REPUBLIC OF KENYA

LEARNING GUIDE

FOR

CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

LEVEL 6

TVET CDACC
P.O. BOX 15745-00100
NAIROBI
First published 2019
Copyright TVET CDACC

All rights reserved. No part of these Occupational Standards may be reproduced,

distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording,
or other electronic or mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the
TVET CDACC, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and
certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests,
write to the Council Secretary/CEO, at the address below:

Council Secretary/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
P.O. Box 15745–00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: [Link]@[Link]

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 FOREWORD

The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall
strategy for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute
to achievement of Kenya’s development blueprint and sustainable development goals.

Reforms in the education sector are necessary for the achievement of Kenya Vision 2030
and meeting the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya 2010. The education sector had to
be aligned to the Constitution and this resulted to the formulation of the Policy Framework
for Reforming Education and Training (Sectional Paper No. 4 of 2016). A key feature of
this policy is the radical change in the design and delivery of the TVET training. This
policy document requires that training in TVET be competency based, curriculum
development be industry led, certification be based on demonstration of competence and
mode of delivery allows for multiple entry and exit in TVET programmes.

These reforms demand that Industry takes a leading role in curriculum development to
ensure the curriculum addresses its competence needs. It is against this background that
this curriculum has been developed.

It is my conviction that this curriculum will play a great role towards development of
competent human resource for the construction sector.

PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

ii
 PREFACE

Kenya Vision 2030 aims to transform the country into a newly industrializing, “middle-
income country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. Kenya
intends to create a globally competitive and adaptive human resource base to meet the
requirements of a rapidly industrializing economy through life-long education and training.
TVET has a responsibility of facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and
attitudes necessary for catapulting the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the
paradigm shift to embrace Competency Based Education and Training (CBET).

The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and Sectional
Paper No. 4 of 2016 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasized the need
to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification. This called for a shift to
CBET in order to address the mismatch between skills acquired through training and skills
needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan labour force.

TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council (TVET CDACC)

in conjunction with Construction Sector Skills Advisory Committee (SSAC) have
developed this curriculum.

This curriculum is designed and organized with an outline of learning outcomes; suggested
delivery methods, training/learning resources and methods of assessing the trainee’s
achievement. The curriculum is competency-based and allows multiple entry and exit to
the course.

I am grateful to the Council members, Council Secretariat, Construction SSAC, expert

workers and all those who participated in the development of this curriculum.

Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, PhD, FIET (K), Con. EngTech.

CHAIRMAN, TVET CDACC

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This curriculum has been designed for competency-based training and has independent
units of learning that allow the trainee flexibility in entry and exit. In developing the
curriculum, significant involvement and support was received from various organizations.

I recognize with appreciation the role of Construction Sector Skills Advisory Committee
(SSAC) members for their contribution to the development of this curriculum.
I also thank all stakeholders in the construction sector for their valuable input and all those
who participated in the process of developing this curriculum.
I am convinced that this curriculum will go a long way in ensuring that workers in the
Construction industry acquire competencies that will enable them to perform their work
more efficiently.

Dr. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, PhD

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD.................................................................................................................... II
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................ III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................. IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ V
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... XIII
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... XVIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background Information ...................................................................................... 1
1.2 The Purpose of Developing the Learning Guide ................................................. 1
1.3 Layout of the learning guide ................................................................................ 2
1.4 Learning Activities............................................................................................... 2
1.5 Information Sheet................................................................................................. 2
1.6 Self-Assessment ................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS ....................................................... 5
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................ 5
2.3 Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................ 5
2.3.1 List of learning outcomes ............................................................................... 5
2.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Algebra ....................................................... 6
2.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Functions . 12
2.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Apply Complex Numbers ................................... 16
2.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Apply Coordinate Geometry ............................... 21
2.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry Out Binomial Expansion ........................... 29
2.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Apply Calculus .................................................... 32
2.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Solve Ordinary Differential Equations ............... 41
2.3.9 Learning Outcome No 8: Carry Out Mensuration ....................................... 45
2.3.10 Learning Outcome No 9: Apply Power Series ........................................... 56
2.3.11 Learning Outcome No 10: Apply Statistics ............................................... 60
2.3.12 Learning Outcome No 11: Apply numerical methods ............................... 74
2.3.13 Learning Outcome No12: Apply Vector Theory ....................................... 77
2.3.14 Learning Outcome No 13: Apply Matrix ................................................... 83

