Energy Resources (Part -1)

A – Energy
B – Conventional Energy Resources
C – Alternative Energy Resources
AEnergy
• 1. Sources of Energy
• What are the major sources of energy?
• How our usage of energy has changed in time?
• 2. Energy Use
• To what purposes energy is used for?
• 3. Challenges
• What major energy challenges are we facing?
1 Sources of Energy
• Nature
• Energy is movement or the possibility of creating movement:
• Exists as potential (stored) and kinetic (used) forms.
• Conversion of potential to kinetic.
• Movement states:
• Ordered (mechanical energy) or disordered (thermal energy).
• Temperature can be perceived as a level of disordered energy.
• Major tendency is to move from order to disorder (entropy).
• Importance
• Human activities are dependant on the usage of several forms and sources of
energy.
• Energy demands:
• Increased with economic development.
• The world’s power consumption is about 12 trillion watts a year, with 85% of it from
fossil fuels.
1 Sources of Energy
Chemical
• Fossil fuels (Combustion)
Non-Renewable Nuclear
• Uranium (Fission of atoms)

Chemical
Energy • Muscular (Oxidization)
Nuclear
• Geothermal (Conversion)
• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)
Gravity
Renewable • Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)
Indirect Solar
• Biomass (Photosynthesis)
• Wind (Pressure differences)
Direct Solar
• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)
 Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in
1 MJ/kg)

Wood
Coal
Crude Oil
Kerosene
Ethanol
Methanol
Methane
Natural Gas
Gasoline
Hydrogen

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

1 Sources of Energy
• Energy transition
• Shift in the sources of energy that satisfy the needs of an economy / society.
• Linked with economic and technological development.
• Linked with availability and/or remaining energy sources.
• From low efficiency to high efficiency.
• From solids, to liquids and then gazes:
• Wood, Coal.
• Oil.
• Natural gas and hydrogen.
1 Evolution of Energy Sources

Mid 21st
Century

Late 20th Animal

Century Biomass
Coal
Early 20th
Oil
Century
Natural Gas
Mid 19th Nuclear
Century Hydrogen

15th Century

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Total World Electricity Generation by Type of
Fuel, 2002

2%
7%

16%
Coal
40%
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Hydro
Oil
Other
16%

19%
1 Energy Sources
• Hubbert’s peak
• Geologist who predicted in the 1950s that oil production in the United States
would peak in the early 1970s:
• US oil production peaked in 1973.
• Assumption of finite resource.
• Production starts at zero.
• Production then rises to a peak which can never be surpassed.
• Peak estimated around 2004-2008:
• One estimate places it symbolically at Thanks giving 2005.
• Once the peak has been passed, production declines until the resource is
depleted.
1 World Annual Oil Production (1900-2004) and
Estimated Resources (1900-2100)
30
Actual
Predicted
25

20
Billions of barrels

15

10

0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
2 Energy Use

• Energy and work

• Energy provides work.

Energy
• Technology enables to use energy
more efficiently and for more
purposes.
Work • Traditionally, most of the work
was performed by people:
• Many efforts have been done to
Modification alleviate work.
• Creating more work performed by
machines and the usage of even
more energy.
Appropriation &
Transfer
Processing
2 Energy Use
Modification of the Appropriation and Transfer
Environment Processing
■Making space suitable ■Extraction of resources ■Movements of freight,
for human activities. (agricultural products and people and information.
■Clearing land for raw materials). ■Attenuate the spatial
agriculture. ■Modifying resources inequities in the location of
■Modifying the (manufacturing). resources by overcoming
hydrography (irrigation). ■Disposal of wastes distance.
■Establishing distribution (Piling, decontaminating ■Growing share of
infrastructures (roads). and burning). transportation in the total
■Constructing and energy spent
conditioning (temperature
and light) enclosed
structures.
3 Challenges
• Energy Supply
• Providing supply to sustain growth and requirements.
• A modern society depends on a stable and continuous flow of energy.
• Energy Demand
• Generate more efficient devices:
• Transportation.
• Industrial processes.
• Appliances.
• Environment
• Provide environmentally safe sources of energy.
• Going through the energy transition (from solid to gazes).
Energy Resources (Part -2)
A – Energy
B – Conventional Energy Resources
C – Alternative Energy Resources

BY
Vineet Kumar Vashishtha

Department of Mechanical Engineering

KIET Group of Institutions Ghaziabad
BConventional Energy Resources
• What sources of energy have filled our requirements so far?
• 1. Coal
• 2. Petroleum
• 3. Natural Gas
• 4. Hydropower
• 5. Nuclear Power
1 Coal
• Nature
• Formed from decayed swamp plant matter that cannot decompose in the
low-oxygen underwater environment.
• Coal was the major fuel of the early Industrial Revolution.
• High correlation between the location of coal resources and early industrial
centers:
• The Midlands of Britain.
• Parts of Wales.
• Pennsylvania.
• Silesia (Poland).
• German Ruhr Valley.
• Three grades of coal.
1 Coal
• Anthracite
Carbon content (%) • Highest grade; over 85% carbon.
0 20 40 60 80 100 • Most efficient to burn.
• Lowest sulfur content; the least
Energy polluting.
Lignite Carbon • The most exploited and most
rapidly depleted.
• Bituminous
• Medium grade coal, about 50-75%
carbon content.
Bituminous • Higher sulfur content and is less
fuel-efficient.
• Most abundant coal in the USA.
• Lignite
Anthracite
• Lowest grade of coal, with about
40% carbon content.
• Low energy content.
• Most sulfurous and most
0 500 1000 1500 2000 polluting.
Burned energy (1,000 calories per kg)
1 Global Coal Production, 2002 (M short tons)

World Coal Production by Type, 2000

7%
18%

Anthracite
Bituminous
760 Lignite

Production
75%
Not significant
1 Coal
• Coal use
• Thermal coal (about 90% use):
• Used mainly in power stations to produce high pressure steam, which then drives turbines
to generate electricity.
• Also used to fire cement and lime kilns.
• Until the middle of the 20th Century used in steam engines.
• Metallurgical coal:
• Used as a source of carbon, for converting a metal ore to metal.
• Removing the oxygen in the ore by forcing it to combine with the carbon in the coal to
form CO2.
• Coking coal:
• Specific type of metallurgical coal.
• Used for making iron in blast furnaces.
• New redevelopment of the coal industry:
• In view of rising energy prices.
 Coal as % of Energy Use and Electricity
1 Generation, 1998

United States Electricity (%)

Germany Energy (%)

