BRAINWARE UNIVERSITY

398, Ramkrishnapur Road, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, Kolkata - 700 125

Laboratory Assignment Submission
Session - 2024 - 25

Name of the Department:-

Programme Name: -

Semester / Year:-

Course Code: -

Course Name: -

Name of the Student:-

Roll No :-

Registration No :-

Student Code : -
 INDEX
[Link]. Topic Page No. Exp. Date Submission Signature Remarks
date
1 Assignment -1
7-8 30/01/2025
Create a numeric vector of 10
elements and perform.

2 Assignment -2
Write an R program to: 9-11 20/02/2025
Create a 3x3 matrix with numbers from 1
to 9 and perform.
Create a 2x2x3 array with numbers from
1 to 12, name its rows,
columns, and dimensions, and access
specific elements.
3 Assignment – 3
Write an R program to: 12-13 27/02/2025
1. Check if a number entered by the user is
positive, negative or zero using if-else.
2. Use a for loop to print the first 10 natural
numbers.
3. Use a while loop to calculate the factorial of
a given number.
4. Demonstrate the use of break and next
statements in a repeat loop.
4 Assignment – 4
a. Create a vector of numbers from 1 14-16 27/02/2025
to 10.

[Link] a script to manipulate the

string "Brainware
University".

C. create a vector using seq() from 1

to 20.
5 Assignment – 5
Write a script to process the text "R 17-20 20/03/2025
Programming is Fun and
Challenging".

Create a nested list containing.

Write a script to:

1. Access and modify the data frame
inside the nested list.
2. Add a new entry for a student.
3. Extract students with "Excellent"
performance.

2|Page
6 Assignment – 6
Write an R script to: 21-27 27/03/2025

1. Create a data frame with the following

columns:
Name, Age, Marks.
2. Display the structure of the data frame
using str().
3. Use dim(), nrow(), and ncol() to find its
dimensions, number of rows, and
columns.
4. View the first and last few rows using
head() and tail()

• Create a data frame with columns:

"Name", "Age", and "Score" and display it.
• Access the following from the data
frame you created:
• All rows of the "Name" column.
• The first row of the data frame.
• The "Age" and "Score" columns for the first
two rows.
• Apply the following functions to
your data frame and interpret
the output:
• dim()
• nrow()
• ncol()
• str()
• summary()
• names()
• head()
• tail()
7 Assignment – 7
• Add a new column, "Grade", to your 28-31 27/03/2025
data frame with values
"A", "B", "A".

• Add a new row to your data frame

with the details of another student.

• Combine two data frames with

identical columns using rbind().

• Add a new column, "Hobbies", to

your data frame using cbind().

• Merge two data frames using a

common column ("ID") and display
the result.
8 Assignment – 8
1. Perform the following 32-35 03/04/2025
mathematical operations using R:
a) Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division of two numbers.

3|Page
 b) Calculate the square root, factorial, and
exponential of a number.
c) Compute the sine, cosine, and tangent of
an angle in both degrees and radians.
[Link] the following
mathematical expression in R:

3. Use R to calculate the following for

a given vector of numbers:
a) Sum and product of all elements.
b) Mean, median, and standard
deviation.
9 Assignment – 9
Create a box plot for a numerical 36 10/04/2025
column in a dataset and identify any
outliers.
10 Assignment – 10
[Link] R to generate the frequency 37-38 17/04/25
distribution of a categorical variable.
[Link] a histogram for a numerical
column in a [Link] and interpret
the shape of the histogram
(e.g.,skewness,modality).
11 Assignment – 11
[Link] a dataset to a CSV file and read it 39-42 24/04/25
back into R. Display the contents of the
loaded data.
2. Load an Excel file into R using an
appropriate library and display its
content.
[Link] an R script to load a CSV file,
convert it into a data frame, and display
its content.
[Link] a text file containing tab-
delimited data into R and convert it into a
data frame.
5. Save a subset of a data frame to a new
CSV file with a different name.
12 Assignment – 12
[Link] the following plots using a 43-49 17/04/25
dataset in R: a) Line plot for numerical
data. b) Scatter plot between two
variables. c) Bar chart for categorical
data. d) Histogram for numerical data.

2. Customize the visualizations created in

question 14 by adding:
a) Titles, axis labels, and legends.
b) Different colors and line types for the
plots.

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13 Assignment – 13
[Link] a pie chart to represent the 50-53 17/04/25
proportion of categories in a
dataset.
Use the ggplot2 package to create the
following:
a) A scatter plot with a regression line.
b) A grouped bar chart for categorical
data.

[Link] a heatmap for a correlation

matrix using a dataset in R.
14 Assignment – 14
[Link] the covariance between 54 01/24/25
multiple pairs of numerical variables in a
dataset.

15 Assignment – 15
[Link] a correlation matrix for a dataset 55-57 01/05/25
and visualize it using a heatmap.

[Link] the strength and direction of

relationships between variables
based on the correlation values obtained.

16 Assignment – 16
[Link] the regression model output 58-59 15/05/25
and interpret the following:
a) R-squared value.
b) Coefficients of the regression
equation.
c) p-values of the model terms.
17 Assignment – 17
[Link] a regression model using a 60-62 15/05/25
training dataset. Use it to predict
outcomes for a test dataset.

[Link] the prediction accuracy of the

model using the
following metrics:
a) Mean Absolute Error (MAE).
b) Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE).
18 Assignment – 18
1. Implement a k-Nearest Neighbors 63-67 15/05/25
(kNN) classification model
on a dataset. Evaluate the classification
performance.

2. Build a decision tree model using a

dataset. Visualize the tree
structure.
3. Evaluate the classification models
using the following metrics:
a) Precision.
b) Recall.1
c) F1-Score.

5|Page
19 Assignment – 19
[Link] the Boston dataset from the MASS 68-69 22/05/25
package to predict medv(median home
value) based on lstat (percentage of
lower status population). Evaluate the
residuals and R-squared value.
20 Assignment – 20
Fit a polynomial regression model to 70 22/05/25
predict mpg based on wt and visualize
the results with a smooth curve.

21 Assignment – 21
Use the rpart package to build a decision 71 22/05/25
tree classifier for the iris
dataset, predicting the species of flowers.

22 Assignment – 22
Use the class package to build a KNN 72-74 22/05/25
classifier for the iris dataset.
Experiment with different values of k.
23 Assignment – 23
Compare classification models (e.g., 75-78 22/05/25
logistic regression, decision tree,
SVM) on the iris dataset using metrics
such as accuracy, precision, recall,
and F1 score.

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 Assignment-1

Create a numeric vector of 10 elements and perform the following

operations:
• Calculate the sum & mean of the vector.
• Access the 3rd and 5th elements of the vector.

Code-
num_vector <- c(5, 12, 8, 20, 15, 25, 30, 10, 18, 22)
vector_sum <- sum(num_vector)
vector_mean <- mean(num_vector)
third_element <- num_vector[3]
fifth_element <- num_vector[5]
cat("Sum of vector:", vector_sum, "\n")
cat("Mean of vector:", vector_mean, "\n")
cat("3rd Element:", third_element, "\n")
cat("5th Element:", fifth_element, "\n")

Ouput-

Sum of vector: 165

Mean of vector: 16.5
3rd Element: 8
5th Element: 15

Create a list containing:

• Your name, age, and a vector of your five favorite numbers.
• Add a new element to the list (e.g., "Favorite Color").

