Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 57, No. 3, May/June 2006 10.

1177/0022487105285962

CONSTRUCTING 21st-CENTURY TEACHER EDUCATION

Linda Darling-Hammond
Stanford University

Much of what teachers need to know to be successful is invisible to lay observers, leading to the view
that teaching requires little formal study and to frequent disdain for teacher education programs. The
weakness of traditional program models that are collections of largely unrelated courses reinforce this
low regard. This article argues that we have learned a great deal about how to create stronger, more ef-
fective teacher education programs. Three critical components of such programs include tight coher-
ence and integration among courses and between course work and clinical work in schools, extensive
and intensely supervised clinical work integrated with course work using pedagogies that link theory
and practice, and closer, proactive relationships with schools that serve diverse learners effectively
and develop and model good teaching. The article also urges that schools of education should resist
pressures to water down preparation, which ultimately undermine the preparation of entering
teachers, the reputation of schools of education, and the strength of the profession.

Keywords: field-based experiences; foundations of education; student teaching; supervision; theo-

ries of teacher education

The previous articles have articulated a spectac- nations, and growing evidence demonstrates
ular array of things that teachers should know that—among all educational resources—teach-
and be able to do in their work. These include ers’ abilities are especially crucial contributors
understanding many things about how people to students’ learning. Furthermore, the demands
learn and how to teach effectively, including as- on teachers are increasing. Teachers need not
pects of pedagogical content knowledge that in- only to be able to keep order and provide useful
corporate language, culture, and community information to students but also to be increas-
contexts for learning. Teachers also need to un- ingly effective in enabling a diverse group of
derstand the person, the spirit, of every child students to learn ever more complex material.
and find a way to nurture that spirit. And they In previous decades, teachers were expected to
need the skills to construct and manage class- prepare only a small minority for ambitious
room activities efficiently, communicate well, intellectual work, whereas they are now
use technology, and reflect on their practice to expected to prepare virtually all students for
learn from and improve it continually. higher order thinking and performance skills
The importance of powerful teaching is once reserved to only a few.
increasingly important in contemporary soci- Given this range of teacher education goals
ety. Standards for learning are now higher than and the realities of 21st-century schooling, the
they have ever been before, as citizens and task for this article is to consider what those of
workers need greater knowledge and skill to us in the field of teacher education might do to
survive and succeed. Education is increasingly support the kinds of learning teachers require to
important to the success of both individuals and undertake this complex job with some hope of
Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 57, No. 3, May/June 2006 300-314
DOI: 10.1177/0022487105285962
© 2006 by the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education

300
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success. In responding to this question, I want to CONTEMPORARY DILEMMAS FOR
draw on the recently released work of the TEACHER EDUCATION
National Academy of Education‘s Committee
Both the apparent ease of teaching to the
on Teacher Education, a group of researchers,
noninitiated and the range of things teachers
teachers, and teacher educators that worked for
really do need to know to be successful with all
4 years to summarize how what we have come
students—not just those who can learn easily on
to know about how children and adults learn
their own—are relevant to the dilemmas that
can inform the curriculum and design of teacher
teacher education programs find themselves in
education programs (Darling-Hammond &
1 today. On one hand, many laypeople and a large
Bransford, 2005).
share of policy makers hold the view that
The National Academy of Education Com-
almost anyone can teach reasonably well—that
mittee’s report begins with this description:
entering teaching requires, at most, knowing
To a music lover watching a concert from the audi- something about a subject, and the rest of the
ence, it would be easy to believe that a conductor has fairly simple “tricks of the trade” can be picked
one of the easiest jobs in the world. There he stands,
up on the job.
waving his arms in time with the music, and the or-
chestra produces glorious sounds, to all appear- These notions—which derive both from a
ances quite spontaneously. Hidden from the lack of understanding of what good teachers
audience—especially from the musical novice—are actually do behind the scenes and from tacit
the conductor’s abilities to read and interpret all of standards for teaching that are far too low—
the parts at once, to play several instruments and un-
lead to pressures for backdoor routes into teach-
derstand the capacities of many more, to organize
and coordinate the disparate parts, to motivate and ing that deny teachers access to much of the
communicate with all of the orchestra members. In knowledge base for teaching and, often, to the
the same way that conducting looks like hand wav- supervised clinical practice that would provide
ing to the uninitiated, teaching looks simple from the them with models of what good teachers do and
perspective of students who see a person talking and how they understand their work. It is tragic that
listening, handing out papers, and giving assign-
ments. Invisible in both of these performances are
individuals who are likely to be seduced into
the many kinds of knowledge, unseen plans, and teaching through pathways that minimize their
backstage moves—the skunkworks, if you will, that access to knowledge are those who teach high-
allow a teacher to purposefully move a group of stu- need students in low-income urban and rural
dents from one set of understandings and skills to schools where the most sophisticated under-
quite another over the space of many months.
On a daily basis, teachers confront complex deci-
standing of teaching is needed.
sions that rely on many different kinds of knowledge On the other hand, the realities of what it
and judgment and that can involve high-stakes out- takes to teach in U.S. schools such that all chil-
comes for students’ futures. To make good decisions, dren truly have an opportunity to learn are
teachers must be aware of the many ways in which nearly overwhelming. In the classrooms most
student learning can unfold in the context of devel-
beginning teachers will enter, at least 25% of
opment, learning differences, language and cultural
influences, and individual temperaments, interests, students live in poverty and many of them lack
and approaches to learning. In addition to founda- basic food, shelter, and health care; from 10% to
tional knowledge about these areas of learning and 20% have identified learning differences; 15%
performance, teachers need to know how to take the speak a language other than English as their pri-
steps necessary to gather additional information
mary language (many more in urban settings);
that will allow them to make more grounded judg-
ments about what is going on and what strategies and about 40% are members of racial/ethnic
may be helpful. Above all, teachers need to keep “minority” groups, many of them recent immi-
what is best for the child at the center of their deci- grants from countries with different educa-
sion making. This sounds like a simple point but it is tional systems and cultural traditions.
a complex matter that has profound implications for Not only is the kind of practice needed to
what happens to and for many children in school.
(Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005, pp. 1-2)
teach students with a wide range of learning
needs an extremely complex, knowledge-

