DATA

Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials, past and present serving as basis for study
and analysis. For example - the sex, age, social class, religion, income level of respondents in
consumer behavior study

Importance of Data

1. Raw material for analysis.

2. The quality of the findings of the study is determined by the relevance, adequacy and the
reliability of the collected data.
3. It forms the basis for the testing of hypotheses,
4. It provides the facts and figures required for the construction of measurement scales and
tables, which are analyzed, with the help of quantitative techniques.
Classification of Data
1) Primary data
2) Secondary data.
1. Primary data
Primary data are those data, which are collected for the first time. In other words the primary
data are original in character
2. Secondary data
The secondary are those data, which have already been collected, tabulated and presented in
some form by someone else for some other purpose

Choice between primary data and secondary data Sources of data

1. Nature and scope of enquiry or study

2. Accessibility of financial resources
3. Availability of time
4. Degree of accuracy necessary for the study.
5. The status of the investigator or researcher
6. The availability of trained investigators
Sources of Data

1. Primary source: - Primary sources: These are original sources from which the researcher
directly collects data that have not been previously collected. Eg - data is collected to know the
brand awareness of the customers.

2. Secondary sources: - These sources contain data, which has already published compiled for
another purpose of study. It includes not only published record and reports, but also unpublished
records.
 MERITS OF SECONDARY DATA
1. The secondary data provides an Insight to the total situation studies
2. The secondary information derived from various sources may be helpful to the researcher to
formulate the hypotheses, which is necessary for study
3. It is also useful to test the formulated hypothesis.
4. The secondary sources also provide complementary information to the researcher which is
needed for study
Limitations
1. The secondary data is the already collected information for some other study
2. These are the data collected in past
3. The available data may not be as accurate as destred.
4. The secondary data are not up to date.

Precautions to be taken by the researcher while using secondary data

1. Reliability
2. Suitability
3. Adequacy
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
Methods of collecting primary data
1. Observation,
2. Experimentation
3. Simulation
4. Interview
5. Use of telephone
6. Panel method
7. Mail survey
8. Projective techniques
9. Sociometry
10. Focus group discussion
11. Content analysis

Choice of the Methods of Data Collection

1. The nature of the subjection matter under study

2. The unit of enquiry:
3. The size of the simple
4. Scale of survey
5. Respondent's educational levels
6. The type and intensity of the Information to be collected
7. Availability of skilled personnel
8. Required accuracy
1. OBSERVATION: - accurate watching and noting of phenomena as they occur in nature
with regard to cause and effect or mutual relations."

Features of observation

1. Observation in a physical and mental activity:

2. It is selective. A researcher selects the range of things to be observed
3. It’s purposive and not informal.
4. It grasps the significant events and occurrences that effect social relation of the
participants
5. It should be exact.
Types of Observation
1. Simple and systematic observation. –
Observation is done to collect data at exploratory stages of research is termed as simple
observation.
Systematic observation typically involves specification of the exact actions, attributes, or
other variables that are to be recorded and precisely how they are to be recorded.
2. Subjective and objective observation: - If one observes one's own immediate experience
it is termed as subjective observation. It is also known as self-observation.
Objective observations are based on what we observed using our senses, we record
exactly what we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell.
3. Casual and scientific observation: - In casual observation there are no previous
measurement tools.
When observation there is based previous measurement tools it is called scientific
observation is called scientific.
4. Intra subjective and inter subjective observation - If repeated observation of a constant
phenomenon is done by the same Investigator, which yields constant results it is known
as intra subjective observation
Intersubjectivity has been used in social science to refer to agreement. There is
intersubjectivity between people if they agree on a given set of meanings or a definition
of the situation.
5. Factual and inferential observation:- If factual information is collected through
observation, it is known as factual observation
Inferential observation is the observation, which is done to draw inferences.
6. Direct and Indirect observation: - In direct observation, the observer is physically present
to observe the particular station.
When observation is done by using mechanical devices such as eye camera, close circuit
TV etc. It in termed as indirect observation.
7. Participant and non-participant observation. - When the observer participates with the
activities of the group under study, it is known as participant observation.
 When the observer does not actually participate in the activities of the group to be
studied, but simply present in the group, it is known as non participant observation
8. Structured and Unstructured observation:- In structured observation, there is a careful
definition of the units to be observed information to be recorded, the selection of the
relevant data for observation and standardization of conditions of observation,
In unstructured observation the conditions are not standardized. It is mostly used as an
exploratory technique. It is most flexible.
9. Controlled observation and non controlled observation: - In controlled observation, the
observation is done as per pre-arranged plan. In this case the mechanical aids for
obtaining data are used. The conditions of observations are standardized.
. In uncontrolled observation there is no pre arranged plan. No formal mechanical tools
are used for observation