Code-

my_list <- list(

Name = "Samrat Pal",

Age = 20,

Favorite_Numbers = c(10, 11, 19, 28, 35)

my_list$Favorite_Color <- "Blue"

print(my_list)

7|Page
Output-
$Name

[1] "Samrat Pal"

$Age

[1] 20

$Favorite_Numbers

[1] 10 11 19 28 35

$Favorite_Color

[1] "Blue"

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 Assignment-2

Write an R program to:

Create a 3x3 matrix with numbers from 1 to 9 and perform:
o Transpose of the matrix.
o Row-wise and column-wise sums.

Code-
my_matrix <- matrix(1:9, nrow = 3, ncol = 3, byrow = TRUE)
transposed_matrix <- t(my_matrix)
row_sums <- rowSums(my_matrix)
col_sums <- colSums(my_matrix)
cat("Original Matrix:\n")
print(my_matrix)
cat("\nTransposed Matrix:\n")
print(transposed_matrix)
cat("\nRow-wise Sums:\n")
print(row_sums)
cat("\nColumn-wise Sums:\n")
print(col_sums)

Output-

Original Matrix:
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 2 3
[2,] 4 5 6
[3,] 7 8 9

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Transposed Matrix:
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 4 7
[2,] 2 5 8
[3,] 3 6 9

Row-wise Sums:
[1] 6 15 24

Column-wise Sums:
[1] 12 15 18

Create a 2x2x3 array with numbers from 1 to 12, name its rows, columns, and dimensions,
and access specific elements.

Code-
my_array <- array(1:12, dim = c(2, 2, 3))
dimnames(my_array) <- list(
Rows = c("Row1", "Row2"),
Columns = c("Col1", "Col2"),
Dimensions = c("Matrix1", "Matrix2", "Matrix3")
)
cat("Array with named dimensions:\n")
print(my_array)
element_1 <- my_array["Row1", "Col1", "Matrix1"] # Access element in first matrix
element_2 <- my_array["Row2", "Col2", "Matrix2"] # Access element in second matrix
cat("\nAccessed Elements:\n")
cat("Element at (Row1, Col1, Matrix1):", element_1, "\n")
cat("Element at (Row2, Col2, Matrix2):", element_2, "\n")

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Output-

Array with named dimensions:

, , Dimensions = Matrix1

Col1 Col2
Row1 1 3
Row2 2 4

, , Dimensions = Matrix2

Col1 Col2
Row1 5 7
Row2 6 8

, , Dimensions = Matrix3

Col1 Col2
Row1 9 11
Row2 10 12

Accessed Elements:
Element at (Row1, Col1, Matrix1): 1
Element at (Row2, Col2, Matrix2): 8

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 Assignment-3

Write an R program to:

1. Check if a number entered by the user is positive, negative or zero using if-else.

Code-

a <- 10
if(a>1){
print("the number is positive")
}else if(a<1){
print("the number is negetive")
}else{
print("the number is one")
}

Output-
the number is positive

2. Use a for loop to print the first 10 natural numbers.

Code-

for (i in 1:10) {
cat(i, "\n")
}

Output-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

3. Use a while loop to calculate the factorial of a given number.

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Code-

num <- 5
fact <- 1
i <- 1
while(i<=num){
fact<-fact*i
i<-i+1
}
print(fact)

Output-

[1] 120

4. Demonstrate the use of break and next statements in a repeat loop.

Code-

i <- 1
repeat{
if(i%%2==0){
i <- i+1
next
}
print(i)
if(i==9){
break
}
i <- i+1
}

Output-

[1] 1
[1] 3
[1] 5
[1] 7
[1] 9

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 Assignment-4
[Link] a vector of numbers from 1 to 10.
1. Calculate the mean(), sum(), min(), and max() of the vector.
2. Generate a sequence from 5 to 50 with a step of 5 using seq().
3. Concatenate the numbers and print them as a single string using paste().

Code-
numbers <- 1:10

mean_value <- mean(numbers)

sum_value <- sum(numbers)
min_value <- min(numbers)
max_value <- max(numbers)

cat("Mean:", mean_value, "\n")

cat("Sum:", sum_value, "\n")
cat("Min:", min_value, "\n")
cat("Max:", max_value, "\n")

sequence <- seq(5, 50, by = 5)

cat("Sequence:", sequence, "\n")

concatenated_string <- paste(numbers, collapse = " ")

cat("Concatenated String:", concatenated_string, "\n")

Output-
Mean: 5.5
Sum: 55
Min: 1

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Max: 10
Sequence: 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

b. Write a script to manipulate the string "Brainware

University".
1. Extract the substring "Brainware" using substr().
2. Split the string into individual words using strsplit().
3. Convert the entire string to uppercase and lowercase using toupper() and tolower().

Code-
text <- "Brainware University"
substring_text <- substr(text, 1, 9)
split_text <- strsplit(text, " ")
uppercase_text <- toupper(text)
lowercase_text <- tolower(text)
print(paste("Extracted Substring:", substring_text))
print("Split Words:")
print(split_text)
print(paste("Uppercase:", uppercase_text))
print(paste("Lowercase:", lowercase_text))

Output-
[1] "Extracted Substring: Brainware"
[1] "Split Words:"
[[1]]
[1] "Brainware" "University"

[1] "Uppercase: BRAINWARE UNIVERSITY"

[1] "Lowercase: brainware university"

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C. create a vector using seq() from 1 to 20. Write a program to:
1. Repeat the vector three times using rep().
2. Access the first 5 elements of the vector.
3. Demonstrate vector recycling by adding this vector to another vector of length 5.
Code-
vec <- seq(1, 20)

repeated_vec <- rep(vec, times = 3)

print("Repeated Vector:")
print(repeated_vec)

first_five <- vec[1:5]

print("First 5 Elements:")
print(first_five)

short_vec <- c(10, 20, 30, 40, 50)

result_vec <- vec + short_vec
print("Vector Recycling Result:")
print(result_vec)

Output-
Repeated Vector:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
First 5 Elements:
12345
Vector Recycling Result:
11 22 33 44 55 16 27 38 49 60 21 32 43 54 65 26 37 48 59 70

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 Assignment-5
Write a script to process the text "R Programming is Fun and
Challenging".
1. Extract every second word from the sentence.
2. Count the number of occurrences of vowels (a, e, i, o, u) in the string.
3. Replace the word "Challenging" with "Exciting".

Code-
text <- "R Programming is Fun and Challenging"
words <- unlist(strsplit(text, " "))
second_word <- words[seq(2, length(words), by = 2)]
extracted_words <- paste(second_words,collopse = " ")
count_vowels <- function(text){
sum(length(gregexpr("[aeiouAEIOU]",text,perl = TRUE)))
}
updated_text <- gsub("\\behallenging\\b","Exciting",text)
cat("Extracted words:",extracted_words,"\n")
cat("Vowel Count:",vowel_count,"\n")
cat("Extracted words:",updated_text,"\n")

Output-
Extracted words: Programming Fun Challenging
Vowel Count: 9
Extracted words: R Programming is Fun and Challenging

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• Create a nested list containing:
1. A data frame with student names, marks, and grades.
2. A vector with the total marks for each student.
3. A list of factors indicating the performance category ("Excellent", "Good", "Average").