Denmark

Ukraine

South Korea

Australia

India

Poland

China

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2 Petroleum
• Nature
• Formation of oil deposits:
• Decay under pressure of billions of microscopic plants in sedimentary rocks.
• “Oil window”; 7,000 to 15,000 feet.
• Created over the last 600 million years.
• Exploration of new sources of petroleum:
• Related to the geologic history of an area.
• Located in sedimentary basins.
• About 90% of all petroleum resources have been discovered.
• Production vs. consumption:
• Geographical differences.
• Contributed to the political problems linked with oil supply.
2 Petroleum
• Use
• Transportation:
• The share of transportation has increased in the total oil consumption.
• Accounts for more the 55% of the oil used.
• In the US, this share is 70%.
• Limited possibility at substitution.
• Other uses (30%):
• Lubricant.
• Plastics.
• Fertilizers.
• Choice of an energy source:
• Depend on a number of utility factors.
• Favoring the usage of fossil fuels, notably petroleum.
2 Factors of Oil Dependency
Occurrence Localized large deposits (decades)

Transportability Liquid that can be easily transported. Economies of scale

Energy content High mass / energy released ratio

Reliability Continuous supply; geopolitically unstable

Storability Easily stored

Flexibility Many uses (petrochemical industry; plastics)

Safety Relatively safe; some risks (transport)

Environment Little wastes, CO2 emissions

Price Relatively low costs

2 Petroleum
• Oil reserves
• The world oil production is currently running at capacity:
• Limited opportunities to expand production.
• 20% of the world’s outcome comes from 14 fields.
• Ghawar:
• The world’s largest oil field; been on production since 1951.
• Produces approximately 4.5 million barrels of oil per day.
• 55 to 60% of Saudi Arabia’s production.
• Expected to decline sharply (use of water injection).
• Could be 90% depleted.
• OPEC countries may have overstated its reserves:
• Production quotas are based upon estimated reserves.
• The larger the reserves, the more an OPEC country can export.
• In the 1980s, most OPEC reserves doubled “on paper”.
• Extraction continues while reserves remain the same(?).
2 Major Crude Oil Reserves, 2003
Billions of barrels
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Saudi Arabia

Iraq

Iran

Kuwait

United Arab Emirates

Russia

Venezuela

Nigeria

Libya

China

United States

Mexico

Algeria

Norway

Angola
 Petroleum Production, Consumption and
2 Imports, United States, 1949-2002

8 60
Production
7 Consumption
Imports 50

6 Real oil price

40
Millions of barrels

Dollars per barrel

5

4 30

3
20

10
1

0 0
49

52

55

58

61

64

67

70

73

76

79

82

85

88

91

94

97

00
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20
2 Petroleum
• A perfect storm?
• Booming oil prices after 2004.
• Prior oil spikes linked with short lived geopolitical events.
• The situation has changed at the beginning of the 21st century.
• A production issue:
• Petroleum extraction appears to be running at capacity.
• Demand, especially new consumers (China), is going up.
• A distribution issue:
• Limited additional tanker and pipeline capacity.
• A refining issue:
• Limited additional refining capacity.
• No refineries were built in the US since 1974.
3 Natural Gas
• Nature
• Formation:
• Thermogenic: converted organic material into natural gas due to high pressure.
• Deeper window than oil.
• Biogenic: transformation by microorganisms.
• Composition:
• Composed primarily of methane and other light hydrocarbons.
• Mixture of 50 to 90% by volume of methane, propane and butane.
• “Dry” and “wet” (methane content); “sweet” and “sour” (sulfur content).
• Usually found in association with oil:
• Formation of oil is likely to have natural gas as a by-product.
• Often a layer over the petroleum.
3 Natural Gas
• Reserves
• Substantial reserves likely to satisfy energy needs for the next 100 years.
• High level of concentration:
• 45% of the world’s reserves are in Russia and Iran.
• Regional concentration of gas resources is more diverse:
• As opposed to oil.
• Only 36% of the reserves are in the Middle East.
3 Natural Gas
• Use
• Mostly used for energy generation.
• Previously, it was often wasted - burned off.
• It is now more frequently conserved and used.
• Considered the cleanest fossil fuel to use.
• The major problem is transporting natural gas, which requires pipelines.
• Gas turbine technology enables to use natural gas to produce electricity
more cheaply than using coal.
• Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
• Liquid form of natural gas; easier to transport.
• Cryogenic process (-256oF): gas loses 610 times its volume.
• Value chain:
• Extraction
• Liquefaction
• Shipping
• Storage and re-gasification
3 Global Natural Gas Reserves, 2003

40%
Reserves
35%
Production
30%

25%
Trillion Cubic Feet (2003)

20%
Less than 10 trillion
10 to 50 trillion

50 to 100 trillion
15%
100 to 200 trillion

10%
More than 200 trillion

5%

0%
North Central & S. Western Eastern Middle East Africa Asia &
America America Europe Europe & Oceania
FSU
4 Hydropower
• Nature
• Generation of electricity using the flow of water as the energy source.
• Gravity as source.
• Requires a large reservoir of water.
• Considered cleaner, less polluting than fossil fuels.
• Tidal power
• Take advantage of the variations between high and low tides.
4 Hydropower
Sun
Evaporation
Water
Sufficient and regular
Precipitation precipitations
Rivers
Flow
Reservoirs
Accumulation Suitable local site
Dam
Gravity
Turbine

Power loss due to

Electricity
distance
4 Hydropower
• Controversy
• Require the development of vast amounts of infrastructures:
• Dams.
• Reservoirs.
• Power plants and power lines.
• Very expensive and consume financial resources or aid resources that could be utilized
for other things.
• Environmental problems:
• The dams themselves often alter the environment in the areas where they are located.
• Changing the nature of rivers, creating lakes that fill former valleys and canyons, etc.
 World Hydroelectric Generating Capacity,
4 1950-98 (in megawatts)

800,000
Brazil
700,000 Canada
United States
600,000 World

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0
50

53

56

59

62

65

68

71

74

77

80

83

86

89

92

95

98
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19
5 Nuclear Power
• Nature
• Fission of uranium to produce energy.
• The fission of 1 kg (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 releases 18.7 million kilowatt-
hours as heat.
• Heat is used to boil water and activate steam turbines.
• Uranium is fairly abundant.
• Requires massive amounts of water for cooling the reactor.
5 Nuclear Power
Production and storage Suitable site (NIMBY) Large quantities

Uranium Reactor Water

Fission
Waste storage and
disposal Steam

Turbine

Electricity
 Nuclear Power Plants, 1960-2002 (in
5 gigawatts)