COMPONENTS OR PROCESS OF OBSERVATION

1. Sensation 2. Attention [Link].

Sensation: It is the first step in observation. It is gained through sensory organs

Attention: It depends upon the ability of the observer to concentrate on concerned studies.

Perception: It comprises the Interpretation of sensory reports. Perception helps the mind to
recognize the facts by grouping and identifying sensations

Objectives of Observation

1) It studies collective behavior and complex social situations.

2) Following up of individual units composing the situations
3) Understanding the whole and parts in their interrelation
4) Getting the out of the way details of the situations
Advantages
[Link] researcher is collecting observed information rather than data relating to intentions or
preferences.
2. The actual actions or habits of person are observed
3. There is a reduction or elimination of recall error
4. It can obtain Information from those who are unable to effectively communicate written or
oral form
5. There may be no better way to gather information than through observation
6. Observation provides one of the most reliable methods of data collection especially under the
circumstances where other methods may not be feasible
7. Observation provides one of the most reliable methods of data collection especially under the
circumstances where other methods may not be feasible
Disadvantages
1. Result of observation depends on the skill of the observer
2. Opinions and attitudes cannot be obtained by observation:
3. Forms of behavior such as the frequency of a person's purchase, temple going. Smoking and
crossing roads cannot be obtained by 'one-time' observation
4. It would be expensive to tie up personnel in such tasks,
5. The researcher's findings are limited to those observed
6. These techniques do not usually examine motives for or feelings toward particular behavior

SURVEY:-

Features of Survey Method

1. Survey method is a field study
2. It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
3. It can cover a very huge population.
4. It an extensive as well as intensive study.
5. A survey covers a definite geographical area.
Objectives of Survey
1. To provide information to government or planners or business enterprises
2. It is used to explain a phenomenon.
3. Surveys conducted to know cause and effect relationship
4. Surveys are designed to make comparison of demographic groups

METHODS OF SURVEY

There are two methods of survey

1. Census method

2. Sample method

I. Census and Sample Survey

The census method involves a complete enumeration of all units of the population or universe.
All things in any held of inquiry constitute a Universe" or Population. Complete enquiry or
survey is Impossible in practice in all cases,

Merits

1. The data are collected from each and every item of the population.
2. The results are more accurate and reliable
3. Intensive study is possible
4. Collected data can be used for various surveys and analysis,
Demerits
1. It requires more time, efforts and money,
2. Large number of enumerators is needed to collect data.
3. If the universe is infinite, it is not possible to conduct a complete enumeration survey.
II. SAMPLE SURVEY
A sample is that part of universe or population which we select for the purpose of
investigation.
Defined as" the selection of part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a
judgment or inference about- the aggregate or totality is made
Merits of survey:-
1. It helps to collect a lot of information from different types of individuals such as their
personal characteristics, attitudes, opinion etc.
2. It facilitates drawing generalizations about large population on the basis of study of
their representative sample
3. In survey method various methods can be adopted to collect data.
4. It is useful to verify theories.