Code-
students_df <- [Link](
Name = c("Rohit", "Srijit", "Samrat", "Rounak"),
Marks = c(95, 78, 60, 88),
Grade = c("A", "B", "C", "A")
)
total_marks <- students_df$Marks
performance_categories <- factor(
c("Excellent", "Good", "Average", "Excellent"),
levels = c("Average", "Good", "Excellent")
)
nested_list <- list(
Student_Data = students_df,
Total_Marks = total_marks,
Performance_Category = performance_categories
)
print(nested_list)

Output-
$Student_Data
Name Marks Grade
1 Rohit 95 A
2 Srijit 78 B
3 Samrat 60 C
4 Rounak 88 A

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$Total_Marks
[1] 95 78 60 88

$Performance_Category
[1] Excellent Good Average Excellent
Levels: Average Good Excellent

• Write a script to:

1. Access and modify the data frame inside the nested list.
2. Add a new entry for a student.
3. Extract students with "Excellent" performance.

Code-

students_df <- [Link](

Name = c("Rohit", "Srijit", "Samrat", "Rounak"),
Marks = c(95, 78, 60, 88),
Grade = c("A", "B", "C", "A")
)
total_marks <- students_df$Marks
performance_categories <- factor(
c("Excellent", "Good", "Average", "Excellent"),
levels = c("Average", "Good", "Excellent")
)
nested_list <- list(
Student_Data = students_df,
Total_Marks = total_marks,
Performance_Category = performance_categories
)
nested_list$Student_Data$Marks[students_df$Name == "Charlie"] <- 65

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new_student <- [Link](Name = "Suvendu", Marks = 90, Grade = "A")
nested_list$Student_Data <- rbind(nested_list$Student_Data, new_student)
nested_list$Total_Marks <- nested_list$Student_Data$Marks
new_performance <- factor("Excellent", levels = c("Average", "Good", "Excellent"))
nested_list$Performance_Category <- c(nested_list$Performance_Category, new_performance)
excellent_students <- nested_list$Student_Data[nested_list$Performance_Category == "Excellent", ]
print(nested_list)
print("Students with Excellent Performance:")
print(excellent_students)

Output-
$Student_Data
Name Marks Grade
1 Rohit 95 A
2 Srijit 78 B
3 Samrat 60 C
4 Rounak 88 A
5 Suvendu 90 A

$Total_Marks
[1] 95 78 60 88 90

$Performance_Category
[1] Excellent Good Average Excellent Excellent
Levels: Average Good Excellent

[1] "Students with Excellent Performance:"

Name Marks Grade
1 Rohit 95 A
4 Rounak 88 A
5 Suvendu 90 A

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 Assignment-6
Write an R script to:
1. Create a data frame with the following columns:
Name, Age, Marks.

Code-
students <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit"),
Age = c(20, 22, 21),
Score = c(85, 90, 88),
stringsAsFactors = FALSE
)
print(students)

Output-
Name Age Score
1 Samrat 20 85
2 Srijit 22 90
3 Rohit 21 88

2. Display the structure of the data frame using str().

Code-
students <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit"),
Age = c(20, 22, 21),
Score = c(85, 90, 88),
stringsAsFactors = FALSE
)

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str(students)

Output-
'[Link]': 3 obs. of 3 variables:
$ Name : chr "Samrat" "Srijit" "Rohit"
$ Age : num 20 22 21
$ Score: num 85 90 88

3. Use dim(), nrow(), and ncol() to find its dimensions, number of

rows, and columns.
Code-
students <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit"),
Age = c(20, 22, 21),
Score = c(85, 90, 88),
stringsAsFactors = FALSE
)
dim(students)
nrow(students)
ncol(students)

Output-
[1] 3 3
[1] 3
[1] 3

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4. View the first and last few rows using head() and tail()

Code-
students <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit"),
Age = c(20, 22, 21),
Score = c(85, 90, 88),
stringsAsFactors = FALSE
)
head(students)
tail(students)

Output-
Name Age Score
1 Samrat 20 85
2 Srijit 22 90
3 Rohit 21 88

Name Age Score

1 Samrat 20 85
2 Srijit 22 90
3 Rohit 21 88

• Create a data frame with columns: "Name", "Age", and "Score"

and display it.
Code-
df <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit", "Rounak", "Suvendu"),
Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35, 28),
Score = c(85, 90, 78, 88, 92)

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)
print(df)

Output-
int(df)
Name Age Score
1 Samrat 25 85
2 Srijit 30 90
3 Rohit 22 78
4 Rounak 35 88
5 Suvendu 28 92

• Access the following from the data frame you created:

• All rows of the "Name" column.
• The first row of the data frame.
• The "Age" and "Score" columns for the first two rows.

Code-
df <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit", "Rounak", "Suvendu"),
Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35, 28),
Score = c(85, 90, 78, 88, 92)
)
df$Name # or df[, "Name"]
df[1, ]
df[1:2, c("Age", "Score")]

Output-
[1] "Samrat" "Srijit" "Rohit" "Rounak" "Suvendu"
Name Age Score

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1 Samrat 25 85

Age Score
1 25 85
2 30 90

• Apply the following functions to your data frame and interpret

the output:
• dim()
• nrow()
• ncol()
• str()
• summary()
• names()
• head()
• tail()

Code-
df <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit", "Rounak", "Suvendu"),
Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35, 28),
Score = c(85, 90, 78, 88, 92)
)
dim(df)
nrow(df)
ncol(df)
str(df)
summary(df)

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names(df)
head(df)
tail(df)

Output-

[1] 5 3

[1] 5

[1] 3

'[Link]': 5 obs. of 3 variables:

$ Name : chr "Samrat" "Srijit" "Rohit" "Rounak" ...
$ Age : num 25 30 22 35 28
$ Score: num 85 90 78 88 92

Name Age Score

Length:5 Min. :22 Min. :78.0
Class :character 1st Qu.:25 1st Qu.:85.0
Mode :character Median :28 Median :88.0
Mean :28 Mean :86.6
3rd Qu.:30 3rd Qu.:90.0
Max. :35 Max. :92.0
[1] "Name" "Age" "Score"

Name Age Score

1 Samrat 25 85
2 Srijit 30 90
3 Rohit 22 78
4 Rounak 35 88

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5 Suvendu 28 92

Name Age Score

1 Samrat 25 85
2 Srijit 30 90
3 Rohit 22 78
4 Rounak 35 88
5 Suvendu 28 92

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 Assignment-7
• Add a new column, "Grade", to your data frame with values
"A", "B", "A".

Code-
df <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit", "Rounak", "Suvendu"),
Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35, 28),
Score = c(85, 90, 78, 88, 92)
)
df$Grade <- c("A", "B", "A", "B", "A")
print(df)

Output-
Name Age Score Grade
1 Samrat 25 85 A
2 Srijit 30 90 B
3 Rohit 22 78 A
4 Rounak 35 88 B
5 Suvendu 28 92 A

• Add a new row to your data frame with the details of another student.