400 35

350 30
300
25
250

Construction
20
Capacity

200
15
150
10
100

50 5

0 0
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Capacity Decommissioned Construction
5 Nuclear Power
• Nuclear power plants
• 430 operating nuclear power plants (civilian) worldwide.
• Very few new plants coming on line:
• Public resistance (NIMBY syndrome).
• High costs.
• Nuclear waste disposal.
• 30 countries generate nuclear electricity:
• About 17% of all electricity generated worldwide.
• United States:
• 109 licensed nuclear power plants; about 20% of the electricity.
• Licenses are usually given for a 40 year period.
• Many US plants will be coming up for license extensions by 2006.
• No new nuclear power plant built since 1979 (Three Mile Island incident).
• China:
• Plans to had 2 new nuclear reactor per year until 2020.
5 Global Nuclear Energy Generation, 2003

Billion Kilowatthours (2003)

Less than 25.00
25 to 100
100 to 200

200 to 500

More than 500

5 Nuclear Power
• Nuclear waste disposal
• Problem of nuclear waste disposal; radioactivity.
• Low level wastes:
• Material used to handle the highly radioactive parts of nuclear reactors .
• Water pipes and radiation suits.
• Lose their radioactivity after 10 to 50 years.
• High level wastes:
• Includes uranium, plutonium, and other highly radioactive elements made during
fission.
• Nuclear wastes have a half-life about of 10,000 to 20,000 years.
• Requirements of long-term storage in a geologically stable area.
• Long Term Geological Storage site at Yucca Mountain.
5 Nuclear Power
• Reliance
• Some countries have progressed much further in their use of nuclear power
than the US.
• High reliance:
• France, Sweden, Belgium, and Russia have a high reliance on nuclear energy.
• France has done this so as not to rely on foreign oil sources.
• It generates 75% of its electricity using nuclear energy.
• The need to import most fossil fuels provides an extra impetus to turn to nuclear energy.
• Phasing out:
• Nuclear energy perceived as financially unsound and risky.
• No new nuclear power plant built in Europe since Chernobyl (1986).
• The German parliament decided in 2001 to phase out nuclear energy altogether.
 Nuclear Power as % of Electricity Generation,
5 1998
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

France
Belgium
Sweden
Slovakia
South Korea
Hungary
Switzerland
Finland
Japan
Germany
Spain
Britain
Czech Republic
United States
Canada
5 Nuclear Power
Pro Nuclear Side Con Nuclear Side
■Reduced fossil fuels dependence ■Fear of accidents and sabotage
■Enhanced energy security (terrorism)
■Environmental benefits ■Waste disposal
■High construction and
decommission costs
Energy Resources (Part -3)
A – Energy
B – Conventional Energy Resources
C – Alternative Energy Resources
CAlternative Energy Resources
• What new sources of energy are likely to satisfy future demands?
• 1. Context
• 2. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
• 3. Solar Energy
• 4. Wind Energy
• 5. Geothermal Energy
• 6. Biomass Fuels
1 Context
• Emergence
• Received increasing attention since the first oil crisis in 1973:
• Attention varies with fluctuations in the price of oil.
• Several alternate sources need further research before they can become
truly viable alternatives.
• Moving from carbon-based sources to non-carbon based:
• Europe: 22% of its energy to come from renewable sources by 2010.
• Unsustainability of fossil fuels
• The resource itself is finite.
• Use contributes to the global warming problem.
• Some 35% of the carbon emissions in the USA is attributable to electric
power generation.
• Employing substitutes for fossil fuels in that area alone would help alleviate
our greenhouse gas problem.
1 Context

CO2 Emissions from Energy

• Fuel use efficiency
Usage, United States 2001 • Not an alternate energy source.
• Can have a great impact on
conservation.
10% • After 1973, many industries
were motivated to achieve
7%
greater efficiency of energy
use.
• Many appliances (including
54% home air conditioners) were
29%
made more energy efficient.
• The USA continually ranks
behind Europe and Japan in
energy efficiency.

Residential Commercial
Industrial Transportation
 Average Gasoline Consumption for New Vehicles,
1 United States, 1972-2004 (in miles per gallon)

30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16 Cars
14 Light Trucks
12 Average

10
72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20
1 Context
• Nuclear fusion
• Currently researched but without much success.
• It offers unlimited potential.
• Not realistically going to be a viable source of energy in the foreseeable
future.
2 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

• Hydrogen
• Considered to be the cleanest fuel.
• Compose 90% of the matter of the
Hydrogen Oxygen universe.
• Non polluting (emits only water and
Fuel heat).
• Highest level of energy content.
Fuel Cell • Fuel cells
• Convert fuel energy (such as
Catalytic conversion hydrogen) to electric energy.
• No combustion is involved.
• Composed of an anode and a
Water Electricity cathode.
• Fuel is supplied to the anode.
• Oxygen is supplied to the cathode.
• Electrons are stripped from a reaction
at the anode and attracted to form
another reaction at the cathode.
2 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
• Fuel cell cars
• Most likely replacement for the internal combustion engine.
• Efficiency levels are between 55% and 65%.
• May be introduced by 2004 (working prototypes).
• Mass produced by 2010.
• Storage issues
• Hydrogen is a highly combustive gas.
• Find a way to safely store it, especially in a vehicle.
• Delivery issues
• Distribution from producers to consumers.
• Production and storage facilities.
• Structures and methods for transporting hydrogen.
• Fueling stations for hydrogen-powered applications.
2 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

• Hydrogen production
• Not naturally occurring.
Fossil Fuels
Steam • Producing sufficient quantities to
Reforming satisfy the demand.
• Extraction from fossil fuels:
• From natural gas.
Water Electrolysis • Steam reforming.
• Electrolysis of water:
• Electricity from fossil fuels not a
environmentally sound alternative.
• Electricity from solar or wind energy
Biomass Pyrolysis is a better alternative.
• Pyrolysis of the biomass:
• Decomposing by heat in an oxygen-
reduced atmosphere.
3 Solar Energy
• Definition
• Radiant energy emitted by the sun (photons emitted by nuclear fusion).
• Conversion of solar energy into electricity.
• Photovoltaic systems
• Solar thermal systems
3 Solar Energy
Level of insolation
Sun
(latitude & precipitation)