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intense undertaking—requiring extraordinary tional Renewal was launched (Goodlad, 1990,
personal and professional skills—but also U.S. 1994). Many important reforms of teacher edu-
schools rarely support this kind of practice. In cation that have since taken place owe much of
contrast to schools in high-achieving European their impetus to these initiatives. These have
and Asian countries, American factory-model strengthened both the subject matter and peda-
schools offer fewer opportunities for teachers to gogical preparation teachers receive (and the
come to know students well over long periods content pedagogical preparation that joins the
of time and much less time for teachers to spend two), introduced professional development
working with one another to develop curricu- school (PDS) partnerships that have sometimes
lum, plan lessons, observe and discuss teaching changed the nature of schooling along with
strategies, and assess student work in authentic training for teaching, and created signature
ways. As the National Academy of Education pedagogies and more authentic assessments for
Committee on Teacher Education observed, teacher education that link theory and practice
“Many analysts have noted that there is very lit- and are beginning to change the ways in which
tle relationship between the organization of the teachers are taught.
typical American school and the demands of However, in recent years, under pressure
serious teaching and learning” (Darling- from opponents of teacher education and with
Hammond & Bransford, 2005, p. 4). incentives for faster, cheaper alternatives (see,
Thus, schools of education must design pro- e.g., U.S. Department of Education, 2002),
grams that help prospective teachers to under- teacher education as an enterprise has probably
stand deeply a wide array of things about learn- launched more new weak programs that
ing, social and cultural contexts, and teaching underprepare teachers, especially for urban
and be able to enact these understandings in schools, than it has further developed the stron-
complex classrooms serving increasingly ger models that demonstrate what intense prep-
diverse students; in addition, if prospective aration can accomplish. As a result, beginning
teachers are to succeed at this task, schools of teacher attrition has continued to increase
education must design programs that trans- (National Commission on Teaching and Amer-
form the kinds of settings in which novices learn ica’s Future, 2003), and the teaching force is
to teach and later become teachers. This means becoming increasingly bimodal. Although
that the enterprise of teacher education must some teachers are better prepared than they
venture out further and further from the univer- ever were before, a growing number who serve
sity and engage ever more closely with schools the most vulnerable students enter teaching
in a mutual transformation agenda, with all of before they have been prepared to teach and are
the struggle and messiness that implies. It also increasingly ill prepared for what they must
means that teacher educators must take up the accomplish (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003).
charge of educating policy makers and the pub- In addition, teacher educators seem to have lost
lic about what it actually takes to teach effec- their voice in arguing for—and helping to
tively in today’s world—both in terms of the shape—the kinds of schools and education that
knowledge and skills that are needed and in will allow teachers to practice well and children
terms of the school contexts that must be created to learn and thrive.
to allow teachers to develop and use what they Thus, I would argue that teacher educators,
know on behalf of students (Fullan, 1993). as a professional collective, need to work more
Strides were made on both of these agendas intently to build on what has been learned
in the late 1980s when the Holmes Group (1986, about developing stronger models of teacher
1990) issued the first of its reports, the Carnegie preparation—including the much stronger rela-
Forum on Education and the Economy Task tionships with schools that press for mutual trans-
Force on Teaching as a Profession (1986) out- formations of teaching and learning to teach—
lined a major agenda for professionalizing while resisting the pressures and incentives that
teaching, and the National Network for Educa- lead to the creation of weaker models that ulti-

