WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING
Chapter 11.
Ground Effect
Introduction
When an aircraft flies close to a surface, e.g. ground or water, the lift, drag and stability
characteristics are significantly affected. The changes that occur are collectively known as
ground effect, and are noticeable whenever an aircraft is one wingspan or less above the
surface. The closer to the surface the more pronounced the effect.
The Characteristics of Ground Effect
Ground effect takes place because the surface interferes with, and alters the airflow pattern
around the wings. Primarily the surface restricts the formation of the wingtip vortices
(Fig. 11.1).
FIG. 11.1
This results in a reduction in the amount of induced downwash behind the wing, and
increases the wings effective angle of attack (Fig. 11.2).
INCREASED LIFT
INCREASED EFFECTIVE
ANGLE OF ATTACK
FIG. 11.2
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It also alters the pressure distribution around the wing, and the amount of lift developed. This
occurs because the change in effective angle of attack increases the wing’s coefficient of lift
(CL), and thus its lifting capability at any given angle of attack. The aircraft will also stall at a
lower angle of attack when flying in ground effect. (Fig.11.3).
AIRCRAFT IN
GROUND EFFECT
CLMAX
COEFFICIENT
OF LIFT
CL
AIRCRAFT OUT OF
GROUND EFFECT
ANGLE OF ATTACK
FIG. 11.3
The magnitude of the wing tip vortices, and thus downwash, also determine the amount of
induced drag produced by the wing. Thus the closer the aircraft is to the surface, the greater
the reduction in induced drag, at any given angle of attack (Fig. 11.4).
60
50
PERCENTAGE 40
REDUCTION
IN
INDUCED DRAG 30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
RATIO OF WING HEIGHT TO SPAN, h
b
FIG. 11.4
The reduction in induced drag is approximately 1% at a height of one wingspan above a
surface, and approximately 50% at a height of one tenth of the wingspan. This effect is
therefore significant during the take-off and landing phases of flight when induced drag may
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account for over 80% of the total drag. The overall reduction in drag also reduces the amount
of thrust required to maintain a given airspeed (Fig. 11.5).
THRUST AIRCRAFT OUT OF
REQUIRED GROUND EFFECT
(N)
AIRCRAFT IN
GROUND EFFECT
VELOCITY, KNOTS
FIG. 11.5
The second characteristic associated with ground effect is the change in aircraft trim and
stability. This occurs because the downwash acting behind the wing is deflected by the
surface, thus altering the angle at which the airflow meets the tailplane (Fig. 11.6).
DOWN REDUCED
DOWN
LOAD
LOAD
DOWNWASH
DOWNWASH
DOWNWASH PATH OUT DOWNWASH PATH IN
OF GROUND EFFECT GROUND EFFECT
FIG. 11.6
This places the tailplane at a less negative or increased angle of attack, and reduces the
download, acting on the tailplane. In this condition the aircraft will experience a nose-down
pitching moment, although high ‘T’ tailed aircraft do not respond in this manner, since the
tailplane is outside the influence of the downwash.
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The Influence of Ground Effect on Landing
When an aircraft enters ground effect during the landing phase of flight the sudden increase in
lift and reduction in drag will cause it to experience a floating tendency. The aircraft will also
tend to pitch nose-down due to the reduction in download on the tailplane.
The Influence of Ground Effect on Take-Off
During the take-off phase of flight as the aircraft leaves ground effect the wing tip vortices
will rapidly grow in magnitude, producing an increase in downwash behind the wing. This
will cause the lift produced at a given angle of attack to suddenly reduce, and the associated
rapid increase in induced drag may prevent a successful take-off. The increased downwash
acting on the tailplane will increase the download, and a nose-up pitching moment will result. It
is therefore important that the take-off is not attempted at speeds less than the designated take-
off speed, because even though the aircraft may be able to fly in ground effect, it will be unable
to climb out of it. The aircraft may even sink as it flies out of ground effect, and will resettle
on the ground.
The Influence of Ground Effect on Trailing Edge Flaps
When flying in ground effect with the trailing edge flaps deflected the surface will increase the
adverse pressure gradient over the flap, and will also induce earlier separation of the
airflow (Fig. 11.7).
FLOW SEPARATION AT FLAP
DUE TO HIGH PRESSURE ON GROUND
FIG. 11.7
This will significantly reduce the maximum lift capability of the wing, compared to that obtained
outside ground effect. This is one of the main reasons why STOL aircraft are manufactured
with a high wing configuration.
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