Solar cells Mirrors

Concentration

Water
Evaporation
Conversion
Steam

Turbine

Electricity
3 Solar Energy
• Photovoltaic systems
• Semiconductors to convert solar radiation into electricity.
• Better suited for limited uses such as pumping water that do not require
large amounts of electricity.
• Costs have declined substantially:
• 5 cents per kilowatt-hour.
• Compared to about 3 cents for coal fired electrical power.
• Economies of scale could then be realized in production of the necessary
equipment.
• Japan generates about 50% of the world’s solar energy.
3 Photovoltaic Production by Country or
Region, 1994-2001
400

350

300

250
Rest of World
Europe
200
Japan
U.S.
150

100

50

0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
3 Solar Energy
• Solar thermal systems
• Employ parabolic reflectors to focus solar radiation onto water pipes,
generating steam that then power turbines.
• Costing about 5-10 cents per Kwh.
• Require ample, direct, bright sunlight.
• Drawback of the solar thermal systems is their dependence on direct
sunshine, unlike the photovoltaic cells.
• Limitations
• Inability to utilize solar energy effectively.
• There is currently only about a 15% conversion rate of solar energy into
electricity.
• Low concentration of the resource.
• Need a very decentralized infrastructure to capture the resource.
4 Wind Power
Sun
Heat

Air

Pressure Major prevalent wind

differences systems
Wind

Wind mills
Fans Site suitability

Turbine

Electricity
4 Wind Power
• Potential use
• Growing efficiency of wind turbines.
• 75% of the world’s usage is in Western Europe:
• Provided electricity to some 28 million Europeans in 2002.
• Germany, Denmark (18%) and the Netherlands.
• New windfarms are located at sea along the coast:
• The wind blows harder and more steadily.
• Does not consume valuable land.
• No protests against wind parks marring the landscape.
• United States:
• The USA could generate 25% of its energy needs from wind power by installing wind
farms on just 1.5% of the land.
• North Dakota, Kansas, and Texas have enough harnessable wind energy to meet
electricity needs for the whole country.
4 Wind Power
• Farms are a good place to implement wind mills:
• A quarter of a acre can earn about $2,000 a year in royalties from wind electricity
generation.
• That same quarter of an acre can only generate $100 worth or corn.
• Farmland could simultaneously be used for agriculture and energy generation.
• Wind energy could be used to produce hydrogen.
• Limitations
• Extensive infrastructure and land requirements.
• 1980: 40 cents per kwh.
• 2001: 3-4 cents per kwh.
• Less reliable than other sources of energy.
• Inexhaustible energy source that can supply both electricity and fuel.
 World Wind Energy Generating Capacity,
4 1980-2002 (in megawatts)

35,000
Capacity
30,000 Addition

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
80

82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

00

02
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20
5 Geothermal Energy
• Hydrogeothermal
• 2-4 miles below the earth's surface, rock temperature well above boiling
point.
• Closely associated with tectonic activity.
• Fracturing the rocks, introducing cold water, and recovering the resulting hot
water or steam which could power turbines and produce electricity.
• Areas where the natural heat of the earth’s interior is much closer to the
surface and can be more readily tapped.
5 Geothermal Energy
Winter • Geothermal heat pumps
House • Promising alternative to
heating/cooling systems.
• Ground below the frost line (about
5 feet 5 feet) is kept around 55oF year-
round.
• During winter:
55o F
• The ground is warmer than the
outside.
Summer • Heat can be pumped from the
ground to the house.
House • During summer:
• The ground is cooler than the
5 feet outside.
• Heat can be pumped from the
house to the ground.
55o F
 World Geothermal Power, 1950-2000 (in
5 megawatts)

9000

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
50

53

56

59

62

65

68

71

74

77

80

83

86

89

92

95

98
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19
6 Biomass
• Nature
• Biomass energy involves the growing of crops for fuel rather than for food.
• Crops can be burned directly to release heat or be converted to useable fuels
such methane, ethanol, or hydrogen.
• Has been around for many millennia.
• Not been used as a large-scale energy source:
• 14% of all energy used comes from biomass fuels.
• 65% of all wood harvested is burned as a fuel.
• 2.4 billion people rely on primitive biomass for cooking and heating.
• Important only in developing countries.
• Asia and Africa: 75% of wood fuels use.
• US: 5% comes from biomass sources.
6 Energy Consumption, Solid biomass (includes
fuelwood)
Kenya
1990
Tanzania
2001
South Africa
Thailand
Congo, Dem Rep
Ethiopia
Viet Nam
Pakistan
Brazil
Indonesia
United States
Nigeria
India
China

0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000

Thousand metric tons oil equivalent
6 Biomass
• Biofuels
• Fuel derived from organic matter.
• Development of biomass conversion technologies:
• Alcohols and methane the most useful.
• Plant materials like starch or sugar from cane.
• Waste materials like plant stalks composed of cellulose.
• Potential and drawbacks
• Some 20% of our energy needs could be met by biofuels without seriously
compromising food supplies.
• Competing with other agricultural products for land.
6 Biomass
• Could contribute to reducing carbon emissions while providing a cheap
source of renewable energy:
• Burning biofuels does create carbon emissions.
• The burned biomass is that which removed carbon from the atmosphere through
photosynthesis.
• Does not represent a real increase in atmospheric carbon.
• Genetic engineering:
• Create plants that more efficiently capture solar energy.
• Increasing leaf size and altering leaf orientation with regard to the sun.
• Conversion technology research:
• Seeking to enhance the efficiency rate of converting biomass into energy.
• From the 20-25% range up to 35-45% range.
• Would render it more cost-competitive with traditional fuels.
Thank you
Renewable Energy Resources

THEORY OF SOLAR CELLS

 Contents
 INTRODUCTION

 PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL

 CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR CELL

 WORKING OF SOLAR CELL

 TYPES OF SOLAR CELL

 GENERATION OF SOLAR CELL

 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR CELL

 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

 Introduction
 Solar cell is the photovoltaic device that
convert the light energy (which come from
sun) into electrical energy .
 This device work on the principle of
photovoltaic effect.
 Photovoltaic Device:- The generation of
voltage across the PN junction in a
semiconductor due to the absorption of light
radiation is called photovoltaic effect. The
Devices based on this effect is called
photovoltaic device.
 Principle of Solar Cell
The solar cells are based on the principles of photovoltaic effect.
The Photovoltaic Effect is the photogeneration of charge carriers
in a light absorbing materials as a result of absorption of light
radiation.

