.g., monitoring memory, self-tests, or
network updates).
Once these steps are complete, the PLC immediately repeats the cycle. The total time to complete one full cycle is
called the scan time, and shorter scan times allow for faster system response.
Safety precautions and PLCs
1. Electrical Safety
Always disconnect power before wiring, installing, or servicing PLC hardware to avoid electric shock. Use proper
grounding and shielding to prevent electrical faults, surges, and noise interference. Ensure correct voltage ratings
for input/output modules to prevent equipment damage. Follow lockout/tagout (LOTO) procedures before
maintenance.
2. Installation and Wiring Safety
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Use proper cable sizes and types as recommended by the manufacturer. Keep I/O wiring separate from power
wiring to reduce electrical noise. Secure wiring to prevent loose connections, which can cause short circuits or mis
operation. Install surge protection devices for systems exposed to lightning or power fluctuations.
3. Programming and Software Safety
Always test programs in simulation mode before downloading to the PLC controlling real equipment. Use safe
start-up procedures, ensuring outputs are in a safe state when the PLC is powered up or restarted. Implement
emergency stop routines in the program design. Document and back up all programs to avoid errors during
troubleshooting.
4. Operational Safety
Ensure only trained personnel operate or modify PLC systems. Never bypass safety interlocks or protective
circuits in the PLC logic. Regularly monitor and maintain the system to detect faults early. Use personal protective
equipment (PPE) when working near live circuits or machinery.
5. Environmental and Physical Safety
6. Install the PLC in a proper enclosure to protect against dust, moisture, vibration, and extreme temperatures.
Maintain adequate ventilation to prevent overheating. Avoid placing PLCs near strong electromagnetic sources,
which can cause malfunction.
Analogue vs digital
➢ Analogue Signals
Definition: Signals that vary continuously over a range of values.
Nature: Continuous signals, representing physical quantities.
Examples in PLCs:
Temperature sensors (0–100 °C)
Pressure transducers (0–10 bar)
Flow meters
Speed sensors
Typical Ranges: Voltage (0–10 V), Current (4–20 mA).
Advantages: Provide precise measurement and control of variable processes.
Use in PLCs: Connected to analogue input/output modules, allowing control of proportional devices like variable-
speed drives, control valves, and heaters.
➢ Digital Signals
Definition: Signals that have only two states: ON/OFF, 1/0, HIGH/LOW.
Nature: Discrete signals.
Examples in PLCs:
Push buttons (pressed = 1, not pressed = 0)
Limit switches
Proximity sensors
Indicator lamps
Advantages: Simple, fast, less prone to noise, easier to process.
Use in PLCs: Connected to digital input/output modules, ideal for binary control tasks like starting/stopping
motors or switching lights.
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A PLC converts analogue signals to digital through its Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) (ADC) by taking discrete
samples of the incoming continuous analogue. signal, such as voltage or current from a sensor, then quantizing each
sample into a finite set of binary values that the PLC can process, effectively translating real-world conditions into a
digital format the PLC's CPU can understand and use for control.
Binary numbers
Binary numbers, using only 0s and 1s, are the fundamental language of PLCs, representing on/off states of memory
bits and digital inputs/outputs, analogous to how computers process information. Because each bit has a distinct value
based on its position (powers of 2), PLCs use binary to represent and manipulate data, with groups of bits forming
nibbles (4 bits), bytes (8 bits), and words (16 bits) to encode more complex values.
Opto-isolator
In a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), opto-
isolators provide electrical isolation between the high-
voltage field devices (like sensors and actuators) and
the low-voltage internal logic of the PLC. They use a
light-emitting diode (LED) and a photosensitive device
(like a phototransistor) to transfer signals, forming a
barrier that protects the PLC's sensitive microprocessor
from power surges, noise, and voltage spikes,
enhancing system reliability and preventing damage
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Inputs to a PLCs
➢ Switches as inputs:
Switches serve as digital inputs in a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), providing binary (on/off) signals to
indicate a physical condition that the PLC then uses in its control logic to make decisions and activate outputs.
➢ Sensors:
Sensors provide input to a PLC by sending either analogue or digital signals about a process variable to the PLC's
input module, which then converts these signals into data for the control program.
