TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in

the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission

Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the
OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this
article, we’ll study five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are
referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface
Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by
the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them
at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference
between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the
transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail and
TCP has the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol, which
does not require IP to communicate with another computer. IP is required by
only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model,
the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the
same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same
data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model
divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer
in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way at the
receiver’s end.
For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking .
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer
1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is
responsible for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on
behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the
data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-
link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing
are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols
which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire
network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at the
IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing
hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set
of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for
routing packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does
this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the
device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend.
When you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data,
which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns
an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine the best
route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then
forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all
of the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble
them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email
from your computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing
tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that
the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer,
it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments
and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and
without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols
at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though
they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a
way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than
separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the
whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the
connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other
transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending
hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little
amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the
processes of establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible
for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the
upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main
protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is
used by the World Wide Web to manage communications between
web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a
combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in
cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate,
and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software
similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability
to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over
a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize
the clocks on our computer to one standard time source. It is very
useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the following
situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
 transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the
server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out
of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model that is responsible for providing communication between hosts
(computers or other devices) on a network. It is also known as the transport
layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
1. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is
transferred reliably between hosts by using techniques like error
correction and flow control. For example, if a packet of data is lost
during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the
packet be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is
responsible for breaking up large blocks of data into smaller segments
that can be transmitted over the network, and then reassembling the
data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted more
efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.
3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is
responsible for multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single
network connection, and then demultiplexing the data at the
destination. This allows multiple devices to share the same network
connection and helps to improve the utilization of the network.
4. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a
connection-oriented service that allows hosts to communicate with
each other end-to-end, without the need for intermediate devices to
be involved in the communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a
file to host B. The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller
segments, add error correction and flow control information, and then transmit
the segments over the network to host B. The host-to-host layer in host B will
receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file. Once the file
has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will
acknowledge receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable
connection between host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments,
and reassembling the segments at the destination. It is also responsible for
multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing end-to-end
communication between the two hosts

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission OSI refers to Open Systems

Control Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the
presentation layers.
application layer itself.
 TCP/IP OSI

TCP/IP follows connectionless a

OSI follows a vertical approach.
horizontal approach.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP In the OSI model, the transport

does not provide assurance layer provides assurance
delivery of packets. delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model,

Protocols cannot be replaced Protocols are better covered
easily in TCP/IP model. and are easy to replace with
the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only Connectionless and connection-

provides connectionless (IP) oriented services are provided
services. The transport layer by the network layer in the OSI
(TCP) provides connections. model.

What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data
streams over a single medium. The process of combining the data
streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is
known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that

combines n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing
follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer

(DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into
its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say
that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to
receiver. The medium can only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must
be divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the
 available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of
medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of
collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing
o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which
several telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely
used in communication.
o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in
1910.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer
combines the signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their
respective destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available
bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several
channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into

several frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to
different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite
signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into
different frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into
frequency bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
 o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-
carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different
frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The
multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 ADVERTISEMENT

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical

signals are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of
light with the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them
to their respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical
signals to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted
through a fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
 o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the
same time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division
Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with
different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the
channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is
allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which data is
to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted
simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a
cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots
dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used
to multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to

every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of
the fact that the device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a
particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN
multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Concept Of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each

device is allocated with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted
irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also
transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is
completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are empty.
Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized
efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total
speed of the input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM
is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

 o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in
the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those
devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that
Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from
active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to
the devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than
the capacity of the channel.
o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data
streams and creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies
the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that

many slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM,
slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and
efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time
slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are
m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the
number of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are
sending the data, i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only
transmitted through the transmission line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to
determine the source of the data.