N-type
P-type

Single Solar cell

 Construction of Solar Cell
 Solar cell (crystalline Silicon) consists of a n-type
semiconductor (emitter) layer and p-type semiconductor layer
(base). The two layers are sandwiched and hence there is
formation of p-n junction.
 The surface is coated with anti-refection
coating to avoid the loss of incident light
energy due to reflection.
 A proper metal contacts are made on the n-
type and p-type side of the semiconductor
for electrical connection.
 Working of solar cell
 When a solar panel exposed to sunlight , the light
energies are absorbed by a semiconductor
materials.

 Due to this absorbed energy, the electrons are

liberated and produce the external DC current.
 The DC current is converted into 240-volt AC
current using an inverter for different
applications.
 Types of Solar Cell
Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
Monocrystalline silicon cells
Polycrystalline silicon cells
Amorphous silicon cells
The Monocrystalline silicon cell is produced from pure silicon (single
crystal). Since the Monocrystalline silicon is pure and defect free, the
efficiency of cell will be higher.
 In polycrystalline solar cell, liquid silicon is used as
raw material and polycrystalline silicon was obtained
followed by solidification process. The materials
contain various crystalline sizes. Hence, the
efficiency of this type of cell is less than
Monocrystalline cell.
Amorphous silicon was obtained by depositing
silicon film on the substrate like glass plate.
 The layer thickness amounts to less than 1µm
– the thickness of a human hair for
comparison is 50-100 µm.
 The efficiency of amorphous cells is much
lower than that of the other two cell types.
 As a result, they are used mainly in low
power equipment, such as watches and
pocket calculators, or as facade elements.
Comparison of Types of solar cell
Material Efficiency (%)
Monocrystalline silicon 14-17

Polycrystalline silicon 13-15

Amorphous silicon 5-7

Generation of Solar Cell
First Generation
– Single Junction Silicon Cells
Limit efficiency 31%
Single crystal silicon -
16-19% efficiency
Multi-crystal silicon -
14-15% efficiency
Best efficiency by Sun
Power 22%

Silicon Cell Average Efficiency

 Second Generation
– Thin Film Cells
 New materials and processes to improve efficiency
and reduce cost.
 Thin film cells use about 1% of the expensive
semiconductors compared to First Generation cells.
 Single Crystal Si 4.7% & multi Crystal Si 0.5% of
2007 Production
 Single Crystal Si has 8–11% efficiency.
 Multi Crystal Si has 7-11% efficiency.
 Third Generation
– Multi-junction Cells

 Enhance poor electrical performance while maintaining very low

production costs.
 Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30 -60 %
while retaining low cost materials and manufacturing
techniques.
 Multi-junction cells – 30% efficiency (40-43% demonstrated)
Advantages of solar cell
 It is a renewable energy.
 Solar cells do not produce noise and they are totally silent.
 There are no fuel costs or fuel supply problems.
 They have long life time.
 It is clean and non-polluting.

 They require very little maintenance.

Disadvantages of solar cell
 Soar cells (or) solar panels are very
expensive.
 Energy has not be stored in batteries.
 Air pollution and whether can affect the
production of electricity.
 They need large are of land to produce more
efficient power supply.
 Sun does not shine consistently.
 Less efficient and costly equipment.
 Reliability Depends On Location
Applications of solar energy
 Domestic power supply.
 Electric power generation in
space.
 Drying Agricultural Products.
 Solar pumps are used for water
supply.
 Water Heating.
 Generating Electrical Power.
 To providing electrical power to
satellites.
Thank
You
Renewable Energy Resources

SOLAR CELL ARRAY & SOLAR

GEOMETRY
 Contents
 PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY CONVERSION

 PV CELL

 MODULE

 ARRAY

 TILT AND ANGLE ORIENTATION

 PV MODULE TECHNOLOGY

 SUN AS SOURCE OF ENERGY

 SOLAR ANGLES
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
Photovoltaic energy conversion is the direct production of
electrical energy in the form of current and voltage from
electromagnetic (i.e., light, including infrared, visible, and
ultraviolet) energy.
The basic four steps needed for photovoltaic energy
conversion are:
1. A light absorption process which causes a transition in a
material (the absorber) from a ground state to an excited
state.
2. The conversion of the excited state into (at least) a free
negative and a free positive-charge carrier pair.
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
3. A discriminating transport mechanism, which causes the
resulting free negative-charge carriers to move in one
direction (to a contact that we will call the cathode) and
the resulting free positive charge carriers to move in
another direction (to a contact that we will call the anode).
4. Combining with an arriving positive-charge carrier,
thereby returning the absorber to the ground state.
 PV cell
PVs generate electric power when illuminated by sunlight or artificial light. To
illustrate the operation of a PV cell the p-n homo junction cell is used. PV cells
contain a junction between two different materials across which there is a built in
electric field. The absorption of photons of energy greater than the band gap
energy of the semiconductor promotes electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band, creating hole-electron pairs throughout the illuminated part of
the semiconductor. These electron and hole pairs will flow in opposite directions
across the junction thereby creating DC power.
The most common material used in pv cell manufacture is mono-crystalline
or poly-crystalline silicon. Each cell is typically made of square or rectangular
wafers of dimensions measuring about 10cm 10cm 0.3mm. In the dark the
PV cell's behaviour is similar to that of a diode and the well known Shockley-
Read equation can be used to model its behaviour.
 qV 
i  I s  e kT  1 
 
 
 Module
For the majority of applications multiple solar cells need to be connected in
series or in parallel to produce enough voltage and power. Individual cells are
usually connected into a series string of cells (typically 36 or 72) to achieve the
desired output voltage. The complete assembly is usually referred to as a module
and manufacturers basically sell modules to customers. The modules serves
another function of protecting individual cells from water, dust etc. as the solar
cells are placed into an encapsulation of single or double at glasses.
Within a module the different cells are connected electrically in
series or in parallel although most modules have a series
connection. In a series connection the same current flows through
all the cells and the voltage at the module terminals is the sum of
the individual voltages of each cell.
 ARRAY
An array is a structure that consists of a number of PV modules,
mounted on the same plane with electrical connections to provide
enough electrical power for a given application. Arrays range in
power capacity from a few hundred watts to hundreds of
kilowatts. The connection of modules in an array is similar to the
connection of cells in a single module. To increase the voltage,
modules are connected in series and to increase the current they
are connected in parallel. Matching is again very important for the
overall performance of the array. For an array to perform well all
the modules must not be shaded otherwise it will act as a load
resulting in heat that may cause damage.
 Tilt and Angle Orientation
To get the most from position-fixed (or seasonally adjusted) photovoltaic or
thermal solar panels, you need to point them in the direction that captures the
most sun. Solar panels should always face true south in the Northern
Hemisphere, North in the Southern Hemisphere, tilted from the hoizontal at a
degree equal to your latitude plus 15 degrees in winter, or minus 15 degrees in
summer. An additional 3 - 5%, though, can be gained by evaluating this more
carefully.
Winter
The winter season has the least sun, so you want to make the most
of it. The tilt should be designed so that the panel points directly at
the sun at noon. To calculate, multiply your latitude by 0.9, and add
30 degrees. For example: New York is at 40 degrees. 40 X .9 + 30 =
66 degrees tilt from horizontal.
PV Module Technology
• PV module mainly available in Mono-crystalline Silicon, Poly-
Crystalline Silicon and Thin film..
• PV module Power (Wp) ranges from ~ (1 – 310) Wp
• Characteristics:-
 Voc ~ Open Circuit Voltage
 Isc ~ Short Circuit Current
 Vm ~ Voltage at maximum power
 Im ~ Current at maximum power
 Pm ~ Maximum power
• Note ~ While you purchase PV Module must check :-