Code-
df <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit", "Rounak", "Suvendu"),
Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35, 28),
Score = c(85, 90, 78, 88, 92)
)
df$Grade <- c("A", "B", "A", "B", "A")
new_student <- [Link](Name = "Shivam", Age = 27, Score = 80, Grade = "B")

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df <- rbind(df, new_student)
print(df)

Output-
Name Age Score Grade
1 Samrat 25 85 A
2 Srijit 30 90 B
3 Rohit 22 78 A
4 Rounak 35 88 B
5 Suvendu 28 92 A
6 Shivam 27 80 B

• Combine two data frames with identical columns using rbind().

Code-
df1 <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit"),
Age = c(25, 30),
Score = c(85, 90),
Grade = c("A", "B")
)

df2 <- [Link](

Name = c("Rohit", "Rounak"),
Age = c(22, 35),
Score = c(78, 88),
Grade = c("A", "B")
)
combined_df <- rbind(df1, df2)
print(combined_df)

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Output-
Name Age Score Grade
1 Samrat 25 85 A
2 Srijit 30 90 B
3 Rohit 22 78 A
4 Rounak 35 88 B

• Add a new column, "Hobbies", to your data frame using cbind().

Code-
df <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rounak", "Rohit"),
Age = c(25, 30, 22, 35),
Score = c(85, 90, 78, 88),
Grade = c("A", "B", "A", "B")
)
hobbies <- c("Reading", "Cycling", "Painting", "Gaming")
df <- cbind(df, Hobbies = hobbies)
print(df)

Output-
Name Age Score Grade Hobbies
1 Samrat 25 85 A Reading
2 Srijit 30 90 B Cycling
3 Rounak 22 78 A Painting
4 Rohit 35 88 B Gaming

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Merge two data frames using a common column ("ID") and
display the result.

Code-
df1 <- [Link](
ID = c(1, 2, 3),
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rounak"),
Age = c(25, 30, 22)
)
df2 <- [Link](
ID = c(1, 2, 3),
Score = c(85, 90, 78),
Grade = c("A", "B", "A")
)

merged_df <- merge(df1, df2, by = "ID")

print(merged_df)

Output-
ID Name Age Score Grade
1 1 Samrat 25 85 A
2 2 Srijit 30 90 B
3 3 Rounak 22 78 A

31 | P a g e
 Assignment-8

Perform the following mathematical operations using R:

a) Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of two numbers.

Code-
a <- 10
b <- 5
sum_result <- a + b
print(paste("Addition:", sum_result))
sub_result <- a - b
print(paste("Subtraction:", sub_result))
mul_result <- a * b
print(paste("Multiplication:", mul_result))
div_result <- a / b
print(paste("Division:", div_result))

Output-
[1] "Addition: 15"
[1] "Subtraction: 5"
[1] "Multiplication: 50"
[1] "Division: 2"

b) Calculate the square root, factorial, and exponential of a number.

Code-
num <- 5
sqrt_result <- sqrt(num)
factorial_result <- factorial(num)

32 | P a g e
exp_result <- exp(num)
cat("Square root of", num, ":", sqrt_result, "\n")
cat("Factorial of", num, ":", factorial_result, "\n")
cat("Exponential of", num, "(e^num):", exp_result, "\n")

Output-
Square root of 5 : 2.236068
Factorial of 5 : 120
Exponential of 5 (e^num) : 148.4132

c) Compute the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle in both degrees and
radians.

Code-
angle_deg <- 45
angle_rad <- angle_deg * pi / 180
sin_rad <- sin(angle_rad)
cos_rad <- cos(angle_rad)
tan_rad <- tan(angle_rad)
sin_deg <- sin(angle_deg * pi / 180)
cos_deg <- cos(angle_deg * pi / 180)
tan_deg <- tan(angle_deg * pi / 180)
cat("Angle:", angle_deg, "degrees /", angle_rad, "radians\n")
cat("Sine (rad):", sin_rad, "\n")
cat("Cosine (rad):", cos_rad, "\n")
cat("Tangent (rad):", tan_rad, "\n")

Output-
Angle: 45 degrees / 0.7853982 radians
Sine (rad): 0.7071068
Cosine (rad): 0.7071068
Tangent (rad): 1

33 | P a g e
[Link] the following mathematical expression in R:

Code-
x_values <- 1:10
results <- (3*x_values^2 + 5*x_values + 2) / (x_values^2 + 1)
print(results)

Output-
[1] 5.000000 4.800000 4.400000 4.117647 3.923077 3.783784 3.680000 3.600000 3.536585 3.485149

3. Use R to calculate the following for a given vector of numbers:

a) Sum and product of all elements.

Code-
numbers <- c(3, 7, 2, 9)
sum_result <- sum(numbers)
product_result <- prod(numbers)
cat("Sum of elements:", sum_result, "\n")
cat("Product of elements:", product_result, "\n")

Output-
Sum of elements: 21
Product of elements: 378

34 | P a g e
b) Mean, median, and standard deviation.

Code-
numbers <- c(10, 20, 30, 40, 50)
mean_result <- mean(numbers)
median_result <- median(numbers)
sd_result <- sd(numbers)
cat("Mean:", mean_result, "\n")
cat("Median:", median_result, "\n")
cat("Standard Deviation:", sd_result, "\n")

Output-
Mean: 30
Median: 30
Standard Deviation: 15.81139

35 | P a g e
 Assignment-9

Create a box plot for a numerical column in a dataset and identify

any outliers.

Code-
student_data <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rohit", "Rouank", "Suvendu", "Akash"),
Age = c(22, 24, 23, 21, 25, 30),
Score = c(88, 92, 79, 85, 90, 100)
)
boxplot(student_data$Score,
main = "Boxplot of Student Scores",
ylab = "Score",
col = "lightblue",
border = "darkblue")
outliers <- [Link](student_data$Score)$out
print(outliers)

Output-
numeric(0)

36 | P a g e
 Assignment-10
[Link] R to generate the frequency distribution of a categorical variable.
Code-
categories <- c("Apple", "Banana", "Apple", "Orange", "Banana", "Apple", "Grapes", "Orange", "Banana", "Grapes")
frequency_distribution <- table(categories)
print(frequency_distribution)
frequency_df <- [Link](frequency_distribution)
colnames(frequency_df) <- c("Category", "Frequency")
print(frequency_df)
barplot(frequency_distribution,
main = "Frequency Distribution of Categories",
xlab = "Categories",
ylab = "Frequency",
col = "lightblue")

Output-
categories
Apple Banana Grapes Orange
3 3 2 2
Category Frequency
1 Apple 3
2 Banana 3
3 Grapes 2
4 Orange 2

37 | P a g e
[Link] a histogram for a numerical column in a [Link] and
interpretthe shape of the histogram(e.g.,skewness,modality).

Code-
[Link](123)
data <- [Link](values = rnorm(1000, mean = 50, sd = 10))
hist(data$values,
main = "Histogram of Values",
xlab = "Values",
ylab = "Frequency",
col = "lightblue",
border = "black",
breaks = 30)

Output-

38 | P a g e
 Assignment-11
[Link] a dataset to a CSV file and read it back into R. Display the
contents of the loaded data.