Demerits

1. The feasibility of survey method depends upon the willingness and cooperation of
the respondents.
2. Sampling survey is subject to sampling error.
3. The results of the survey are subject to respondent errors. If the respondent's
response Is not true, It will give misleading results.
4. There is a chance of measurement errors.
5. There is limit in collection of information in a particular survey.
6. It is not suited for studies related to historical development
MAIL SURVEYS
In this method of data collection there is no field worker and no personal interface for
communication. Here there is an impersonal contact. That means the questionnaire is sent
through post to the respondent. Questionnaire-based surveys are one of the most common
tools used by market researchers to establish consumer preferences, Bad questionnaires
are misleading and likely to yield meaningless data, so an awareness of the techniques of
questionnaire design is essential to any student or researcher wanting to establish opinions
on their subject specialism
Advantages of Mail Survey
1. Wider area coverage
2. Less bless
3. Thoughtful reply
4. Centralized control
 5. Saving in cost:
Demerits
1. A ready-made mailing list is not available for conducting mail survey.
2. It is difficult to conduct a mail survey of the questionnaires are too long.
3. It is seen that a number of respondents are not responding in time not give wrong
Answers or not sending reply
4. The respondents may not cooperation if the questionnaires are too long.
5. Several questionnaires contain unanswered question and incomplete responses.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Experimental Method is the least-used method for collecting primary data. This method is
commonly used by marketers in test marketing

Planning to conduct experimentation

1. First of all the researcher wants to determine the hypotheses to be tested.

2. Operationalise the variables.
3. Select the type of experimentation plan
4. Choose the setting. The setting may be a laboratory or field
5. Make the experimental conditions as nearly as the expected real life conditions.
6. Introduce suitable method for controlling extraneous variables, which are not
manipulated in experiment.

Advantages

1. The power to determine causal relationship between variables is more compared

with other methods
2. The human errors can be reduced to the minimum
3. It helps to produce exact measurements:
Limitations
1. . It is difficult to establish comparable control and experimental group
2. The scope for experimentation with human beings is limited
3. It lacks realism.
4. It cannot be used for studies related to future,
5. 1t cannot be used to determine the opinions, motives and intension of individuals.

INTERVIEW

In interview, there is face-to-face communication. The person who is Interviewing is

called interviewer and the person who is giving Interview is called interviewee or
respondent or informant.

Interview process consists of the following steps

 1. Preparation

2. Introduction

3. Developing relationship

4. Carrying the Interview

5. Recording the interview

6. Closing the interview

1. Preparation

Some preplanning and preparation is required to carry on an interview. The interviewer

should keep a copy of interview schedule for ready use. He should also keep a list of the
names and address of the respondents. He should regroup the list of names of the
respondents according to the place. It will save time and the cost of travelling. He should
mentally prepare for the interview. He also should determine the way of approach, the
way of Introduction, what situations are to be faced etc. He is bound to face situations
like suspicion, avoidance, reluctance, indifference, inadequate response, distortion etc. If
he is not suitable prepared such situation, he is not able to get necessary information from
the respondents.

[Link]

As the respondents are concerned interviewer is a stranger. So he will be properly

introduced to the respondents. There is no universal mode for introduction. It depends
upon the situation and the group of persons who are going to be interviewed.

[Link] rapport

Before stating the interview, a good relationship to be developed with the respondents.
Then start the conversation with general topic of interest. It is helpful to create a friendly
atmosphere

4. Carrying the interview

After establishing a friendly relationship, questions are asked from the interview schedule. Care,
self restraint, alertness, ability to listen with understand is required to ask questions. Questions
are to be explained if It is not understand by respondent. If the conversation is going out of the
track, then the interviewer should try to get it on track.

5. Recording the Interview:-

 All the required responses are to be noted as they take place. Noting of information should be
done in the schedule under respective question. Tape-records can be used to note the responds.

6. Closing of the interview

After the interview, close the interview by saying thanks with a smile to respondent. If the
respondent wants to know the result of the whole responses, then note his address for sending the
result after the study.