 Measured at Standard Test Conditions(STC): 1KW/m2/day, 25˚C & AM1.5

Current-Voltage & Power-Voltage
Characteristics
 The sun’s energy is created
in the core by fusing
hydrogen into helium. This
energy is irradiated through
the radiative layer, then
transmitted by convection
through the convective
layer, and finally radiated
through the photosphere
which is the part of the sun
that we see.
The sun generates energy in its core in a process
called nuclear fusion. During nuclear fusion, the sun's
extremely high pressure and hot temperature cause
hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei (the
central cores of the atoms) to fuse or combine. Four
hydrogen nuclei fuse to become one helium atom.
 Solar energy reaching the earth
The radiative energy from the sun actually reaching the earth can be calculated:
 Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is
the known as Extra-terrestrial Radiation.

 Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing through

the earth’s atmosphere is known as Terrestrial Radiation.
 (Winter solstice)

 The declination of the sun is the angle between the equator

and a line drawn from the centre of the Earth to the centre of
the sun.

 If the Earth were not tilted on its axis of rotation, the

declination would always be 0° at the spring and autumn
equinoxes. However, the Earth is tilted by 23.45° and the
declination angle varies plus or minus this amount.
 Light from the Sun is spread out over a larger area, so that
area isn't heated as much.

 The Sun’s rays strike the Earth’s surface more directly,

this causes the solar radiation to be concentrated over a
smaller area, causing more intense heat.
December
The tilt of Earth's axis points away from the Sun . Winter solstice for
the Northern Hemisphere happens on December 21 or 22, Light from
the Sun is spread out over a larger area, so that area isn't heated as
much. With fewer daylight hours in winter, there is also less time for
the Sun to warm the area. When it is winter in the Northern
Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere.
Halfway between the two solstices, the Sun's rays shine most
directly at the Equator, called an equinox . The daylight and
night time hours are exactly equal on an equinox. Spring
equinox happens March 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere.
The North Pole is tilted towards the Sun and the Sun's rays
strike the Northern Hemisphere more directly at summer
solstice. At the summer solstice, June 21 or 22, the Sun's rays
hit the Earth most directly along the Tropic of Cancer. When
it is summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter
solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.
Halfway between the two solstices, the Sun's rays shine most
directly at the Equator, called an equinox . The daylight and
night time hours are exactly equal on an equinox. The
autumnal equinox happens on September 22 in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Latitude is distance north or south of the equator. The Equator is the
line of 0° latitude, the starting point for measuring latitude. The
latitude of the North Pole is 90° N, and that of the South Pole is 90° S.
The latitude of every point in between must be some degree north or
south, from 0° to 90°.
 Longitude is distance east or west of the prime meridian.
Longitude is measured in degrees east or degree west of the
prime meridian. This means one half of the world is measured
in degrees of east longitude up to 180°, and the other half in
degrees of west longitude up to 180°.
Thank
You
The sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in the form
of Electromagnetic waves.

The earth’s outer atmosphere intercepts about one two-billionth

of the energy generated by the sun or about 1.5 quintillion
(1.5× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 ) kilowatt-hours per year.

Due to Reflection, Scattering, absorption of gases and aerosols

in the atmosphere, however only 51% or approximately 0.76
quintillion (0.76× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 ) kilowatt-hours per year reaches the
surface of the earth.
Reflected by Reflected by Reflected from
atmosphere 6% clouds 20% earth’s surface 4%
 The sun’s energy is created in the core by fusing hydrogen into helium.
This energy is irradiated through the radiative layer, then transmitted by
convection through the convective layer, and finally radiated through
the photosphere which is the part of the sun that we see.
The sun generates energy in its core in a process called nuclear
fusion. During nuclear fusion, the sun's extremely high pressure and hot
temperature cause hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei (the
central cores of the atoms) to fuse or combine. Four hydrogen nuclei fuse to
become one helium atom.
[Link]
TSUN = 5777 Kelvin

32°

1.27× 107 meter

1.39× 109 meter

1.459 × 1011 meter

The radiative energy from the sun actually reaching the earth can be calculated:

Area of the Sun = 4𝜋𝑅2

= 4*𝜋*(7 × 108 )2
= 6.16 × 1018 𝐦𝟐

Total power, P = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4

= 5.67 × 10−8 *6.16 × 1018 *57774
= 3.88 × 1026 𝐰att
We use the distance from the sun to obtain
the flux at the earth

The earth is R e ≈ 1.5 × 1011 m from the sun

Re

The area irradiated is

Ae

 The flux in space above the earth is called the insolation.

 The insolation is the power coming from the sun divided by the total area
at the radius of the earth.

Power
Solar constant = Area of the sphere

3 .88 ×1026 watt

= 2.83×1023 𝑚2

≈ 1370 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕
ൗ𝒎𝟐
 Solar Constant:
Entry point into atmosphere;
Intensity≈1370 W/𝒎𝟐

 Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is the known as
Extra-terrestrial Radiation.

 Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing through the earth’s
atmosphere is known as Terrestrial Radiation.
 𝛿

(Winter solstice)

 The declination of the sun is the angle between the equator and a line
drawn from the centre of the Earth to the centre of the sun.

 If the Earth were not tilted on its axis of rotation, the declination would
always be 0° at the spring and autumn equinoxes. However, the Earth is
tilted by 23.45° and the declination angle varies plus or minus this amount.
 The earth rotates around its axis.
 This axis is at a declination angle 𝛿 = 23.45° at the optical plane
around the sun.
 The movement around the sun is elliptical.