Code-
data <- [Link](
Name = c("Samrat", "Srijit", "Rounak"),
Age = c(25, 30, 35),
City = c("New York", "Los Angeles", "Chicago")
)
print(data)
[Link](data, "C:/Users/Samrat Pal/Downloads/sample_data.csv", [Link] = FALSE)
loaded_data <- [Link]("C:/Users/Samrat Pal/Downloads/sample_data.csv")
print(loaded_data)

Output-

Name Age City

1 Samrat 25 New York
2 Srijit 30 Los Angeles
3 Rounak 35 Chicago

Name Age City

1 Samrat 25 New York
2 Srijit 30 Los Angeles
3 Rounak 35 Chicago

2. Load an Excel file into R using an appropriate library and

display its content.

Code-
library(readxl)

39 | P a g e
excel_data <- read_excel("C:/Users/Samrat Pal/Downloads/sample_data.xlsx")
print(excel_data)

Output-
Name Age City

1 Samrat 25 New York

2 Srijit 30 Los Angeles
3 Rounak 35 Chicago

[Link] an R script to load a CSV file, convert it into a data frame,

and display its content.

Code-
library(readr)
csv_file_path <- "C:/Users/Samrat Pal/Downloads/sample_data.csv"
data_frame <- read_csv(csv_file_path)
print(data_frame)

Output-
Rows: 3 Columns: 3
── Column specification
Delimiter: ","
chr (2): Name, City
dbl (1): Age

ℹ Use `spec()` to retrieve the full column specification for this data.
ℹ Specify the column types or set `show_col_types = FALSE` to quiet this message.
Name Age City
1 Samrat 25 New York
2 Srijit 30 Los Angeles
3 Rounak 35 Chicago

40 | P a g e
[Link] a text file containing tab-delimited data into R and convert
it into a data frame.

Code-
file_path <- "C:/Users/Samrat Pal/Downloads/sample_data.csv"
if ([Link](file_path)) {
data <- [Link](file_path, header = TRUE, sep = "\t")
cat("File successfully read!\n")
str(data)
head(data)
} else {
cat("Error: File does not exist at the specified path.\n")
}

Output-
File successfully read!
'[Link]': 3 obs. of 1 variable:
$ [Link]: chr "Samrat,25,New York" "Srijit,30,Los Angeles" "Rounak,35,Chicago"
[Link]
1 Samrat,25,New York
2 Srijit,30,Los Angeles
3 Rounak,35,Chicago

41 | P a g e
5. Save a subset of a data frame to a new CSV file with a different
name.

Code-
data <- mtcars # using the built-in mtcars dataset
subset_data <- data[data$mpg > 20, ]
[Link](subset_data, file = "subset_mtcars.csv", [Link] = FALSE)

Output-
mpg cyl disp hp drat wt qsec vs am gear carb

Mazda RX4 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.620 16.46 0 1 4 4

Mazda RX4 Wag 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.875 17.02 0 1 4 4

Datsun 710 22.8 4 108.0 93 3.85 2.320 18.61 1 1 4 1

Hornet 4 Drive 21.4 6 258.0 110 3.08 3.215 19.44 1 0 3 1

Merc 240D 24.4 4 146.7 62 3.69 3.190 20.00 1 0 4 2

Merc 230 22.8 4 140.8 95 3.92 3.150 22.90 1 0 4 2

Fiat 128 32.4 4 78.7 66 4.08 2.200 19.47 1 1 4 1

Honda Civic 30.4 4 75.7 52 4.93 1.615 18.52 1 1 4 2

Toyota Corolla 33.9 4 71.1 65 4.22 1.835 19.90 1 1 4 1

Toyota Corona 21.5 4 120.1 97 3.70 2.465 20.01 1 0 3 1

Fiat X1-9 27.3 4 79.0 66 4.08 1.935 18.90 1 1 4 1

Porsche 914-2 26.0 4 120.3 91 4.43 2.140 16.70 0 1 5 2

Lotus Europa 30.4 4 95.1 113 3.77 1.513 16.90 1 1 5 2

Volvo 142E 21.4 4 121.0 109 4.11 2.780 18.60 1 1 4 2

42 | P a g e
 Assignment-12
[Link] the following plots using a dataset in R:
a) Line plot for numerical data.
Code-
data(mtcars)
plot(mtcars$mpg, type = "l",
col = "blue",
lwd = 2,
xlab = "Index",
ylab = "Miles Per Gallon (mpg)",
main = "Line Plot of MPG")

Output-

43 | P a g e
b) Scatter plot between two variables.
Code-
data(mtcars)
plot(mtcars$hp, mtcars$mpg,
col = "red",
pch = 19,
xlab = "Horsepower",
ylab = "Miles Per Gallon (mpg)",
main = "Scatter Plot: MPG vs Horsepower")

Output-

44 | P a g e
c) Bar chart for categorical data.

Code-
data(mtcars)
cyl_factor <- [Link](mtcars$cyl)
barplot(table(cyl_factor),
col = "lightgreen",
xlab = "Number of Cylinders",
ylab = "Count of Cars",
main = "Bar Chart of Cylinders")

Output-

45 | P a g e
d) Histogram for numerical data.

Code-
data(mtcars)
hist(mtcars$mpg,
col = "lightblue",
border = "black",
xlab = "Miles Per Gallon (mpg)",
main = "Histogram of MPG")

Output-

46 | P a g e
 2. Customize the visualizations created in question 14 by adding:
a) Titles, axis labels, and legends.

Code-
[Link]( “ggplot2“)

[Link](“reshape2”)

library(ggplot2)
library(reshape2)
data(mtcars)
cor_matrix <- cor(mtcars)
cor_melted <- melt(cor_matrix)
ggplot(data = cor_melted, aes(x = Var1, y = Var2, fill = value)) +
geom_tile(color = "white") +
scale_fill_gradient2(low = "blue", high = "red", mid = "white",
midpoint = 0, limit = c(-1, 1),
name = "Correlation Coefficient") +
theme_minimal() +
theme([Link].x = element_text(angle = 45, hjust = 1, size = 10),
[Link].y = element_text(size = 10),
[Link] = element_text(hjust = 0.5, size = 14, face = "bold"),
[Link] = "right") +
labs(title = "Heatmap of Correlation Matrix for mtcars Dataset",
x = "Variables",
y = "Variables")

47 | P a g e
Output-

b) Different colors and line types for the plots.

