Bare Minimum
Engineering Notes
(Term 1, 2, 3)
Overview:
This is basically the ABSOLUTE minimum I think you need to pass. The other tabs go in more
detail and have pictures.
Force:
● Force is a form of energy, a push or pull applied to an object as a result of its interaction
with another object.
● Compressive force
○ A pushing or squeezing force
■ Concrete pillars of a highway overpass
● Tensile Force
○ A pulling or stretching force
■ Steel cables in a suspension bridge
● Shear Force
○ Sliding force
■ Scissors cutting paper
● Bending Force
○ Bending force
○ Causes material to curve
■ The horizontal beams in a building bend under the weight of the floors
they support
● Torsion Force
○ A twisting force that causes rotation about an axis
■ Turning a screwdriver
Bridges:
● Beam bridge
○ A horizontal beam supported at both ends
● Arch bridge
○ Transfers load at the abutments
○ Arch is in compression
● Cable-Stayed Bridge
○ There is redundancy built in
○ Columns in compression, cables in tension
● Suspension bridge
○ Deck hangs from vertical cables attached to large main cables draped over
towers
○ Cables are in tension, towers in compression, anchors hold the cables
● Truss bridge
○ Triangles distribute tension and compression
○ Members on bottom and going outward are in tension
○ Members on top, side, or going inward are in compression
○ Best strength to weight ratio
Simple Machines and Gears:
● Purpose
○ Magnify force
○ Magnify velocity
○ Change direction
● Lever
○ A rigid bar that pivots around a point (fulcrum)
○ Find the type of lever whether FLE is in the middle
■ Seesaw
● Inclined plane
○ A flat surface set on an angle
■ Ramp
● Wedge
○ Two incline planes back to back with sharp edge
■ Axe
● Screw
○ An inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder
■ Drill bit
● Wheel and Axle
○ A large wheel attached to a smaller axle so they rotate together
■ Car wheels
● Pulley
○ A wheel with a groove and rope/chain running through it
■ Flagpole rope
● Gears
○ When the driver gear turns, teeth push against the teeth of driven gear, causing it
to rotate
○ Meshed gears turn in opposite directions (unless an idler gear is added)
■ Bicycles
Formulas:
● Moments
○ A measure of the turning effect of a force about a point or axis
○ Moment (Nm) = Force × Perpendicular Distance (from Pivot)
● Mechanical Advantage
○ Ratio of output and input
○ Mechanical Advantage = Load ÷ Effort = Output Force ÷ Input Force
● Velocity Ratio
○ Distance from the Effort ÷ Distance from the Load
○ VR:1
Materials:
● Properties
○ Hardness
■ Resistance to scratching, indentation, or wear
○ Toughness
■ Ability to absorb energy and deform without breaking (resistance to
impact)
○ Ductility
■ Ability to be stretched or drawn into a wire without breaking
○ Malleability
■ Ability to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets
○ Tensile Strength
■ Maximum tensile force a material can withstand before breaking
○ Conductivity
■ How well a material conducts electricity or thermal energy
● Forming Processes
○ Forming
■ Plastically deforming material through applied forces or pressure
○ Casting
■ Pouring molten metal into molds and allowing it to solidify
○ Moulding
■ Shaping liquid or pliable materials using molds
○ Additive Manufacturing
■ Building objects by adding material layer by layer
○ Machining
■ Material removal process where tools remove material from large objects
○ Joining
■ Combining multiple separate components into larger assemblies
● Composite
○ A material made by combining two or more distinct materials
○ Examples
■ Galvanised Steel (zinc and steel for strength)
■ Timber (cellulose fibre and lignin)
● Alloy
○ A mixture of multiple metals or a metal with a non-metal
○ Improves properties (strength, durability, corrosion resistance)
● Polymer
○ A material made up of macromolecules formed by repeating monomers bonded
together
● Thermoplastics
○ Solid at room temperature
○ Becomes plastic and soft upon heating (low melting point)
○ Can be shaped into any mould or design
○ Can be reheated, melted, and change shape without posing risk to material
properties
○ Bonded by linear bonding, which are weak and in a chain
● Thermosetting plastic
○ Harden upon heating or addition of chemicals
○ Once set cannot melt (will char or burn)
○ Solidify due to crosslink bonds holding it together
● Ceramics
○ A mix of organic materials and metal
○ Hard and brittle
Friction:
● Friction is the resistive force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact
● Friction Force = μ (Coefficient of Friction) × Normal Force
Forces and Bridges
Forces and Bridges
(Term 1, 2)
Force:
● Force is a form of energy, a push or pull applied to an object as a result of its interaction
with another object.