➢ Proximity sensors: Proximity sensors function as inputs to PLCs by detecting the presence or absence of an
object without physical contact and converting this detection into a binary electrical signal (ON/OFF, or
HIGH/LOW) that the PLC can process to make real-time, logic-based control decisions.
Examples: detecting and positioning objects, measuring the rotational speed, counting objects on a conveyor belt,
detecting direction of rotation.
Types of proximity sensors:
• Inductive proximity sensors:
Inductive proximity sensors are used to detect metallic objects. An inductive proximity sensor works by
generating a high-frequency electromagnetic field from a coil within the sensor.
• Capacitive
Capacitive proximity sensors are used to detect non-metallic objects such as ceramic, paper, and fluid
levels. A capacitive proximity sensor works by using its electrostatic field to detect objects, triggering a
response when the object's proximity changes the field's capacitance.
• Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic proximity sensors are used to detect solid, liquid or granular and measure speed through air or
water. An ultrasonic proximity sensor works by emitting a high-frequency sound pulse and measuring the
time it takes for the sound wave to bounce off an object and return as an echo.
➢ Temperature sensors
Temperature sensors in PLCs function by measuring a process temperature and converting it into an electrical
signal, which the PLC then processes to control heating or cooling devices, trigger alarms, monitor for safety, and
maintain desired temperatures. They are used in planes, trains, boats, electrical appliances, battery chargers,
electric motors, and mining drills.
➢ Light sensors
In PLCs, light sensors measure the intensity of ambient light and convert it into an electrical signal, allowing the
PLC to automate lighting systems, regulate light levels, and optimize energy consumption by adjusting lights
based on conditions like time of day or occupancy. These sensors are typically found in garage doors, cell phones,
TVs, computers, barcode scanners, and night vision devices.
➢ Level sensors
In PLCs, level sensors detect liquid or solid material levels in tanks and containers, sending electrical signals to
the PLC to enable automated process control.
➢ Overload sensors
weight sensors integrated with PLCs detect excessive weight in systems like elevators, hoists, or vehicles to
prevent damage and ensure safety. Their functions include continuous weight monitoring, transmitting weight data
to the PLC for analysis, and triggering alarms or automatic shutdowns when weight limits are exceeded.
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Ladder logic
Symbols
Rung
A ladder logic rung is the
horizontal element in a ladder
diagram that represents a complete
logical statement or control
function, connecting two vertical
"power rails". It contains input
conditions, typically shown as
contacts, and an output action,
usually a coil, that is activated
only if the logic within the rung
evaluates to true. Rungs are
evaluated from top to bottom and
left to right by a PLC, with the
output activating when all input
conditions are met.
Timers
An On-Delay Timer (TON) in a PLC delays the activation of an output, making it turn on only after a specific pre-set
time has elapsed since the input signal went TRUE. When the input becomes TRUE, the timer starts counting; if the
input remains TRUE until the pre-set time is reached, the timer's "Done" bit becomes TRUE, activating the output.
An off-delay timer in PLCs, also known as a Timer Off (TOF), delays the deactivation of an output by a programmed
time after the input signal becomes false. When the input turns ON, the output activates immediately. However, when
the input turns OFF, the timer starts timing, keeping the output ON for the pre-set duration before finally turning it
OFF.
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Ladder logics
Convert the circuit diagram below into a ladder diagram
Example 1: Solution:
Example 2: Solution:
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Example 3: Solution:
Variable speed drive as a PLC
In PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers), a Variable Speed Drive (VSD) is an external device controlled by the
PLC to regulate the speed and torque of an AC motor.
Basic operation of a VSD
Rectification: The input AC power is first passed through a rectifier, which converts it into a DC voltage.
DC Filtering: The rectified DC power then flows into a DC bus, where capacitors and inductors smooth out the
pulsating DC, creating a stable, constant DC voltage for the next stage.
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Inversion: The DC bus feeds an inverter section, which contains high-speed electronic switches like IGBTs.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): These switches rapidly turn on and off, creating a PWM waveform.