Types of Interview:-

1. Personal Interview:-
a single person is interviewed to establish close personal contact. Knowledge about the
confidential personal aspects of an individual is collected through this way. It may be a
structured or unstructured one
2. Group Interview: This interview is conducted for gathering routine or customary Information
by Interviewing two or more person's simultaneously. Data is collected from a number of
individuals with a common Interest. A group includes six to eight personal with a common
interest.
3. Formal Interview: In this case the interview is conducted for collecting information by
presenting a set of well-defined questions.
4. Informal Interview. It is a flexible form of interview. The Interviewer has full freedom to
make adequate alterations In the questions to suit the specific needs of the Interviewer.
5. Focused Interview: It is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects. Here also the interviewer has freedom to decide the manner
and sequence in which the questions may be asked and has also the freedom to explore
reasons and motives, In other words it focuses on the background of emotional and
Intellectual atmosphere of the problem, usually with unstructured questions
6. Non-directive or unstructured Interview: It is a type of interview in which the interviewer
exercises no control provides no direction, and has no predetermined questions. He
simply acts as a catalyst by encouraging the respondent to tell about his/her experiences
and feelings. It does not follow any standardized technique of recording Information The
Interviewer asks questions only If there is a need to do so.
7. Diagnostic interview: This type of interview is carried out among patients. In this case
the interviewer tries to understand the causes of problem.
8. Treatment Interview: This type of interview is carried out to make the patients aware of
the causes of their deceases and advices them to change the mode of life.
9. Research Interview : These types of interviews are conducted to gather information
related to a specified problem. The questions are asked on a predetermined basis.
10. Mixed Interview : This type of Interview is applied when customary and specified type of
data is required.
 Benefits of Personal Interview

1. More information can be collected

2. In-depth information can be collected.
3. The Information secured through personal interview is more reliable than the
Information collected through other methods.
4. It can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of general population. 5. There is greater
flexibility. The interviewer can modify the questions according to his needs.
6. Personal information can be gathered without any difficulty

7. The interviewer can secure the spontaneous reaction of the respondent. 8. The Interviewer car
collects the supplementary information from the respondent.

Limitations

1. It is an expensive method.

2. There is the possibility of bias of Interviewer as well as that of the respondent.

3. Certain higher groups like officials and high-Income group personal are not easily accessible.

4. It is time consuming process

5. Sometimes the respondent gives Imaginary pictures just to make the interview Interesting

6. A number of specialized trained staff is requtred to conduct Interview.

7 There is a possibility of occurring systematic errors.

Telephone Interview: Telephone is used for conducting personal interviews, It in one of the least
cost methods for obtaining primary information. This method is widely adopted by the business
houses, advertising firms etc. The respondent is contacted through telephones to gather
information.

Merits

The Important merits of telephone interview are as follows.

1. it is more flexible compared with questionnaire methods

2 It is faster and it is cheaper.

3 callbacks are simple and economical

4. There is highest rate of response, because the respondent is contacted through

Telephones.
5. The researcher can record the replies without causing humiliation to respondents.

6. The study can be covered in a wider geographical area.

7. The interview blas is less because there is no face to face to contact

Limitations:-

1. This method has limited use, as it is possible to conduct study among telephone holders.
2. . Relatively small amount of information can only be gathered:
3. It is also not possible to use visual aids while conducting interview.
4. Limited time is given to respondents to answer the questions,
5. It is not suitable for comprehensive surreys, In which detailed information is required.
6. Questions asked through telephones may be short and it will create problems while
answering

In-Depth Interviews

These are typically unstructured, one-on-one conversations between a skilled interviewer

and a member of a target population. This type of Interview is designed to discover
underlying motives and desires and is often used in motivational research
Advantages of in-depth interviews
1. The respondents feel more comfortable with discussing sensitive Interview topics in
in-depth
2. It can be more detailed one and it will reveal more information than in-group
3. Discussions It is easier to schedule
4. It can handle more complex topics than other technique
Disadvantages of in-depth interviews
1. The participants are unable to interact with others
2. Cost of implementation is high.
3. The success of the in-depth interview depends upon the reliability of interviewers
4. It will deplete the energy of energy of the interviewer
5. It lacks consistency.
[Link] lacks statistical validity.
 DATA COLLECTION TOOL

Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper
questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews,
Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.

The following are the top 7 data collection methods for Academic, Opinion-based or product
research.