March (Spring equinox)

𝛿 𝛿

June (summer solstice) December (winter solstice)

September (autumn equinox)

 Light from the Sun is spread out over a larger area, so that area isn't heated as
much.

 The Sun’s rays strike the Earth’s surface more directly, this causes
the solar radiation to be concentrated over a smaller area, causing more
intense heat.
 December
The tilt of Earth's axis points away from the Sun . Winter solstice for the Northern
Hemisphere happens on December 21 or 22, Light from the Sun is spread out over a
larger area, so that area isn't heated as much. With fewer daylight hours in winter,
there is also less time for the Sun to warm the area. When it is winter in the
Northern Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere.
Halfway between the two solstices, the Sun's rays shine most directly at the
Equator, called an equinox . The daylight and night time hours are exactly equal
on an equinox. Spring equinox happens March 21 or 22 in the Northern
Hemisphere.
The North Pole is tilted towards the Sun and the Sun's rays strike the Northern
Hemisphere more directly at summer solstice. At the summer solstice, June 21 or
22, the Sun's rays hit the Earth most directly along the Tropic of Cancer. When it is
summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter solstice in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Halfway between the two solstices, the Sun's rays shine most directly at the
Equator, called an equinox . The daylight and night time hours are exactly equal
on an equinox. The autumnal equinox happens on September 22 in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Position of earth from sun.mp4
Latitude is distance north or south of the equator. The Equator is the line of 0°
latitude, the starting point for measuring latitude. The latitude of the North Pole
is 90° N, and that of the South Pole is 90° S. The latitude of every point in
between must be some degree north or south, from 0° to 90°.
 Longitude is distance east or west of the prime meridian. Longitude is measured in
degrees east or degree west of the prime meridian. This means one half of the
world is measured in degrees of east longitude up to 180°, and the other half in
degrees of west longitude up to 180°.(video)
 Zenith

East

South

North

West
It is an electrical device that converts the
energy of light directly into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect.
PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
 Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy that contains
various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar
spectrum.

 The electrons present in the valence band absorb energy and being excited,
jump to the conduction band and become free.

 These highly excited electrons are accelerated into a different material by a built
in potential.

 This generates an electromotive force, and thus some of the light energy is
converted into electric energy.
1. Single axis azimuthal tracking

2. Double axis tracking

Renewable Energy Resources

SOLAR CELL ARRAY & TILT ANGLE

ORIENTATION
 Contents
 PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY CONVERSION

 PV CELL

 MODULE

 ARRAY

 Tilt and Angle Orientation

 PV MODULE TECHNOLOGY

 SPECIFICATION & PERFORMANCE

 SOLAR PV APPLICATION
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
Photovoltaic energy conversion is the direct production of
electrical energy in the form of current and voltage from
electromagnetic (i.e., light, including infrared, visible, and
ultraviolet) energy.
The basic four steps needed for photovoltaic energy
conversion are:
1. A light absorption process which causes a transition in a
material (the absorber) from a ground state to an excited
state.
2. The conversion of the excited state into (at least) a free
negative and a free positive-charge carrier pair.
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
3. A discriminating transport mechanism, which causes the
resulting free negative-charge carriers to move in one
direction (to a contact that we will call the cathode) and
the resulting free positive charge carriers to move in
another direction (to a contact that we will call the anode).
4. Combining with an arriving positive-charge carrier,
thereby returning the absorber to the ground state.
 PV cell
PVs generate electric power when illuminated by sunlight or artificial light. To
illustrate the operation of a PV cell the p-n homo junction cell is used. PV cells
contain a junction between two different materials across which there is a built in
electric field. The absorption of photons of energy greater than the band gap
energy of the semiconductor promotes electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band, creating hole-electron pairs throughout the illuminated part of
the semiconductor. These electron and hole pairs will flow in opposite directions
across the junction thereby creating DC power.
The most common material used in pv cell manufacture is mono-crystalline
or poly-crystalline silicon. Each cell is typically made of square or rectangular
wafers of dimensions measuring about 10cm 10cm 0.3mm. In the dark the
PV cell's behaviour is similar to that of a diode and the well known Shockley-
Read equation can be used to model its behaviour.
 qV 
i  I s  e kT  1 
 
 
 Module
For the majority of applications multiple solar cells need to be connected in
series or in parallel to produce enough voltage and power. Individual cells are
usually connected into a series string of cells (typically 36 or 72) to achieve the
desired output voltage. The complete assembly is usually referred to as a module
and manufacturers basically sell modules to customers. The modules serves
another function of protecting individual cells from water, dust etc. as the solar
cells are placed into an encapsulation of single or double at glasses.
Within a module the different cells are connected electrically in
series or in parallel although most modules have a series
connection. In a series connection the same current flows through
all the cells and the voltage at the module terminals is the sum of
the individual voltages of each cell.
 ARRAY
An array is a structure that consists of a number of PV modules,
mounted on the same plane with electrical connections to provide
enough electrical power for a given application. Arrays range in
power capacity from a few hundred watts to hundreds of
kilowatts. The connection of modules in an array is similar to the
connection of cells in a single module. To increase the voltage,
modules are connected in series and to increase the current they
are connected in parallel. Matching is again very important for the
overall performance of the array. For an array to perform well all
the modules must not be shaded otherwise it will act as a load
resulting in heat that may cause damage.
 Tilt and Angle Orientation
To get the most from position-fixed (or seasonally adjusted) photovoltaic or
thermal solar panels, you need to point them in the direction that captures the
most sun. Solar panels should always face true south in the Northern
Hemisphere, North in the Southern Hemisphere, tilted from the hoizontal at a
degree equal to your latitude plus 15 degrees in winter, or minus 15 degrees in
summer. An additional 3 - 5%, though, can be gained by evaluating this more
carefully.
Winter
The winter season has the least sun, so you want to make the most
of it. The tilt should be designed so that the panel points directly at
the sun at noon. To calculate, multiply your latitude by 0.9, and add
30 degrees. For example: New York is at 40 degrees. 40 X .9 + 30 =
66 degrees tilt from horizontal.
PV Module Technology
• PV module mainly available in Mono-crystalline Silicon, Poly-
Crystalline Silicon and Thin film..
• PV module Power (Wp) ranges from ~ (1 – 310) Wp
• Characteristics:-
 Voc ~ Open Circuit Voltage
 Isc ~ Short Circuit Current
 Vm ~ Voltage at maximum power
 Im ~ Current at maximum power
 Pm ~ Maximum power
• Note ~ While you purchase PV Module must check :-