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mately reinforce dissatisfaction with the out- ditions for practice: First is the fact that teaching
comes of teacher education and undermine the is a profession with certain moral and technical
educational system. expectations—especially the expectation that
teachers, working collaboratively, will acquire,
BUILDING STRONG MODELS OF use, and continue to develop shared knowledge
PREPARATION on behalf of students. Second is the fact that, in
the United States, education must serve the pur-
Although reform initiatives have triggered poses of a democracy. This latter condition
much discussion about the structures of teacher means that teachers assume the purpose of en-
education programs (e.g., 4 year or 5 year, abling young people to participate fully in polit-
undergraduate or graduate) and the certifica- ical, civic, and economic life in our society. It
tion categories into which programs presum- also means that education—including teach-
ably fit (e.g., “traditional” or “alternative”), ing—is intended to support equitable access to
there has been less discussion about what goes what that society has to offer.
on within the black box of the program—inside
The implications of this framework for
the courses and clinical experiences that candi-
teacher education are several: First, like the
dates encounter—and about how the experi-
work of other professions, teaching is in the ser-
ences programs design for candidates cumula-
vice of students, which creates the expectation
tively add up to a set of knowledge, skills, and
that teachers will be able to come to understand
dispositions that determine what teachers
how students learn and what various students
actually do in the classroom.
need if they are to learn more effectively—and
that they will incorporate this into their teach-
Knowledge for Teaching: ing and curriculum construction. Deep under-
The “What” of Teacher Education standing of learning and learning differences as
the basis of constructing curriculum has not his-
There are many ways of configuring the torically been a central part of teacher educa-
knowledge that teachers may need. In articulat- tion. These domains were typically reserved to
ing the core concepts and skills that should be psychologists and curriculum developers who
represented in a common curriculum for were expected to use this knowledge to develop
teacher education, the National Academy of Ed- tests and texts, whereas teachers learned teach-
ucation Committee on Teacher Education ing strategies to implement curriculum that was
adopted a framework that is organized on three presumably designed by others. In some ways,
intersecting areas of knowledge found in many this approach to training teachers was rather
statements of standards for teaching (see Figure like training doctors in the techniques of sur-
1): gery without giving them a thorough knowl-
• knowledge of learners and how they learn and de- edge of anatomy and physiology. Without
velop within social contexts, including knowledge knowing deeply how people learn, and how dif-
of language development; ferent people learn differently, teachers lack the
• understanding of curriculum content and goals, in-
foundation that can help them figure out what
cluding the subject matter and skills to be taught in
light of disciplinary demands, student needs, and to do when a given technique or text is not effec-
the social purposes of education; and tive with all students. And teachers cannot
• understanding of and skills for teaching, including achieve ambitious goals by barreling from one
content pedagogical knowledge and knowledge for lesson to the next without understanding how
teaching diverse learners, as these are informed by to construct a purposeful curriculum. This
an understanding of assessment and of how to con-
struct and manage a productive classroom.
requires incorporating subject matter goals,
knowledge of learning, and an appreciation for
These interactions between learners, content, children’s development and needs. Connecting
and teaching are framed by two important con- what is to be learned to the learners themselves

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FIGURE 1: A Framework for Understanding Teaching and Learning
SOURCE: Darling-Hammond & Bransford (2005, p. 11).

requires curriculum work, even when teachers ing versus direct instruction—teachers need to
have access to a range of texts and materials. know how and when to use a range of practices
Furthermore, the work of teaching, like that to accomplish their goals with different stu-
of other professions, is viewed as nonroutine dents in different contexts. And given the wide
and reciprocally related to learning; that is, range of learning situations posed by contem-
what teachers do must be continually evaluated porary students—who represent many distinct
and reshaped based on whether it advances language, cultural, and learning approaches—
learning, rather than carried out largely by cur- teachers need a much deeper knowledge base
riculum packages, scripts, and pacing sched- about teaching for diverse learners than ever
ules as many districts currently require. This before and more highly developed diagnostic
means that teachers need highly refined knowl- abilities to guide their decisions.
edge and skills for assessing pupil learning, and Finally, teachers must be able continually to
they need a wide repertoire of practice—along learn to address the problems of practice they
with the knowledge to know when to use differ- encounter and to meet the unpredictable learn-
ent strategies for different purposes. Rather ing needs of all of their students—and they
than being subject to the pendulum swings of must take responsibility for contributing what
polarized teaching policies that rest on simplis- they learn not only to their own practice but also
tic ideas of best practice—“whole language” that of their colleagues. This means that pro-
versus “phonics,” for example, or inquiry learn- grams must help teachers develop the disposi-

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tion to continue to seek answers to difficult room settings. Second, learning to teach also
problems of teaching and learning and the skills requires that new teachers learn not only to
to learn from practice (and from their col- “think like a teacher” but also to “act as a
leagues) as well as to learn for practice. teacher”—what Mary Kennedy (1999) has
These expectations for teacher knowledge termed “the problem of enactment.” Teachers
mean that programs need not only to provide need not only to understand but also to do a
teachers access to more knowledge, considered wide variety of things, many of them simulta-
more deeply, but also to help teachers learn how neously. Finally, learning to teach requires that
to continually access knowledge and inquire new teachers be able to understand and
into their work. The skills of classroom inquiry respond to the dense and multifaceted nature of
include careful observation and reasoned analy- the classroom, juggling multiple academic and
sis, as well as dispositions toward an open and social goals requiring trade-offs from moment
searching mind and a sense of responsibility and to moment and day to day (Jackson, 1974). They
commitment to children’s learning (Zeichner & must learn to deal with “the problem of com-
Liston, 1996). Preparing teachers as classroom plexity” that is made more intense by the con-
researchers and expert collaborators who can stantly changing nature of teaching and
learn from one another is essential when the learning in groups.
range of knowledge for teaching has grown so How can programs of teacher preparation
expansive that it cannot be mastered by any confront these and other problems of learning
individual and when students’ infinitely to teach? A study examining seven exemplary
diverse ways of learning are recognized as teacher education programs—public and pri-
requiring continual adaptations in teaching. vate, undergraduate and graduate, large and
small—that produce graduates who are ex-
traordinarily well prepared from their first days
Program Designs and Pedagogies: in the classroom finds that despite outward dif-
The “How” of Teacher Education ferences, the programs had common features,
including:
Although it is important to have well-chosen
courses that include core knowledge for teach- • a common, clear vision of good teaching that perme-
ing, it is equally important to organize prospec- ates all course work and clinical experiences, creat-
tive teachers’ experiences so that they can inte- ing a coherent set of learning experiences;
• well-defined standards of professional practice and
grate and use their knowledge in skillful ways performance that are used to guide and evaluate
in the classroom. This is probably the most diffi- course work and clinical work;
cult aspect of constructing a teacher education • a strong core curriculum taught in the context of
program. Teacher educators must worry about practice and grounded in knowledge of child and
not only what to teach but also how, so that adolescent development and learning, an under-
standing of social and cultural contexts, curriculum,
knowledge for teaching actually shapes teach- assessment, and subject matter pedagogy;
ers’ practice and enables them to become adap- • extended clinical experiences—at least 30 weeks of
tive experts who can continue to learn. supervised practicum and student teaching oppor-
Accomplishing this requires addressing tunities in each program—that are carefully chosen
some special—and perennial—challenges in to support the ideas presented in simultaneous,
closely interwoven course work;
learning to teach. Three in particular stand out. • extensive use of case methods, teacher research, per-
First, learning to teach requires that new teach- formance assessments, and portfolio evaluation that
ers come to understand teaching in ways quite apply learning to real problems of practice;
different from their own experience as students. • explicit strategies to help students to confront their
Dan Lortie (1975) called this problem “the own deep-seated beliefs and assumptions about
learning and students and to learn about the experi-
apprenticeship of observation,” referring to the ences of people different from themselves;
learning that takes place by virtue of being a stu- • strong relationships, common knowledge, and
dent for 12 or more years in traditional class- shared beliefs among school- and university-based