Code-

library,(ggplot2)
library(reshape2)
data(mtcars)
cor_matrix <- cor(mtcars)
cor_melted <- melt(cor_matrix)
ggplot(data = cor_melted, aes(x = Var1, y = Var2, fill = value)) +
geom_tile(color = "black", linetype = "dashed") +

48 | P a g e
scale_fill_gradient2(low = "purple", mid = "white", high = "orange",
midpoint = 0, limit = c(-1, 1),
name = "Correlation Coefficient") +
theme_minimal() +
theme([Link].x = element_text(angle = 45, hjust = 1, size = 10),
[Link].y = element_text(size = 10),
[Link] = element_text(hjust = 0.5, size = 14, face = "bold"),
[Link] = "right") +
labs(title = "Heatmap of Correlation Matrix for mtcars Dataset",
x = "Variables",
y = "Variables")

Output-

49 | P a g e
 Assignment-13

[Link] a pie chart to represent the proportion of categories in a

dataset.
Use the ggplot2 package to create the following:
a) A scatter plot with a regression line.
Code-
[Link]("ggplot2”)

[Link]("dplyr”)

library(ggplot2)

library(dplyr)

data <- [Link](

category = c("A", "B", "C", "D"),

values = c(10, 20, 30, 40)

pie_chart <- ggplot(data, aes(x = "", y = values, fill = category)) +

geom_bar(stat = "identity", width = 1) +

coord_polar("y") +

theme_void() +

labs(title = "Proportion of Categories")

print(pie_chart)

[Link](123)

scatter_data <- [Link](

x = rnorm(100),

y = rnorm(100)

scatter_plot <- ggplot(scatter_data, aes(x = x, y = y)) +

geom_point() + # Scatter points

geom_smooth(method = "lm", se = FALSE, color = "blue") +

labs(title = "Scatter Plot with Regression Line", x = "X-axis", y = "Y-axis")

print(scatter_plot)

50 | P a g e
Output-

b) A grouped bar chart for categorical data.

Code-
library(ggplot2)
library(dplyr)
data <- [Link](
category = rep(c("A", "B", "C"), each = 2),
group = rep(c("Group 1", "Group 2"), times = 3),
values = c(10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35)
)
grouped_bar_chart <- ggplot(data, aes(x = category, y = values, fill = group)) +
geom_bar(stat = "identity", position = "dodge") + # Use position = "dodge" for grouped bars

51 | P a g e
 labs(title = "Grouped Bar Chart", x = "Category", y = "Values") +
theme_minimal()
print(grouped_bar_chart)

Output-

[Link] a heatmap for a correlation matrix using a dataset in R.

Code-
library(ggplot2)
library(reshape2)
library(RColorBrewer)
data <- mtcars
cor_matrix <- round(cor(data), 2)
melted_cor <- melt(cor_matrix)

52 | P a g e
ggplot(data = melted_cor, aes(x = Var1, y = Var2, fill = value)) +
geom_tile(color = "white") +
scale_fill_gradient2(low = "blue", high = "red", mid = "white",
midpoint = 0, limit = c(-1,1), space = "Lab",
name="Correlation") +
theme_minimal() +
theme([Link].x = element_text(angle = 45, vjust = 1, hjust = 1)) +
coord_fixed() +
geom_text(aes(label = value), color = "black", size = 3)

Output-

53 | P a g e
 Assignment-14
[Link] the covariance between multiple pairs of numerical variables in a
dataset.

Code-
df <- [Link](
height = c(150, 160, 170, 180, 190),
weight = c(65, 72, 78, 85, 90),
age = c(25, 30, 35, 40, 45),
gender = c("F", "M", "M", "F", "M")
)
numeric_df <- df[sapply(df, [Link])]
cov_matrix <- cov(numeric_df)
print(cov_matrix)

Output-
height weight age
height 250.0 157.50 125.00
weight 157.5 99.50 78.75
age 125.0 78.75 62.50

[Link] the correlation coefficient between two numerical columns in a

dataset.

Code-
df <- [Link](
height = c(150, 160, 170, 180, 190),
weight = c(65, 72, 78, 85, 90)
)
correlation <- cor(df$height, df$weight)
print(correlation)

Output-
0.9953501

54 | P a g e
 Assignment-15
[Link] a correlation matrix for a dataset and visualize it using a heatmap.
Code-

df <- [Link](
height = c(150, 160, 170, 180, 190),
weight = c(65, 72, 78, 85, 90),
age = c(25, 30, 35, 40, 45)
)
numeric_df <- df[sapply(df, [Link])]
cor_matrix <- cor(numeric_df)
corrplot(cor_matrix,
method = "color",
[Link] = "black",
[Link] = "black",
[Link] = 1.2,
[Link] = 1.1,
col = colorRampPalette(c("blue", "white", "red"))(200))
melted_cor <- melt(cor_matrix)
ggplot(data = melted_cor, aes(x = Var1, y = Var2, fill = value)) +
geom_tile(color = "white") +
geom_text(aes(label = round(value, 2)), color = "white", size = 4) +
scale_fill_gradient2(low = "blue", high = "red", mid = "white",
midpoint = 0, limit = c(-1, 1), space = "Lab",
name = "Correlation") +
theme_minimal() +
coord_fixed() +
labs(title = "Correlation Heatmap", x = "", y = "") +
theme([Link].x = element_text(angle = 45, vjust = 1, hjust = 1))

55 | P a g e
Output-

56 | P a g e
[Link] the strength and direction of relationships between variables
based on the correlation values obtained.
Answer-

Sure! Here's a quick guide to interpreting the strength and direction of relationships based on correlation
values:

1. Direction

• Positive correlation (r > 0): As one variable increases, the other also increases.
• Negative correlation (r < 0): As one variable increases, the other decreases.

2. Strength

(These are general rules; exact interpretation can depend on the field you're working in.)

Correlation Coefficient (r) Strength

0.90 to 1.00 or -0.90 to -1.00 Very strong
0.70 to 0.89 or -0.70 to -0.89 Strong
0.40 to 0.69 or -0.40 to -0.69 Moderate
0.10 to 0.39 or -0.10 to -0.39 Weak
0.00 to 0.09 or -0.00 to -0.09 Very weak or none

Example interpretations:

• r = 0.82 → Strong positive relationship

• r = -0.52 → Moderate negative relationship
• r = 0.15 → Weak positive relationship
• r = -0.05 → Very weak (almost no) relationship

57 | P a g e
 Assignment-16
[Link] the regression model output and interpret the following:
a) R-squared value.
Answer-
• Definition: R-squared measures how much of the variability in the dependent variable (outcome) is explained by
the independent variable(s) (predictors).
• Interpretation:
o R-squared = 0% → The model explains none of the variability.
o R-squared = 100% → The model explains all the variability.
• Typical Ranges:
o Higher R-squared (e.g., above 70%) often indicates a good model fit, but context matters (in some fields
like social sciences, 30-50% can still be acceptable).

b) Coefficients of the regression equation.

Answer-
• Definition: Coefficients represent the size and direction of the effect each independent variable has on the
dependent variable.
• Interpretation:
o A positive coefficient means that as the predictor increases, the dependent variable also increases
(holding other variables constant).
o A negative coefficient means that as the predictor increases, the dependent variable decreases.
• Equation form:
o Example:
y=β0+β1x1+β2x2+…+ϵy = \beta_0 + \beta_1x_1 + \beta_2x_2 + \ldots + \epsilony=β0+β1x1+β2x2+…+ϵ
o where:
▪ β0\beta_0β0 = intercept (value of yyy when all xxx's are 0)
▪ β1,β2,…\beta_1, \beta_2, \ldotsβ1,β2,… = coefficients for each predictor

58 | P a g e
c) p-values of the model terms.
• Definition: p-values test the null hypothesis that the corresponding coefficient is zero (no effect).
• Interpretation:
o p-value < 0.05 → statistically significant (the variable meaningfully contributes to the model).
o p-value ≥ 0.05 → not statistically significant (the variable may not have a meaningful effect).
• Important: A statistically significant term implies evidence that the predictor influences the outcome.