INTERVIEW

An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole purpose of
collecting relevant information to satisfy a research purpose.

OBSERVATION

This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is gathered through

observation. The nature of the observation could be accomplished either as a complete observer,
an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer or as a complete participant

FOCUS GROUPS

The opposite of quantitative research which involves numerical based data, this data collection
method focuses more on qualitative research. It falls under the primary category for data based
on the feelings and opinions of the respondents. This research involves asking open-ended
questions to a group of individuals usually ranging from 6-10 people, to provide feedback.

QUESTIONNAIRES
This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of questions
and prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are
designed to collect data from a group.

QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire is a devise that is most frequently used in collecting primary data or information
by using survey technique. It is used particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by
private individuals, research workers, private and public organizations and even the government.
In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to
answer the question and return the questionnaire.

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of

gathering information from [Link] is filled by respondent himself
CONSTRUCTION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Designing Questionnaire

Questionnaire is used in survey for collecting data. A questionnaire or a schedule or interview

form is a formulated set of questions for obtaining Information from respondents.

A questionnaire is a device used by a researcher for securing answers to questions by using a

form which the respondent fills himself. It consists of a number of questions printed or typed in
definite order on a form or set of forms. The main purpose of a questionnaire is to collect
information from people who are widely distributed and to achieve success in collecting reliable
and dependable data. Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially
large number of respondents. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather
information on both the overall performance of the test system as well as information on specific
components of the system

QUESTIONNAIRE "a questionnaire is a list of questions sent to a number of persons for them to
answer. It is an instrument that is generally handed over to the respondents and filled in by them
with no help from the interviewer or any other person.

Valid questionnaire have the following characteristics

1. Simplicity,
2. Reliability and precision
3. Adequate for the problem intended for measure (content validity).
4. Reflect underlying theory in the phenomenon
5. Capable of measuring change

Questionnaire design process

1 Defining the Objectives of the survey

[Link] on the Information required
[Link] the Sampling Group
4. Choose the method(s) of reaching target respondents.
[Link] the Questionnaire
[Link] the Questionnaire
[Link] the questionnaires
[Link] the final questionnaire
 CONTENTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Part 1: General Instructions

Introductory part(General instructions and personal information)

The purpose of the general instructions is to help the person completing the questionnaire have a
general understanding of the purpose of the research study, provide a general orientation of the
topic of the questionnaire, and describe informed consent. The details regarding the name of the
survey, the address of the surveyor, serial number the case, place, address ete are given in detail
in the Introductory part of the questionnaire

It include:-

Introduction of researcher.
Purpose of the questionnaire
Confidentiality Statement
Voluntary participation
How to submit the questionnaire

Part 1I: personal informations of Respondent

Personnel and Social background and factual information

The details regarding age, marital status, education, religion, political preference, size of the
family. composition of the family and occupation.. employment details, family cone socio-
economic status etc

Part 1II- Main part of the questionnaire (Body Field)

The information to be collected is given this part. It is asked through questions. the beginning of
the questionnaire is that normally background questions are easier to answer and can ease the
respondent into the questionnaire. One does not want to put off the participant by jumping in to
the most difficult questions

The second part of the questions must be related with the subject of study

Part IV :- Conclusion :- it may a declaration and other assurance from the part of the respondent
Types of Questions:

1- Closed end questions:- These questions are also called fixed alternative questions. For
these questions, the respondents are given a limited number of alternative responses.
From these responses the respondents have to select the one most closely matches his
opinion or attitude.
2- Open Ended Questions
Sometimes theses questions are called free answer questions. That means the respondents
can answer this type of questions in his own words and at any length he chooses. He is
free to answer such questions according to his view. Different types of open-end
questions can be asked in different ways
3- open response-option questions
It is seen that the open response-option questions mostly eliminate the limitations of both
the above mentioned types of questions. An open response-option is a form question
which in both open-ended and includes specific response-options as well.
4- Dichotomous questions:-
A dichotomous question refers to one which has two alternative options. The fixed
alternative may be yes /no, approved/disapproved, true/false, gree/disagree etc