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 faculty jointly engaged in transforming teaching, ven with the advisement process and students’
schooling, and teacher education (Darling- work in schools. Subject matter learning is
Hammond, in press).
brought together with content pedagogy
These features confront many of the core di- through courses that treat them together; pro-
lemmas of teacher education: the strong influ- gram sequences also create cross-course links.
ence of the apprenticeship of observation candi- Faculty plan together and syllabi are shared
dates bring with them from their years as students across university divisions as well as within
in elementary and secondary schools, the pre- departments. Virtually all of the closely interre-
sumed divide between theory and practice, the lated courses involve applications in class-
limited personal and cultural perspectives all rooms where observations or student teaching
individuals bring to the task of teaching, and the occur. These classrooms, in turn, are selected
difficult process of helping people learn to enact because they model the kind of practice that is
their intentions in complex settings. They help discussed in courses and advisement. In some
produce novice teachers who are able, from particularly powerful programs, faculty who
their first days in the classroom, to practice like teach courses also supervise and advise teacher
many seasoned veterans, productively organiz- candidates and sometimes even teach children
ing classrooms that teach challenging content to and teachers in placement schools, bringing
very diverse learners with levels of skill many together these disparate program elements
teachers never attain. through an integration of roles.
In addition to the deeper knowledge base I In such intensely coherent programs, core
have described above, such powerful teacher ideas are reiterated across courses and the theo-
education, I believe, rests on certain critically retical frameworks animating courses and
important pedagogical cornerstones that have assignments are consistent across the program.
been difficult to attain in many programs since These frameworks “explicate, justify, and build
teacher education moved from normal schools consensus on such fundamental conceptions as
into universities in the 1950s. I would like to the role of the teacher, the nature of teaching and
highlight three of these here because I think learning, and the mission of the school in this
they are essential to achieving radically differ- democracy,” enabling “shared faculty leader-
ent outcomes from preparation programs. ship by underscoring collective roles as well as
individual course responsibilities” (Howey &
Coherence and Integration
Zimpher, 1989, p. 242).
The first is a tight coherence and integration Programs that are largely a collection of unre-
among courses and between course work and lated courses without a common conception of
clinical work in schools that challenges teaching and learning have been found to be rel-
traditional program organizations, staffing, and atively feeble change agents for affecting prac-
modes of operation. The extremely strong coher- tice among new teachers (Zeichner & Gore,
ence extraordinary programs have achieved 1990). Cognitive science affirms that people
creates an almost seamless experience of learn- learn more effectively when ideas are reinforced
ing to teach. In contrast to the many critiques and connected both in theory and in practice.
that have highlighted the structural and con- Although this seems obvious, creating coher-
ceptual fragmentation of traditional under- ence has been difficult in teacher education
graduate teacher education programs (see, e.g., because of departmental divides, individualis-
Goodlad, Soder, & Sirotnik, 1990; Howey & Zim- tic norms, and the hiring of part-time adjunct
pher, 1989; Zeichner & Gore, 1990), course work instructors in some institutions that have used
in highly successful programs is carefully se- teacher education as a “cash cow” rather than
quenced based on a strong theory of learning to an investment in our nation’s future. Fortu-
teach; courses are designed to intersect with each nately, a number of studies of teacher education
other, are aggregated into a well-understood reform document how programs have over-
landscape of learning, and are tightly interwo- come the centrifugal forces that too often leave