 Measured at Standard Test Conditions(STC): 1KW/m2/day, 25˚C & AM1.5

Current-Voltage & Power-Voltage
Characteristics
PV Module Current-Voltage
(I-V) Curve
 PV Module Technology
• Effects of Temperature :-
• As the PV cell temperature increases above 25º C, the module Vmp
decreases by
approximately 0.5% /° C .
 Specification & Performance Of
Typical Module.
Module size 119.1 cm x 53.3 cm
Module weight 7.5 kg
Cell size 12.5cm x 12.5 cm
Number of cell 36
Nominal output 80 W
Nominal voltage 12V
Maximum voltage 17V
Open circuit voltage 21.2V
Short circuit curent 4.9A
Conversion efficiancy 12.5%
Global solar radiation 1000w/cm²
Air mass Am 1.5 spectrum
Cell temperature 25°c
Solar Energy Ecosystem
 Solar PV Application
• Distributed off grid product.
 Solar Lanterns ~

• Solar Street Lights

 Solar PV Application
• Solar Water Pumping System.
 Solar PV Application

Solar Fencing around The farm or Solar fencing For marking the
Irrigation land To protect against boundary
animals.

Solar Plant On
Stadiums.
 Solar PV Application
• Solar On Petrol Pump

• Solar On Parking Area

 Solar PV Application
• World First Solar Air Flight

• JAPAN CRUISE SHIP

Thank
You
Renewable Energy Resources

SOLAR CELLS POWER PLANT

 Contents
 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR CELL POWER PLANT

 TYPES OF SOLAR CELL POWER PLANT

 PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR POWER PLANT

 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER PLANT

 SOLAR POWER PLANT IN INDIA

 LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR POWER PLANT

 INTRODUCTION TO
SOLAR CELL POWER PLANT
 Solar power plant is based on the conversion of sunlight into
electricity, either directly using photovoltaics or indirectly
using concentrated solar power (CSP).
 Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small
beam.
 Photovoltaics converts light into electric current using the
photoelectric effect.

3
 TYPES OF
SOLAR CELL POWER PLANT
 There are mainly two types of solar cell power plants:

 1. Photovoltaic solar energy  2. Concentrating power

plant plant

4
 PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR
POWER PLANT
 A photovoltaic power plant, also known as a solar park, is a
large-scale photovoltaic system (PV system) designed for the
supply of merchant power into the electricity grid.
 Photovoltaic cells will capture the energy which is generated
from the sun and converted into electricity.
 They are sometimes also referred to as solar
farms, especially when sited in agricultural
areas.

5
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANT

6
 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
Solar array arrangements:
The solar arrays are the subsystems which convert incoming light
into electrical energy.
They comprise a multitude of solar modules, mounted on support
structures and interconnected to deliver a power output to electronic
power conditioning subsystems.
 They are mainly of three type:
1. Fixed arrays
2. Dual axis trackers
3. Single axis trackers 11
 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
Power conversion:
Solar panels produce direct current (DC) electricity, so solar parks need
conversion equipment to convert this to alternating current (AC), which is
the form transmitted by the electricity grid.
This conversion is done by inverters.

Transformers:
The system inverters typically provide power output at
voltages of the order of 480 VAC. Electricity grids operate
at much higher voltages of the order of tens or hundreds
of thousands of volts, so transformers are incorporated to
deliver the required output to the grid.
8
 CONCENTRATED SOLAR PLANT
 The method of functioning of these solar
power plants is similar to that of the
photovoltaic solar energy plants.
 The extra addition in these concentrating
power plants is that they make use of
mirrors and lenses in order to capture
energy from the rays of the sun.
 The light from the sun will be directed
towards the photovoltaic cells and they will
be converted into heat energy.

9
 CONCENTRATED SOLAR PLANT
 Concentrated solar power (also called concentrating solar power,
concentrated solar thermal, and CSP) systems generate solar power
by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight, or
solar thermal energy, onto a small area.
 Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat,
which drives a heat engine (usually a steam turbine) connected to an
electrical power generator or powers a thermochemical reaction.

10
CONCENTRATED SOLAR PLANT

11
12
 CONCENTRATED SOLAR PLANT
 Concentrated-solar technology systems use mirrors or lenses
with tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight onto a
small area.
 The concentrated light is then used as a heat.
 Mirrors focus sunlight onto a glass receiver containing water that
can be heated.
 Water passes to heat exchanger for additional
heating using natural gas to make high pressure
steam.
 Steam is fed to turbine which generates electricity.
 Electricity is transfer from storage substation. 13
 TECHNIQUE USED IN CSP
1. Parabolic trough:
 A parabolic trough consists of a
linear parabolic reflector that concentrates
light onto a receiver positioned along the
reflector's focal line.
 The receiver is a tube positioned
directly above the middle of the
parabolic mirror and filled with a
working fluid.

14
 TECHNIQUE USED IN CSP
 2. Solar power tower:
A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors
(heliostats) to concentrate light on a central receiver
atop a tower . These are more cost effective, offer
higher efficiency and better energy storage capability
among CSP technologies.

15
 TECHNIQUE USED IN CSP
3. Dish Stirling:
The Stirling concentrating dish solar dish
combines a parabolic with a Stirling engine which
normally drives an electric generator.
The advantages of Stirling solar over pv cells are
higher efficiency of converting sunlight into
electricity & longer lifetime.

16
SOLAR POWER PLANTS IN INDIA
Power Plant State Capacity
Charanka Solar Power Plant Gujarat 345 MW

Neemuch Solar Power Plant Madhya Pradesh 151 MW

Sakri Power Plant Maharashtra 125 MW

Rajasthan Solar Project Rajasthan 50 MW
GEDCOL Solar Power Plant Odisha 50 MW

NTPC’s Solar Power Madhya Pradesh 50 MW

Project
GEDCOL Solar Power Plant Odisha 48 MW

Bitta Solar Power Plant Gujarat 40 MW

Dhirubhai Ambani Solar Plant Rajasthan 40 MW

17
LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR POWER PLANT
 Solar panels can be expensive to install resulting in a time-lag
of many years for savings on energy bills to match initial
investments.
 Electricity generation depends entirely on a countries
exposure to sunlight; this could be limited by a countries
climate.
 Solar power stations do not match the power output of similar
sized conventional power stations; they can also be very
expensive to build.
 Solar power is used to charge batteries so that solar powered
devices can be used at night. The batteries can often be large
and heavy, taking up space and needing to be replaced from
time to time.
Thank
You
Thank
You