Variable Frequency and Voltage: By precisely controlling the switching pattern, the inverter creates a synthesized AC
waveform that mimics a sine wave but with a variable frequency and voltage.
Motor Control: This variable frequency and voltage output is then fed to the AC motor. The motor's speed is directly
proportional to the frequency of the supplied power.
V/Hz Ratio: The VSD maintains a relatively constant ratio of voltage to frequency (V/Hz) to ensure the motor
operates efficiently.
Three parts of a VSD
1. Rectifier (AC to DC Converter)
Function: Converts the fixed-frequency AC supply (usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz) into DC.
How it works: Uses diodes or thyristors to perform uncontrolled or controlled rectification.
Importance: Provides a stable DC link voltage for the inverter stage.
2. DC Link (Intermediate Circuit)
Function: Smooths and stabilizes the DC voltage.
Components: Typically includes capacitors, inductors, or a combination (LC filter).
Importance: Reduces ripples and ensures that the inverter receives clean, steady DC power, preventing harmonics
and voltage fluctuations.
3. Inverter (DC to Variable AC Converter)
Function: Converts the DC from the link back into an AC supply, but with controllable frequency and voltage.
How it works: Uses power electronic devices such as IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) or MOSFETs to
generate Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signals.
Importance: This stage directly controls the motor’s speed, torque, and direction by varying the AC supply
frequency and voltage.
How Pulse Width Modulation works
Instead of producing a smooth sinusoidal voltage directly, the inverter switches the DC voltage ON and OFF very
rapidly using power electronic switches (e.g., IGBTs).
The width of each pulse (how long it stays ON compared to OFF) is varied in proportion to the shape of a desired sine
wave.
By filtering these pulses, the motor “sees” a voltage and current that approximate a sinusoidal waveform.
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Types of motors used with VSD
• AC asynchronous motors
• Synchronous motors
• Brushless DC motors
• Servo motors
• DC motors
Regenerative braking
Regenerative braking is a process where an electric motor, driven by a Variable Speed Drive (VSD) or similar control
system, operates as a generator during deceleration. Instead of wasting the kinetic energy of the motor and load as heat
(like in mechanical braking), regenerative braking converts this energy back into electrical power. The recovered
energy is then either fed back into the power supply grid or reused within the system, improving efficiency and
reducing energy costs.
Applications of regenerative braking:
Electric vehicles and hybrid cars – to recharge the battery during braking.
Elevators and hoists – to recover energy when loads descend.
Cranes and industrial conveyors – to reuse braking energy during load handling.
Basic applications of VSD
• Pumps – controlling flow and pressure while saving energy.
• Fans and blowers – adjusting air volume in HVAC systems.
• Conveyors – regulating speed for material handling.
• Compressors – optimizing energy use by varying motor speed.
• Mixers and agitators – controlling mixing speed in food, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries.
• Cranes and hoists – providing smooth lifting, lowering, and braking.
• Machine tools – precise speed control for cutting, drilling, or milling.
• Elevators and escalators – smooth acceleration, deceleration, and energy savings.
• Textile and paper machines – speed adjustment for consistent product quality.
• Mining equipment – controlling crushers, grinders, and ventilation systems.
Logic Operations
In Boolean algebra, all the algebraic functions performed is logical. The AND, OR and NOT are the basic operations
that are performed in Boolean algebra. There are some derived operations such as NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR
that are also performed in Boolean algebra.
Logic Gate Symbols
Each of the six required logic gates has an internationally recognised symbol which you should learn. The symbols
have inputs on the left and outputs on the right.
American symbols:
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IEC symbols:
1. NOT Operation
The NOT gate has one input and one output. The gate’s output is always the opposite of its input. If the input to
the gate is a 1, it will output 0 and vice versa.
Circuit diagram:
Ladder diagram:
Truth table:
The truth table for the NOT gate has just two columns, the input A and the output Q. There
are just two possible inputs, 1 and 0
The truth table for the NOT gate has just two columns, the input A and the output Q. There
are just two possible inputs, 1 and 0
Boolean equation:
𝐴 = 𝑄̅
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2. AND Operation
The AND gate has two inputs, labelled A and B in the truth table below, and outputs the product of the two inputs.