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candidates on their own to make sense of dispa- about in their courses alongside teachers who
rate, unconnected experiences (Howey & can show them how to teach in ways that are
Zimpher, 1989; Patterson, Michelli, & Pacheco, responsive to learners.
1999; Tatto, 1996; Wideen, Mayer-Smith, & Such programs typically require at least a full
Moon, 1998). academic year of student teaching under the
direct supervision of one or more teachers who
Extensive, Well-Supervised Clinical Experience
Linked to Course Work Using Pedagogies That
model expert practice with students who have a
Link Theory and Practice wide range of learning needs, with the candi-
date gradually assuming more independent
The second critically important feature that responsibility for teaching. This allows prospec-
requires a wrenching change from traditional tive teachers to grow “roots” on their practice,
models of teacher education is the importance which is especially important if they are going
of extensive and intensely supervised clinical to learn to teach in learner-centered ways that
work—tightly integrated with course work— require diagnosis, intensive assessment and
that allows candidates to learn from expert planning to adapt to learners’ needs, and a com-
practice in schools that serve diverse students. plex repertoire of practices judiciously applied.
All of the adjectives in the previous sentence Many teacher educators have argued that
matter: Extensive clinical work, intensive super- novices who have experience in classrooms are
vision, expert modeling of practice, and diverse more prepared to make sense of the ideas that
students are critical to allowing candidates to are addressed in their academic work and that
learn to practice in practice with students who student teachers see and understand both the-
call for serious teaching skills (Ball & Cohen, ory and practice differently if they are taking
1999). Securing these features will take radical course work concurrently with fieldwork. A
overhaul of the status quo. Furthermore, to be growing body of research confirms this belief,
most powerful, this work needs to incorporate finding that teachers-in-training who partici-
newly emerging pedagogies—such as close pate in fieldwork with course work are better
analyses of learning and teaching, case meth- able to understand theory, to apply concepts
ods, performance assessments, and action they are learning in their course work, and to
research—that link theory and practice in ways support student learning (Baumgartner,
that theorize practice and make formal learning Koerner, & Rust, 2002; Denton, 1982; Henry,
practical. 1983; Ross, Hughes, & Hill, 1981; Sunal, 1980).
One of the perennial dilemmas of teacher edu- It is not just the availability of classroom
cation is how to integrate theoretically based experience that enables teachers to apply what
knowledge that has traditionally been taught in they are learning, however. Recent studies of
university classrooms with the experience- learning to teach suggest that immersing teach-
based knowledge that has traditionally been ers in the materials of practice and working on
located in the practice of teachers and the reali- particular concepts using these materials can be
ties of classrooms and schools. Traditional ver- particularly powerful for teachers’ learning.
sions of teacher education have often had stu- Analyzing samples of student work, teachers’
dents taking batches of front-loaded course plans and assignments, videotapes of teachers
work in isolation from practice and then adding and students in action, and cases of teaching
a short dollop of student teaching to the end of and learning can help teachers draw connections
the program—often in classrooms that did not between generalized principles and specific
model the practices that had previously been instances of teaching and learning (Ball & Cohen,
described in abstraction. By contrast, the most 1999; Hammerness, Darling-Hammond, &
powerful programs require students to spend Shulman, 2002; Lampert & Ball, 1998).
extensive time in the field throughout the entire It is worth noting that many professions, in-
program, examining and applying the concepts cluding law, medicine, psychology, and busi-
and strategies they are simultaneously learning ness, help candidates bridge the gap between

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theory and practice—and develop skills of re- practice with these tools systematically
flection and close analysis—by engaging them (Grossman, Smagorinsky, & Valencia, 1999).
in the reading and writing of cases. Many highly Powerful teacher education programs have a
successful teacher education programs require clinical curriculum as well as a didactic curricu-
candidates to develop case studies on students, lum. They teach candidates to turn analysis into
on aspects of schools and teaching, and on fami- action by applying what they are learning in
lies or communities by observing, interviewing, curriculum plans, teaching applications, and
examining student work, and analyzing data other performance assessments that are orga-
they have collected. Proponents argue that nized on professional teaching standards.
cases support both systematic learning from These attempts are especially educative when
particular contexts as well as from more gener- they are followed by systematic reflection on
alized theory about teaching and learning. student learning in relation to teaching and
Shulman (1996) suggested that cases are power- receive detailed feedback, with opportunities to
ful tools for professional learning because they retry and improve. Furthermore, recent
require professionals in training to research suggests that to be most productive,
these opportunities for analysis, application,
move up and down, back and forth, between the
memorable particularities of cases and the powerful and reflection should derive from and connect
generalizations and simplifications of principles to both the subject matter and the students can-
and theories. Principles are powerful but cases are didates teach (Ball & Bass, 2000; Grossman &
memorable. Only in the continued interaction be- Stodolsky, 1995; Shulman, 1987). In this way,
tween principles and cases can practitioners and their prospective teachers learn the fine-grained stuff
mentors avoid the inherent limitations of theory-
without-practice or the equally serious restrictions
of practice in connection to the practical theories
of vivid practice without the mirror of principle. that will allow them to adapt their practice in a
(p. 201) well-grounded fashion, innovating and
improvising to meet the specific classroom
These benefits of connecting profession-wide contexts they later encounter.
knowledge to unique contexts can also be
gained by the skillful use of tools such as portfo- New Relationships With Schools
lios, teachers’ classroom inquiries and research, Finally, these kinds of strategies for connect-
and analyses of specific classrooms, teachers, or ing theory and practice cannot succeed without
teaching situations when teacher educators a major overhaul of the relationships between
provide thoughtful readings, guidance, and universities and schools, ultimately producing
feedback. changes in the content of schooling as well as
Although it is helpful to experience class- teacher training. It is impossible to teach people
rooms and analyze the materials and practices how to teach powerfully by asking them to
of teaching, it is quite another thing to put ideals imagine what they have never seen or to sug-
into action. Often, the clinical side of teacher gest they “do the opposite” of what they have
education has been fairly haphazard, depend- observed in the classroom. No amount of course-
ing on the idiosyncrasies of loosely selected work can, by itself, counteract the powerful
placements with little guidance about what experiential lessons that shape what teachers
happens in them and little connection to univer- actually do. It is impractical to expect to prepare
sity work. And university work has often been teachers for schools as they should be if teachers
“too theoretical”—meaning abstract and gen- are constrained to learn in settings that typify
eral—in ways that leave teachers bereft of spe- the problems of schools as they have been—
cific tools to use in the classroom. The theoreti- where isolated teachers provide examples of
cally grounded tools teachers need are many, idiosyncratic, usually atheoretical practice that
ranging from knowledge of curriculum materi- rarely exhibits a diagnostic, assessment-oriented
als and assessment strategies to techniques for approach and infrequently offers access to care-
organizing group work and planning student fully selected strategies designed to teach a
inquiries—and teachers need opportunities to wide range of learners well.