Forces of Motion:
● Compressive force
○ A pushing or squeezing force that reduces the length of a material
■ Concrete pillars of a highway overpass are under compression from the
weight of the structure above
● Tensile Force
○ A pulling or stretching force that increases the length of a material.
■ Steel cables in a suspension bridge are in tension as they hold up the
roadway
● Shear Force
○ Acts parallel to a surface, causing layers of a material to slide past one another
■ Scissors cutting paper
● Bending Force
○ A combination of tension and compression that occurs when a force is applied
perpendicular to the length of a beam
○ Causes material to curve
■ The horizontal beams in a building bend under the weight of the floors
they support
● Torsion Force
○ A twisting force that causes rotation about an axis
■ Turning a screwdriver
Load:
● Static load
○ When weight is applied without speed/velocity
● Dynamic load
○ Use the weight of an object with speed/velocity to increase the force
■ Jumping on a chair is more likely to break it
Bridges:
● Beam bridge
○ A horizontal beam supported at both ends
● Arch bridge
○ A curved structure that transfers load into horizontal thrusts at the abutments
○ Arch is in compression, pushing outward into the supports
● Cable-Stayed Bridge
○ The closer the cables are, the stiffer the bridge
○ There is redundancy built in
○ Columns in compression, cables in tension
● Suspension bridge
○ The deck hangs from vertical cables attached to large main cables draped over
towers
○ Main cables are in tension, towers in compression, and anchors hold the cables
● Truss bridge
○ Triangular framework distributes tension and compression across members
○ Members on bottom and going outward are in tension
○ Members on top, side, or going inward are in compression
○ Best strength to weight ratio
Simple Machines, Moments, and
Mechanical Advantage
Simple Machines, Moments, and Mechanical Advantage
(Term 1)
Purpose:
● Simple machines have 3 functions
○ Magnify force
○ Magnify velocity
○ Change direction
Basic Overview:
● Lever
○ A rigid bar that pivots around a point (fulcrum)
○ Magnifies force
○ Find the lever’s order if FLE is in the middle
■ Seesaw
● Inclined plane
○ A flat surface set on an angle
○ Magnifies force
■ Ramp
● Wedge
○ Two incline planes back to back with sharp edge
○ Converts force in one direction into a splitting force
■ Axe
● Screw
○ An inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder
○ Magnifies force, holds things together
■ Drill bit
● Wheel and Axle
○ A large wheel attached to a smaller axle so they rotate together
○ Magnifies force and velocity
■ Car wheels
● Pulley
○ A wheel with a groove and rope/chain running through it
○ Changes the direction of a force
○ Magnifies force
■ Flagpole rope
■ Curtain rope
Gears:
● When the driver gear turns, its teeth push
against the teeth of the driven gear,
causing it to rotate
● Meshed gears turn in opposite directions
(unless an idler gear is added)
● Bicycles: You push a gear (driven gear)
with your feet, which transfers energy
through the chain to the gear at the tire,
and pushes the bike forward
Moments:
● A measure of the turning effect of a force about a point or axis
● Formula
○ Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance (from Pivot)
● Moments are measured in Newton-metres (Nm)
Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio, Efficiency:
● Mechanical advantage
○ The ratio of the force produced by a machine to the force applied to it
● Velocity Ratio
○ The ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load
○ Tells us how movement is shared between the effort and the load, regardless of
friction
● Efficiency (η)
○ The ratio of useful work output to the total work input of a machine
○ If a system is 100% efficient (impossible in reality) then MA=VR and η=100%
Mechanical Advantage of Simple Machines (and Gears):
● Levers:
● Pulleys:
● Gears:
Materials
Materials
(Term 1, 2, 3)
Properties:
● Hardness
○ Resistance to scratching, indentation, or wear
● Toughness
○ Ability to absorb energy and deform without breaking (resistance to impact)
● Ductility
○ Ability to be stretched or drawn into a wire without breaking
● Malleability
○ Ability to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets
● Tensile Strength
○ Maximum tensile force a material can withstand before breaking
● Conductivity
○ How well a material conducts electricity or thermal energy
● Elasticity
○ Ability to return to original shape after the load is removed
● Plasticity
○ Ability to undergo permanent deformation without cracking
● Melting/Boiling Point