Circuit diagram:
Ladder diagram:
Truth table:
The AND gate only outputs TRUE (1) when both inputs are TRUE, otherwise it outputs FALSE.
Boolean equation:
𝐴⋇𝐵 =𝑄
3. OR Operation
In the same way that AND multiplies its inputs, OR adds them together. Therefore, the OR gate is said to output
the sum of its inputs.
Circuit diagram:
Ladder diagram:
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Truth table:
OR only outputs FALSE when both inputs are FALSE. When one or more of the gate’s inputs are TRUE, the
logic gate outputs TRUE.
Boolean equation:
𝐴+𝐵 =𝑄
4. XOR Operation
The XOR gate’s full name is exclusively or and it outputs TRUE when strictly one of its inputs is TRUE. The
gate’s truth table is the same as the OR gate with the exception of the last line in which FALSE is output with two
TRUE inputs.
Circuit diagram:
Ladder diagram:
Truth table:
Boolean equation:
𝐴⨁𝐵 = 𝑄
5. NAND Operation
NAND is short for NOT AND. The NAND gate is actually a combination of two gates which we’ve already
covered, the NOT gate and the AND gate.
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Circuit diagram:
Ladder diagram:
Truth table:
The NAND gate’s truth table is the same as the AND gate’s truth table, but the output is reversed.
Boolean equation:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴∗𝐵 =𝑄
6. NOR Operation
NOR, short for NOT OR is a combination of the two logic gates NOT and OR.
Circuit diagram:
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Ladder diagram:
Truth table:
Therefore, the NOR gate’s truth table is the same as the OR gate’s table, just with the output
reversed.
Boolean equation:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴+𝐵 =𝑄
Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra is a system of mathematical logic. It is an algebraic system consisting on the set of elements (0, 1)
two binary operators called OR, AND and one unary operator NOT. It is the basic mathematical tools in the analysis
and the synthesis of switching circuits. It is a way to express logic functions algebraically.
NOTE: Any functional relation in Boolean algebra can be provided by the method of perfect induction perfect
inductions the method of proof, where by a function relation is verified for every possible combination of values that
the value may assume.
Axioms of Boolean Algebra:
Axioms of Boolean algebra are a set of logical expressions that we accept without proof and upon which we can build
a set of useful theorems.
Axioms AND operation OR operation NOT operation
Axiom 1 0.0 = 0 0+0=0 0̅ = 1
Axiom 2 0.1 = 0 0+1=1 1̅ = 0
Axiom 3 1.0 = 0 1+0=1
Axiom 4 1.1 = 1 1+1=1
Logic operations: In Boolean Algebra all the algebraic function performed is logical. These actually represents logic
operations. The AND, OR and NOT are the basic operations that are performed in Boolean Algebra. In addition to
these operations, there are some derived operations such as NAND, NOR, EX-OR and EX-NOR that are also
performed in Boolean Algebra.
Boolean laws
NOT operation:
a) 0̅ = 1
b) 1̅ = 0
c) If 𝐴 = 0, then 𝐴̅ = 1
d) 𝐴̿ = 𝐴
AND operations:
e) 𝐴. 0 = 0
f) 𝐴. 1 = 𝐴
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g) 𝐴. 𝐴 = 𝐴
h) 𝐴. 𝐴̅ = 0
OR operations:
i) 𝐴+0=𝐴
j) 𝐴+1=1
k) 𝐴+𝐴 =𝐴
l) 𝐴 + 𝐴̅ = 1
Commutative law:
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴
𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 =𝐵+𝐶+𝐴
𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴
𝐴. 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵. 𝐶𝐴
Associative law:
1. (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐷) = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) + 𝐷
= (𝐴 + 𝐵) + (𝐶 + 𝐷)
2. (𝐴. 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵. 𝐶)
𝐴. (𝐵𝐶𝐷) = (𝐴𝐵𝐶). 𝐷
Distributive Law:
𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐶)
Redundant Literal Rule:
a) 𝐴 + 𝐴̅𝐵 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
b) 𝐴(𝐴̅ + 𝐵) = 𝐴. 𝐵
Absorption law:
𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴
Consensus theorem:
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴̅𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴̅𝐶
(𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴̅ + 𝐶)(𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴̅ + 𝐶)
De-Morgan's theorem:
De-Morgan’s theorem represents two of the most important rules of Boolean algebra.
̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅
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Simplifying Boolean functions:
Every Boolean function expression must be reduced to as simple form as possible before realization because every
logic operation in the expression represents a corresponding element of hardware. Realization of digital circuit
with minimal expression has several advantages as:
1. The number of logic gates will be reduced.
2. The speed of operation will increase
3. Power dissipation will decrease
4. The FAN IN may reduce
5. The complexing of the circuit reduces
The simple method of minimization of Boolean function using certain Algebraic rules which results in the
reduction of number of term and/or number of arithmetic operations the various theorem and rules that are already
discussed are very useful for the simplification of Boolean expression.
Simplifying using Boolean algebra:
Example 1. Show that: 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶̅
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐶
= 𝐴𝐵(𝐶 + 𝐶̅ ) + 𝐵𝐶̅ (𝐴 + 𝐴̅) + 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐵̅)𝐶
= 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶
= 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶
= 𝐴𝐶(𝐵 + 𝐵̅) + 𝐵𝐶̅ (𝐴 + 𝐴̅) = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶̅
Example 2. Refer to the circuit below and answer the questions that follow
a) Write the Boolean expression on output X
𝑋 = (𝐴̅𝐵𝐶̅ ) + (𝐴̅𝐵𝐶) + (𝐴𝐵𝐶̅ ) + (𝐴𝐵𝐶)
b) Simplify the expression on output X
𝑋 = 𝐴̅𝐵(𝐶̅ + 𝐶) + 𝐴𝐵(𝐶̅ + 𝐶)
𝑋 = 𝐴̅𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵
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𝑋 = 𝐵(𝐴̅ + 𝐴)
𝑋=𝐵
Simplifying using Karnaugh Map (k-map): The Boolean function can be simplified Algebraically but being not a
symmetric method, we can never be sure that whether the minimal expression obtained is the real minimal or not.
A k-map is a graphical representation of Boolean expression, A two variable k-map will have four cell or squares
3-variable k-map will have 8-cells, n-variable k-map will have 2n cells.
Note: Adjacent cells differ by 1 bit to maintain adjacently property grey code sequence is used in k-maps (Any
two adjacent cells will differ by only one bit)
Simplification Rules:
• Construct the K-map and place 1's in those cells corresponding to the 1's in the truth table. Place the 0's in the
other cells.
• Examine the map for adjacent 1's and loop those 1's which are not adjacent to any other 1's. These are called
isolated 1's.
• Next, look for those 1's which are adjacent to only one other 1. Loop any pair containing such a 1.
• Loop any octet even if it contains some 1's that have already been looped.
• Loop any quad that contains one or more 1's which have not already been looped, making sure to use the
minimum number of loops.
• Form the OR sum of all the terms generated by each loop.
Example 1: Given the Karnaugh map below, write the simplified Boolean equation
X AB ̅B
A AB̅ ̅B
A ̅
C 1 1 0 1
C̅ 1 0 0 1
➢ Create groups of powers of 2(the bigger the group, the more simplified the equation)
➢ Look for the variable that is not changing in the entire group.
̅B
𝑋 = AB + 𝐵𝐶 + A ̅
Example 2: Given the Boolean equation below, simplify it using Karnaugh Map
̅𝐵̅ C̅ + A
X = ABC + A ̅BC̅ + A
̅B ̅C̅
̅C + AB
Solution:
X AB ̅B
A AB̅ ̅B
A ̅
C 1 0 0 1
C̅ 0 1 1 1
̅B
𝑋 =C+A ̅ + 𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ + 𝐶̅
References
➢ Bolton, W. (2015). Programmable Logic Controllers (6th ed.). Newnes.
➢ Gorla, N. (2011). “Programmable Logic Controllers in Industrial Automation.” International Journal of
Engineering Science and Technology, 3(4), 3255–3260.
➢ Parr, E. A. (1999). Programmable Controllers: An Engineer’s Guide. Newnes.
➢ Petruzella, F. D. (2016). Programmable Logic Controllers (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
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