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 These settings simply do not exist in large high-quality curriculum for diverse learners or
numbers—and where individual teachers have in schools where faculty are actively confront-
created classroom oases, there have been few ing issues of tracking, poor teaching, inade-
long-lasting reforms to leverage transforma- quate or fragmented curriculum, and unre-
tions in whole schools. Some very effective part- sponsive systems (see, e.g., Darling-Hammond,
nerships, however, have helped to create school in press; Guadarrama, Ramsey, & Nath, 2002).
environments for teaching and teacher training In these schools, student teachers or interns are
through PDSs, lab schools, and school reform encouraged to participate in all aspects of
networks. Some of these are such strong models school functioning, ranging from special educa-
of practice and collaboration that the environ- tion and support services for students to parent
ment itself serves as a learning experience for meetings, home visits, and community out-
teachers (Darling-Hammond, in press; Tracht- reach to faculty discussions and projects aimed
man, 1996). In such schools, teachers are at ongoing improvement. This kind of partici-
immersed in strong and widely shared cultural pation helps prospective teachers understand
norms and practices and can leverage them for the broader institutional context for teaching
greater effect through professional studies offer- and learning and begin to develop the skills
ing research, theory, and information about other needed for effective participation in collegial
practices and models. Such schools also support work on school improvement throughout their
advances in knowledge by serving as sites careers.
where practice-based and practice-sensitive Developing sites where state-of-the-art prac-
research can be carried out collaboratively by tice is the norm is a critical element of strong
teachers, teacher educators, and researchers. teacher education, and it has been one of most
In highly developed PDS models, curriculum difficult. Quite often, if novices are to see and
reforms and other improvement initiatives are emulate high-quality practice, especially in
supported by the school and often the district; schools serving the neediest students, it is nec-
school teams involving both university and essary not only to seek out individual cooperat-
school educators work on such tasks as curricu- ing teachers but also to develop the quality of
lum development, school reform, and action the schools so that prospective teachers can
research; university faculty are typically learn productively. Such school development is
involved in teaching courses and organizing also needed to create settings where advances
professional development at the school site and in knowledge and practice can occur. Seeking
may also be involved in teaching children; and diversity by placing candidates in schools serv-
school-based faculty often teach in the teacher ing low-income students or students of color
education program. Most classrooms are sites that suffer from the typical shortcomings many
for practica and student teaching placements, such schools face can actually be counterpro-
and cooperating teachers are trained to become ductive. As Gallego (2001) noted,
teacher educators, often holding meetings regu- Though teacher education students may be placed in
larly to develop their mentoring skills. Candi- schools with large, culturally diverse student popu-
dates learn in all parts of the school, not just lations, many of these schools . . . do not provide the
individual classrooms; they receive more fre- kind of contact with communities needed to over-
quent and sustained supervision and feedback come negative attitudes toward culturally different
students and their families and communities
and participate in more collective planning and (Zeichner, 1992). Indeed, without connections be-
decision making among teachers at the school tween the classroom, school, and local communities,
(Abdal-Haqq, 1998, pp. 13-14; Darling- classroom field experiences may work to strengthen
Hammond, 2005; Trachtman, 1996). pre-service teachers’ stereotypes of children, rather
Some universities have sought to create PDS than stimulate their examination (Cochran-Smith,
1995; Haverman & Post, 1992), and ultimately com-
relationships in schools that are working explic-
promise teachers’ effectiveness in the classroom
itly on an equity agenda, either in new schools (Zeichner, 1996). (p. 314)
designed to provide more equitable access to