5 .Multiple choice questions

Multiple choice question refers to one which provides several set of alternatives for its
answers. It can be used when an issue has more than two aspects. The researcher should
keep in mind that the questionnaire should include simple questions as far as possible

Guidelines for the Preparation of the Questionnaire:-

1. Keep the language pitched to the level of the respondent.

2. Try to pick words that have same meaning for everyone.

3. Avoid long questions

4. Do not prior assume that your respondent possesses factual information, on first hand
opinions

5. Brevity: The questionnaire should be as brief as possible

6. Simplicity

7. Ambiguity:- The respondent must be in no doubt as to what a question means

8. Leading Questions:
 9. Sequence White preparing questionnaire tmportance should be given for sequence of
questions

10. Personal Questions:-It ls always wise to avoid the use of personal questions unless
they are absolutely necessary

11. Double barreled questions

A question that lends itself to different possible responses to its subparts is called a
double barrelled question. Such questions should be avoided. Instead of that two or more
separate questions are asked,

12 Loaded questions:-

Another type of bias in question occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally charged
manner. Such type of questions should also be avoided

Forms of Questionnaire:-

1. Structured Questionnaire

2. Non Structured Questionnaire

SCHEDULE:-

A schedule Is a set of questions which are asked and filled in by the Interviewer In face to face
situation with another person, Enumerators go to respondents along with schedule. He put the
questions on them from the Performa in the order of the questions listed and record the replies in
the space meant for the same in the Performa.

In certain situations the schedule is handed over to the respondents and enumerator may help
them in recording these answers to the various questions mentioned in the schedule Enumerator
explains the objects and aims of such investigation to the respondents. He also tries to remove
the difficulties faced by the respondent while answering the questions.

Purpose of a schedule

1. . To act as a memory reminder

2. To assist the work of tabulation and analysis

Merits of schedules

1. t can be adopted in those cases where informants are illiterate.

2. When there is very little non response, the enumerators go personally to obtain the
Information
3. The information received through schedules is more reliable and dependable.
 Demerits

1. This method is quietly costly

2. The success of the data collect depends upon the efficiency if the enumerators.

RELIABILITY OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Internal consistency
Internal consistency reflects the extent to which the questionnaire items are inter
correlated, or whether they are consistent in measurement of the same construct
Internal consistency is commonly estimated using the coefficient
2. Test-retest reliability
Test-retest reliability refers to the extent to which individuals' responses to the
questionnaire items remain relatively consistent across repeated administration of the
same questionnaire or alternate questionnaire forms/ Provided the same individuals
were administered the same questionnaires twice (or more), test-retest reliability can
be evaluated using Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient (Pearson's d'or
the intraclass correlation coefficient.

VALIDATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE:-

The validity of a questionnaire is determined by analyzing whether the questionnaire measures

what It is intended to measure. In other words are the Inferences and conclusions made based on
the results of the questionnaire de test scores)

Content validity:- Content validity seeks to answer the question of whether the current test
covers all relevant items needed to answer the research question.

Construct validity:-Construct validity is the degree to which the test actually measures what the
theory claims

Difference between Schedule and Questionnaire

Character Questionnaire Schedule

In general, questionnaires are delivered to the
persons concerned either by post or mail, Enumerators go to the informants
Delivered by
requesting them to answer the questions and return with the schedule.
it.
Only answer the questions asked by
Role of Read and understand the questions and reply in the enumerators. Sometimes, the
Respondents space provided in the questionnaire itself. schedule is distributed to the
respondents, and the enumerators
 assist them in answering the
questions.
Filled by Respondents Enumerators
Response Rate Low High
Coverage Large Comparatively small
Cost Economical Expensive
Respondent’s
Not known Known
identity
Observation
Not applicable Applicable
Method
· Simple to understand
Important features
· Short questions No special features required
required
· Interesting and Engaging
Success relies on Quality of the questionnaire Honesty and competence of
Usage Only when the people are literate and cooperative. Used on both literate and illiterate
people.