○ Temperature at which a material changes phase
● Corrosion Resistance
○ Ability to withstand rusting or chemical attack
● Applications:
○ Bridges need high tensile strength, toughness, and ductility
○ Cookware needs high thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance
Forming Processes:
● Forming (Primary)
○ Involves plastically deforming material through applied forces or pressure
○ Hot working is performed above recrystallisation temperature
■ Easier deformation
○ Cold working is performed below the recrystallisation temperature
■ Causes strain hardening which increases material strength
○ Common processes
■ Forging
■ Rolling
■ Extrusion
● Casting (Primary)
○ Involves pouring molten metal into molds and allowing it to solidify
○ Often requires secondary machining for surface finish
○ Types
■ Die casting
■ Sand casting
■ Investment casting
● Moulding (Primary)
○ Shaping liquid or pliable materials using molds
○ Two main processes
■ Injection moulding (for thermoplastics)
■ Compression moulding (for thermosets)
● Additive Manufacturing (Primary)
○ Involves building objects by adding material layer by layer
○ Common techniques
■ 3D Printing
■ Selective Laser Sintering
■ Vat Polymerisation
● Machining (Secondary)
○ A material removal process where tools remove material from larger objects
○ Types
■ Drilling
■ Turning
■ Reaming
● Joining (Secondary)
○ Involves combining multiple separate components into larger assemblies
○ Types
■ Welding
■ Riveting
■ Soldering
■ Fastening
Manufacturing Process Selection Factors:
● Material properties
● Object geometry
● Production volume
● Tool and material costs
● Required automation levels
● Tolerance requirements
● Surface finish needs
Composites:
● A material made by combining two or more distinct materials (a matrix and a
reinforcement) to get properties that neither material has alone
● The matrix binds everything together
● The reinforcement adds strength, stiffness, or toughness
● Materials are bonded physically or chemically
● Examples
○ Galvanised steel
■ Steel (iron alloy) and zinc
■ Bonded to add strength
○ Fibreglass
■ Polymer resin and glass fibres
○ Timber (behaves like natural composite)
■ Cellulose fibre (strong in tension) and lignin (matrix)
○ Plywood
Alloys:
● A mixture of multiple metals or a metal with a non-metal, combined to improve strength,
durability, corrosion resistance, or other properties
● Examples
○ Steel
■ Iron and carbon
■ For strength
Thermoplastics and Thermosets:
● Resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin
● Polymers
○ A material made up of macromolecules formed by repeating smaller units called
monomers bonded together
○ Natural polymers
■ Cellulose (wood), natural rubber
○ Synthetic polymers
■ Plastics
● Thermoplastics
○ Solid at room temperature
○ Becomes plastic and soft upon heating (low melting point)
○ Can be shaped into any mould or design
○ Can be reheated, melted, and change shape without posing risk to material
properties
○ Bonded by linear bonding, which are weak and in a chain
● Thermosetting plastic
○ Harden upon heating or addition of chemicals
○ Once set cannot melt (will char or burn)
○ Have high melting points
○ Solidify due to crosslink bonds holding it together
■ Formation of covalent bonds that hold portions of several polymer chains
● Thermoplastics vs Thermosets
○ Behaviour after heating
■ This is due to differences in chemical structure
Ceramics:
● A mix of organic materials and metal
● Properties
○ High hardness
○ Brittle
○ High compressive strength, high melting point, low electrical and thermal
conductivity, corrosion resistance
Everything Else
Miscellaneous
(All Terms)
General Formulas (given during exam):
1. Force (N) = Mass × Acceleration
2. Mechanical Advantage = Load ÷ Effort = Output Force ÷ Input Force
3. Moments (Nm) = Force × Perpendicular Distance
4. Velocity Ratio (VR:1) = Distance from the Effort ÷ Distance from the Load
5. Efficiency (η) = MA ÷ VR
6. Friction Force = μ (Coefficient of Friction) × Normal Force
Friction:
● Friction is the resistive force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact
● Normal force
○ The perpendicular force pressing the surfaces together
○ Often equal to weight on a horizontal surface
● F = μN
○ F is Friction Force (N)
○ μ is coefficient of friction (no units)
■ Almost between 0 and 1
○ N is Normal Force
● How to calculate:
1. Find the normal force
a. On a flat surface, N = mass × gravity
b. On an inclined plane, N = mgcosθ
2. Multiply by the coefficient of friction to get F
a. Depends on material
3. To move object, the force must be greater than F