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 Thus, working to create PDSs that construct than 30 states continue to allow teachers to enter
state-of-the art practice in communities where teaching on emergency permits or waivers with
students are typically underserved by schools little or no teacher education at all. In addition,
helps transform the eventual teaching pool for more than 40 states have created alternative
such schools and students. In this way, PDSs de- pathways to teaching—some of which are high-
velop school practice as well as the individual quality postbaccalaureate routes and others of
practice of new teacher candidates. Such PDSs which are truncated programs that short-circuit
simultaneously restructure school programs essential elements of teacher learning. Many
and teacher education programs, redefining candidates who enter through emergency or
teaching and learning for all members of the alternative routes do not meet even minimal
profession and the school community. standards when they start teaching, and
Although not all of the more than 1,000 researchers have found that pressures to get
school partnerships (Abdal-Haqq, 1998) created them certified in states where thousands are
in the name of PDS work have been successful, hired annually can undermine the quality of
there is growing evidence of the power of this preparation they ultimately receive. In some
approach. Studies of highly developed PDSs states, such as California and Texas, unlicensed
suggest that teachers who graduate from such entrants have numbered in the tens of thou-
programs feel more knowledgeable and pre- sands annually, hired to teach to the least
pared to teach and are rated by employers, advantaged students in low-income and minor-
supervisors, and researchers as better prepared ity schools. Even when these candidates are
than other new teachers. Veteran teachers work- required to make some progress toward a
ing in highly developed PDSs describe changes license by taking courses for teaching while
in their own practice and improvements at the they teach, the quality of preparation they
classroom and school levels as a result of the receive is undermined (Shields et al., 2001).
professional development, action research, and Institutions that train these emergency hires
mentoring that are part of the PDS. Some stud- cannot offer the kinds of tightly integrated pro-
ies document gains in student performance tied grams described here in which candidates
to curriculum and teaching interventions study concepts and implement them with guid-
resulting from PDS initiatives (for a summary, ance in supported clinical settings. They are
see Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005, pp. forced to offer fragmented courses on nights
415-416). and weekends to candidates who may never
Although research has also demonstrated have seen good teaching and who have little
how difficult these partnerships are to enact, support in the schools where they work. The
many schools of education are moving toward part-time instructors who are often hired to
preparing all of their prospective teachers in teach these courses are not part of a faculty-
such settings both because they can more sys- wide conversation about preparation, nor do
tematically prepare prospective teachers to they have a sense of a coherent program into
learn to teach in professional learning commu- which their efforts might fit.
nities and because such work is a key to chang- When these candidates work full-time, col-
ing schools so that they become more produc- leges often water down their training to mini-
tive environments for the learning of all mize readings and homework and focus on sur-
students and teachers. vival needs such as classroom discipline rather
than curriculum and teaching methods. Candi-
dates often demand attention to classroom
RESISTING PRESSURES TO management, without realizing that their lack
WATER DOWN PREPARATION
of knowledge of curriculum and instruction
Although heroic work is going on to trans- cause many of the classroom difficulties they
form teacher education and a growing number face (Shields et al., 2001). When they skip stu-
of powerful programs are being created, more dent teaching, colleges cannot weave good

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models of teaching into courses that would con- enterprise as a whole is blamed for any and all
nect theory and practice, and candidates can teachers who are ill prepared, including those
only imagine what successful practice might who entered teaching without preparation.
look like. Few realize that rapidly producing poorly
Studies observe that both recruits and em- prepared teachers for this system is a major part
ployers typically find the outcomes of this kind of the problem rather than a solution. The cur-
of training less satisfactory than those of a more rent practice is like pouring water into a bucket
coherent experience that includes supervised with a gaping hole at the bottom. Aside from
clinical training along with more thoughtfully true shortage fields such as mathematics and
organized course work (California State Uni- physical science, the nation actually produces
versity, 2002; Shields et al., 2001). Furthermore, more newly credentialed teachers each year
many programs that try to train candidates than it hires. Most of the real problems that
while they teach have had extremely high attri- appear as shortages have to do with teacher dis-
tion rates (Darling-Hammond, 2001). If medical tribution and retention, not production. In addi-
schools were asked to develop programs for al- tion to unequal funding and salary schedules
ready-practicing doctors or nurses that would that hamper poor urban and rural districts,
eliminate or truncate some courses and skip many districts that hire underprepared teachers
clinical rotations and the internship entirely, have cumbersome and dysfunctional hiring
they would refuse to do so. However, universi- systems or prioritize the hiring of unqualified
ties participate in this kind of training for teachers because such teachers cost less than
teachers for many reasons: qualified teachers who have applied (Darling-
• They feel an obligation to help teachers who have Hammond & Sykes, 2003).
found their way into the classroom without proper In these districts, teacher turnover is even
training; higher than the already high rate elsewhere.
• They are required to do so by laws governing state- Nationally, about one third of beginning teach-
funded programs or encouraged to do so by federal,
state, or local incentives to construct alternative
ers leave within 5 years, and the proportions are
pathways that train teachers while they teach; higher for teachers who enter with less prepara-
• They believe, like many policy makers, that this is tion. For example, teachers who receive student
the only way to meet persistent supply problems, es- teaching are twice as likely to stay in teaching
pecially in poor urban and rural districts; and after a year, and those who receive the kinds of
• Such recruits are a source of money and may absorb
little in the way of services for the tuition they pay.
preparation that include learning theory and
child development are even more likely to stay
In states where large numbers of individuals in teaching (Henke, Chen, & Geis, 2000; Luczak,
enter teaching in this way, most programs are 2004; National Commission on Teaching and
pressured to bend to this mode of entry, gradu- America’s Future, 2003). The costs of this
ally eroding the quality of stronger programs teacher attrition are enormous. One recent
that have been developed. Programs experience study estimates that, depending on the cost
pressures to reduce the amount of time devoted model used, districts spend between US$8,000
to preparing teachers, to admit candidates on and US$48,000 in costs for hiring, placement,
emergency licenses who then require a frag- induction, separation, and replacement for each
mented program without student teaching, and beginning teacher who leaves (Benner, 2000).
to short-circuit clinical requirements that would On a national scale, it is clear that teacher attri-
allow candidates to learn to practice under tion costs billions annually that could more pro-
supervision. ductively be spent on preparing teachers and
The irony is that when institutions are supporting them in the classroom.
complicit in cobbling together weak programs, A number of states and districts have filled all
even when they do so for the most helpful rea- of their classrooms with qualified teachers by
sons—and when they do not speak out against streamlining hiring, investing in stronger
emergency hiring—the teacher education teacher preparation and induction, and equaliz-

Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 57, No. 3, May/June 2006 311