In short:
• High R-squared = better model fit.
• Coefficients tell you the direction and strength of influence.
• Low p-values mean the variables are likely important.

59 | P a g e
 Assignment-17
[Link] a regression model using a training dataset. Use it to predict
outcomes for a test dataset.
Code-
train_data <- [Link](
x = c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5),
y = c(2, 4, 5, 4, 5)
)
test_data <- [Link](
x = c(6, 7, 8)
)
model <- lm(y ~ x, data = train_data)
summary(model)
predictions <- predict(model, newdata = test_data)
print(predictions)

Output-

Call:
lm(formula = y ~ x, data = train_data)

Residuals:
1 2 3 4 5
-0.8 0.6 1.0 -0.6 -0.2

Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
(Intercept) 2.2000 0.9381 2.345 0.101
x 0.6000 0.2828 2.121 0.124

Residual standard error: 0.8944 on 3 degrees of freedom

60 | P a g e
Multiple R-squared: 0.6, Adjusted R-squared: 0.4667
F-statistic: 4.5 on 1 and 3 DF, p-value: 0.124

1 2 3
5.8 6.4 7.0

[Link] the prediction accuracy of the model using the following metrics:
a) Mean Absolute Error (MAE).
Code-
actual <- c(3, 5, 2, 7)
predicted <- c(2.5, 5.5, 2.2, 6.8)
mae_manual <- mean(abs(actual - predicted))
cat("MAE (Manual Calculation):", mae_manual, "\n")
MAE <- function(actual, predicted) {
mean(abs(actual - predicted))
}
mae_function <- MAE(actual, predicted)
cat("MAE (Using Custom Function):", mae_function, "\n")
if (!require(Metrics)) {
[Link]("Metrics")
library(Metrics)
} else {
library(Metrics)
}
mae_metrics <- mae(actual, predicted)
cat("MAE (Using Metrics package):", mae_metrics, "\n")

Output-
MAE (Manual Calculation): 0.35
MAE (Using Custom Function): 0.35
MAE (Using Metrics package): 0.35

61 | P a g e
b) Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE).
Code-
actual <- c(3, 5, 2, 7)
predicted <- c(2.5, 5.5, 2.2, 6.8)
rmse_manual <- sqrt(mean((actual - predicted)^2))
cat("RMSE (Manual Calculation):", rmse_manual, "\n")
RMSE <- function(actual, predicted) {
sqrt(mean((actual - predicted)^2))
}
rmse_function <- RMSE(actual, predicted)
cat("RMSE (Using Custom Function):", rmse_function, "\n")
rmse_metrics <- rmse(actual, predicted)
cat("RMSE (Using Metrics package):", rmse_metrics, "\n")

Output-
RMSE (Manual Calculation): 0.4123106
RMSE (Using Custom Function): 0.4123106
RMSE (Using Metrics package): 0.4123106

62 | P a g e
 Assignment-18
1. Implement a k-Nearest Neighbors (kNN) classification model on a dataset.
Evaluate the classification performance.
Code-
[Link]("class")
[Link]("caret")
[Link]("e1071")
library(class)
library(caret)
library(e1071)
data(iris)
[Link](123)
iris <- iris[sample(nrow(iris)), ]
normalize <- function(x) {
return((x - min(x)) / (max(x) - min(x)))
}
iris_norm <- [Link](lapply(iris[1:4], normalize))
iris_norm$Species <- iris$Species
[Link](123)
train_index <- sample(1:nrow(iris_norm), 0.7 * nrow(iris_norm))
train_data <- iris_norm[train_index, ]
test_data <- iris_norm[-train_index, ]
train_X <- train_data[, 1:4]
test_X <- test_data[, 1:4]
train_y <- train_data$Species
test_y <- test_data$Species
k <- 3
predictions <- knn(train = train_X, test = test_X, cl = train_y, k = k)
conf_matrix <- confusionMatrix(predictions, test_y)
print(conf_matrix)

63 | P a g e
Output-
Confusion Matrix and Statistics

Reference
Prediction setosa versicolor virginica
setosa 16 0 0
versicolor 0 8 2
virginica 0 1 18

Overall Statistics

Accuracy : 0.9333
95% CI : (0.8173, 0.986)
No Information Rate : 0.4444
P-Value [Acc > NIR] : 4.158e-12

Kappa : 0.8961

Mcnemar's Test P-Value : NA

Statistics by Class:

Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica

Sensitivity 1.0000 0.8889 0.9000
Specificity 1.0000 0.9444 0.9600
Pos Pred Value 1.0000 0.8000 0.9474
Neg Pred Value 1.0000 0.9714 0.9231
Prevalence 0.3556 0.2000 0.4444
Detection Rate 0.3556 0.1778 0.4000
Detection Prevalence 0.3556 0.2222 0.4222
Balanced Accuracy 1.0000 0.9167 0.9300

64 | P a g e
2. Build a decision tree model using a dataset. Visualize the tree structure.
Code-
[Link]("rattle")
[Link]("rpart")
[Link]("[Link]")
library(rattle)
library(rpart)
library([Link])
data(wine, package = "rattle")
str(wine)
wine$Type <- [Link](wine$Type)
model <- rpart(Type ~ ., data = wine, method = "class")
[Link](model,
type = 2,
extra = 104,
[Link] = TRUE,
main = "Decision Tree for Wine Classification")

Output-

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3. Evaluate the classification models using the following metrics:
a) Precision.
b) Recall.
c) F1-Score.
Code-
[Link]("caret")
[Link]("e1071")
library(caret)
library(e1071)
[Link](123)
index <- createDataPartition(iris$Species, p = 0.7, list = FALSE)
train_data <- iris[index, ]
test_data <- iris[-index, ]
library(rpart)
model <- rpart(Species ~ ., data = train_data, method = "class")
predictions <- predict(model, newdata = test_data, type = "class")
conf_mat <- confusionMatrix(predictions, test_data$Species)
print(conf_mat)
cm <- table(Predicted = predictions, Actual = test_data$Species)
precision <- diag(cm) / colSums(cm)
recall <- diag(cm) / rowSums(cm)
f1 <- 2 * (precision * recall) / (precision + recall)
metrics <- [Link](Precision = precision,
Recall = recall,
F1_Score = f1)
print(metrics)

Output-
Confusion Matrix and Statistics

Reference

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Prediction setosa versicolor virginica
setosa 15 0 0
versicolor 0 14 2
virginica 0 1 13

Overall Statistics

Accuracy : 0.9333
95% CI : (0.8173, 0.986)
No Information Rate : 0.3333
P-Value [Acc > NIR] : < 2.2e-16

Kappa : 0.9

Mcnemar's Test P-Value : NA

Statistics by Class:

Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica

Sensitivity 1.0000 0.9333 0.8667
Specificity 1.0000 0.9333 0.9667
Pos Pred Value 1.0000 0.8750 0.9286
Neg Pred Value 1.0000 0.9655 0.9355
Prevalence 0.3333 0.3333 0.3333
Detection Rate 0.3333 0.3111 0.2889
Detection Prevalence 0.3333 0.3556 0.3111
Balanced Accuracy 1.0000 0.9333 0.9167

Precision Recall F1_Score

setosa 1.0000000 1.0000000 1.0000000

versicolor 0.9333333 0.8750000 0.9032258

virginica 0.8666667 0.9285714 0.8965517

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 Assignment-19
[Link] the Boston dataset from the MASS package to predict medv (median home value)
based on lstat (percentage of lower status population). Evaluate the residuals and
R-squared value.