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ing salaries (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003). president of the Carnegie Foundation for the
They have ended the practice of hiring unquali- Advancement of Teaching, noted that although
fied teachers by increasing incentives to teach there was a growing science of medicine, most
rather than lowering standards. As Gideonse doctors did not get access to this knowledge be-
(1993) has noted in an analysis of teacher cause of the great unevenness in the medical
education policy, training they received. Pritchett observed that
As long as school systems are permitted to hire under- very seldom, under existing conditions, does a pa-
prepared teachers through the mechanism of emer- tient receive the best aid which it is possible to give
gency certificates and their equivalent, teacher prep- him in the present state of medicine, . . . [because] a
aration institutions and the faculty in them will have vast army of men is admitted to the practice of medi-
reduced incentives to maintain standards by pre- cine who are untrained in sciences fundamental to
venting the advancement of the marginally qualified the profession and quite without a sufficient experi-
to licensure. All the hype in the world about raised ence with disease. (p. x)
standards and performance-based licensure is
meaningless absent a real incentive working on He attributed this problem to the failure of
school districts to recruit the qualified through salary many universities to incorporate advances in
and improved conditions of practice, rather than be-
medical education into their curricula.
ing allowed to redefine the available as qualified. (p. 404)
As in teaching today, there were those who
Whereas many countries fully subsidize an argued against the professionalization of medi-
extensive program of teacher education for all cine and who felt that medical practice could
candidates, the amount of preparation secured best be learned by following another doctor
by teachers in the United States is left substan- around in a buggy. Medical education was
tially to what they can individually afford and transformed as the stronger programs Flexner
what programs are willing and able to offer (Flexner & Pritchett, 1910) identified became
given the resources of their respective institu- the model incorporated by accrediting bodies
tions. Although many U.S. institutions are in- and as all candidates were required to complete
tensifying their programs to prepare more such programs to practice. In a similar manner,
effective teachers, they lack the systemic policy improving teaching and teacher education in
supports for candidate subsidies and program- the United States depends on not only strength-
matic funding that their counterparts in other ening individual programs but also addressing
countries enjoy. And in states that have not de- the policies needed to strengthen the teacher
veloped induction supports, programs are con- education enterprise as a whole.
tinually called on to increase the production of Although teacher education is only one com-
new recruits who are then squandered when ponent of what is needed to enable high-quality
they land in an unsupportive system that treats teaching, it is essential to the success of all the
them as utterly dispensable. other reforms urged on schools. To advance
In every occupation that has become a profes- knowledge about teaching, to spread good
sion during the 20th century, the strengthening practice, and to enhance equity for children, it is
of preparation was tied to a resolve to end the essential that teacher educators and policy mak-
practice of allowing untrained individuals to ers seek strong preparation for teachers that is
practice. Teaching is currently where medicine universally available, rather than a rare occur-
was in 1910, when doctors could be trained in rence that is available only to a lucky few.
programs ranging from 3 weeks of training fea-
turing memorized lists of symptoms and cures
NOTE
to Johns Hopkins University graduate school’s
preparing doctors in the sciences of medicine 1. The National Academy of Education Committee members
included James Banks, Joan Baratz-Snowden, David Berliner, John
and in clinical practice in the newly invented Bransford, Marilyn Cochran-Smith, James Comer, Linda Darling-
teaching hospital. Hammond, Sharon Derry, Emily Feistritzer, Edmund Gordon,
Pamela Grossman, Cris Gutierrez, Frances Degan Horowitz,
In his introduction to the Flexner Report, Evelyn Jenkins-Gunn, Carol Lee, Lucy Matos, Luis Moll, Arturo
Henry Pritchett (Flexner & Pritchett, 1910), Pacheco, Anna Richert, Kathy Rosebrock, Frances Rust, Alan

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Schoenfeld, Lorrie Shepard, Lee Shulman, Catherine Snow, Gallego, M. A. (2001). Is experience the best teacher? The
Guadalupe Valdes, and Kenneth Zeichner.
potential of coupling classroom and community-based
field experiences. Journal of Teacher Education, 52(4), 312-
325.
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tus of the teaching profession 2001. Santa Cruz, CA: Center Linda Darling-Hammond is Charles E. Ducommun
for the Future of Teaching and Learning. Professor of Education at Stanford University School of
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Founda- Education. She served as executive director of the National
tions of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, which
57(1), 1-22. produced the 1996 widely cited blueprint for education
Shulman, L. S. (1996). Just in case: Reflections on learning reform, What Matters Most: Teaching for America’s
from experience. In K. T. J. Colbert, P. Desberg, & K. Trimble Future. Her research, teaching, and policy work focus on
(Eds.), The case for education: Contemporary approaches for teaching and teacher education, school restructuring, and
using case methods (pp. 197-217). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. educational equity. She has been active in the development
Sunal, D. W. (1980). Effect of field experience during ele- of standards for teaching, having served as a two-term
mentary methods courses on preservice teacher behav- member of the National Board for Professional Teaching
ior. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 17(1), 17-23.
Standards and as chair of the Interstate New Teacher
Tatto, M. T. (1996). Examining values and beliefs about
Assessment and Support Consortium Committee that
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drafted model standards for licensing beginning teachers.
lenges for teacher education. Educational Evaluation and
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She is author of The Right To Learn (Jossey-Bass, 2001),
Trachtman, R. (1996). The NCATE professional development A License to Teach (Jossey-Bass, 1999), and Profes-
school study: A survey of 28 PDS sites. Washington, DC: sional Development Schools: Schools for Developing
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher a Profession (Teachers College Press, 2005), along with
Education. six other books and more than 200 book chapters, journal
U.S. Department of Education. (2002, June). Meeting the articles, and monographs on education.
highly qualified teachers challenge: The secretary’s annual

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