Code-
[Link]("MASS
library(MASS)
data("Boston")
head(Boston)
model <- lm(medv ~ lstat, data = Boston)
summary(model)
r_squared <- summary(model)$[Link]
cat("R-squared:", r_squared, "\n")
plot(Boston$lstat, Boston$medv,
xlab = "LSTAT (% lower status population)",
ylab = "MEDV (Median home value)",
main = "Linear Regression: MEDV ~ LSTAT",
pch = 20, col = "blue")
abline(model, col = "red", lwd = 2)

# Step 7: Evaluate residuals

residuals <- resid(model)
head(residuals)

# Step 8: Plot residuals vs fitted values

plot(model$[Link], residuals,
xlab = "Fitted values",
ylab = "Residuals",
main = "Residuals vs Fitted Values")
abline(h = 0, col = "red", lty = 2)

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Output-

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 Assignment-20
Fit a polynomial regression model to predict mpg based on wt and visualize
the results with a smooth curve.

Code-
data(mtcars) # Load the mtcars dataset (contains mpg and wt)
model_poly <- lm(mpg ~ poly(wt, 2), data = mtcars)
summary(model_poly)
wt_seq <- seq(min(mtcars$wt), max(mtcars$wt), [Link] = 100)
mpg_pred <- predict(model_poly, newdata = [Link](wt = wt_seq))
plot(mtcars$wt, mtcars$mpg,
xlab = "Weight (wt)",
ylab = "Miles per Gallon (mpg)",
main = "Polynomial Regression: MPG vs Weight",
pch = 16, col = "blue")
lines(wt_seq, mpg_pred, col = "red", lwd = 2)

Output-

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 Assignment-21
[Link] the rpart package to build a decision tree classifier for the iris dataset,
predicting the species of flowers.
Code-
[Link]("rpart")
[Link]("[Link]")
library(rpart)
library([Link])
data(iris)
model <- rpart(Species ~ ., data = iris, method = "class")
summary(model)
[Link](model,
type = 2, # Labels all nodes
extra = 104, # Displays class probabilities and percentages
[Link] = TRUE,
main = "Decision Tree for Iris Species Classification")

Output-

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 Assignment-22
[Link] the class package to build a KNN classifier for the iris dataset.
Experiment with different values of k.

Code-
[Link]("class")
[Link]("caret") # for confusion matrix and performance metrics
library(class)
library(caret)
data(iris)
normalize <- function(x) {
return((x - min(x)) / (max(x) - min(x)))
}
iris_norm <- [Link](lapply(iris[, 1:4], normalize))
iris_norm$Species <- iris$Species # Append target variable back
[Link](123)
train_index <- createDataPartition(iris_norm$Species, p = 0.7, list = FALSE)
train_data <- iris_norm[train_index, ]
test_data <- iris_norm[-train_index, ]
train_x <- train_data[, 1:4]
train_y <- train_data$Species
test_x <- test_data[, 1:4]
test_y <- test_data$Species
for (k in c(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)) {
cat("\nResults for k =", k, "\n")
pred <- knn(train = train_x, test = test_x, cl = train_y, k = k)
cm <- confusionMatrix(pred, test_y)
print(cm$table)
cat("Accuracy:", round(cm$overall['Accuracy'], 4), "\n")
}

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Output-
Results for k = 1
Reference
Prediction setosa versicolor virginica
setosa 15 0 0
versicolor 0 14 2
virginica 0 1 13
Accuracy: 0.9333

Results for k = 3
Reference
Prediction setosa versicolor virginica
setosa 15 0 0
versicolor 0 14 2
virginica 0 1 13
Accuracy: 0.9333

Results for k = 5
Reference
Prediction setosa versicolor virginica
setosa 15 0 0
versicolor 0 14 2
virginica 0 1 13
Accuracy: 0.9333

Results for k = 7
Reference
Prediction setosa versicolor virginica
setosa 15 0 0
versicolor 0 15 2
virginica 0 0 13
Accuracy: 0.9556

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Results for k = 9
Reference
Prediction setosa versicolor virginica
setosa 15 0 0
versicolor 0 15 1
virginica 0 0 14
Accuracy: 0.9778

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 Assignment-23
Compare classification models (e.g., logistic regression, decision tree,
SVM) on the iris dataset using metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall,
and F1 score.

Code-
[Link]("nnet")
[Link]("rpart")
[Link]("e1071")
[Link]("caret")
library(nnet)
library(rpart)
library(e1071)
library(caret)
data(iris)
[Link](123)
train_index <- createDataPartition(iris$Species, p = 0.7, list = FALSE)
train_data <- iris[train_index, ]
test_data <- iris[-train_index, ]
log_model <- multinom(Species ~ ., data = train_data)
tree_model <- rpart(Species ~ ., data = train_data, method = "class")
svm_model <- svm(Species ~ ., data = train_data)
log_pred <- predict(log_model, test_data)
tree_pred <- predict(tree_model, test_data, type = "class")
svm_pred <- predict(svm_model, test_data)
evaluate_model <- function(pred, actual) {
cm <- confusionMatrix(pred, actual)
list(
Accuracy = cm$overall['Accuracy'],
Precision = cm$byClass[, 'Precision'],
Recall = cm$byClass[, 'Recall'],

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 F1 = cm$byClass[, 'F1']
)
}
log_metrics <- evaluate_model(log_pred, test_data$Species)
tree_metrics <- evaluate_model(tree_pred, test_data$Species)
svm_metrics <- evaluate_model(svm_pred, test_data$Species)

cat("🔹 Logistic Regression Metrics:\n")

print(log_metrics)

cat("\n🔹 Decision Tree Metrics:\n")

print(tree_metrics)

cat("\n🔹 SVM Metrics:\n")

print(svm_metrics)

Output-
# weights: 18 (10 variable)
initial value 115.354290
iter 10 value 11.160147
iter 20 value 3.325479
iter 30 value 2.713763
iter 40 value 2.623668
iter 50 value 2.409177
iter 60 value 2.346975
iter 70 value 2.246318
iter 80 value 2.223840
iter 90 value 1.930046
iter 100 value 1.883252
final value 1.883252
stopped after 100 iterations

🔹 Logistic Regression Metrics:

$Accuracy
Accuracy

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0.9555556

$Precision
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 0.8823529 1.0000000

$Recall
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 1.0000000 0.8666667

$F1
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 0.9375000 0.9285714

🔹 Decision Tree Metrics:

$Accuracy
Accuracy
0.9333333

$Precision
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 0.8750000 0.9285714

$Recall
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 0.9333333 0.8666667

$F1
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 0.9032258 0.8965517

🔹 SVM Metrics:

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$Accuracy
Accuracy
0.9333333

$Precision
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 0.8750000 0.9285714

$Recall
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 0.9333333 0.8666667

$F1
Class: setosa Class: versicolor Class: virginica
1.0000000 0.9032258 0.8965517

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