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CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL DRAWING .................................................................... 93
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 93
3.2 Performance Standard .......................................................................................... 93
3.3 Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................. 93
3.3.1 List of learning outcomes ............................................................................. 93
3.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Use and Maintain Drawing Equipment and Materials
............................................................................................................... 94
3.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Produce Plane Geometry Drawings .................. 108
3.3.4 Learning outcome No 3: Produce Solid Geometry .................................... 118
3.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Produce Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings of
Components ......................................................................................... 125
3.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply CAD Packages in Drawings ................... 136
CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS ..................................... 151
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 151
4.2 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 151
4.3 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 151
4.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 151
4.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Analyze Structural Elements ............................. 152
4.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design structural elements ................................ 158
4.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Prepare Structural Drawings ............................. 164
4.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Interpret structural drawings ............................. 168
4.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply and use Structural Drawings .................. 172
CHAPTER 5: CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL SCIENCE ..................................... 179
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 179
5.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 179
5.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 179
5.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 179
5.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Identifying Essential Construction Materials .... 180
5.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Identifying Properties of Construction Materials188
5.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Manufacturing Construction materials .............. 194
5.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Selecting Quality Construction Materials ......... 201
5.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Using Construction Materials Appropriately .... 207
5.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Testing Construction Materials ......................... 216

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 5.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Handling Construction Materials Safely ........... 222
CHAPTER 6: WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PRACTICES ................................. 229
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 229
6.2 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 229
6.3 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 229
6.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 229
6.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Perform Masonry Tasks .................................... 230
6.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Plumbing Tasks ................................... 238
6.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Perform Carpentry Tasks .................................. 245
6.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Perform Electrical Operations ........................... 254
6.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Perform Mechanical Operations ....................... 265
CHAPTER 7: MEASUREMENT OF WORKS AND COST ESTIMATION ........ 273
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 273
7 .2 Performance Standard ....................................................................................... 273
7.3.1 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................... 273
7.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Tender Documents ............................... 274
7.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Take Off Building Quantities ............................ 281
7.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Work Up Dimensions........................................ 288
7.3.4 Learning Outcome No 4: Abstract Take Off Data ..................................... 295
CHAPTER 8: WATER AND WASTEWATER TECHNOLOGY .......................... 303
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 303
8.2 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 303
8.3 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 303
8.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 303
8.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Basic Water Supply Principles ............... 304
8.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Principles of Wastewater Collection and
Treatment............................................................................................. 315
8.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Apply Basic Irrigation and Drainage Principles323
CHAPTER 9: WATER RESOURCES, WATER SERVICES AND SANITATION
MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES ................................................................................. 330
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 330
9.2 Performance Standard ........................................................................................ 330
9.3 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 330

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 9.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes......................................................................... 330
9.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Determine Hydrological Processes ................... 331
9.3.3Learning Outcome No 2: Quantify Surface Water ..................................... 338
9.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Map Rocks and Aquifers................................... 344
9.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Establish Well Sites .......................................... 350
9.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Conserve the Environment ................................ 355
9.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Develop Water Harvesting Structures Situations362
CHAPTER 10: MATERIAL TESTING ..................................................................... 367
10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 367
10.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 367
10.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 367
10.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 367
10.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare for Material Testing ........................... 368
10.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Sample Road Construction Materials ............. 376
10.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Undertake Tests on the Alignment Soils......... 385
10.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Perform Concrete Tests ................................... 391
10.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry out Structural Steel Tests ...................... 398
10.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Bitumen Tests ................................... 405
10.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Perform Timber Tests ..................................... 411
CHAPTER 11: HIGHWAY SURVEY ....................................................................... 417
11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 417
11.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 417
11.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 417
11.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 417
11.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Undertake Preliminary Site Survey ................. 418
11.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Levelling Activities ........................... 426
11.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Conduct Tacheometry Works ......................... 438
11.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Draft Road Cross-Sections .............................. 444
11.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry out Setting out Activities ...................... 450
11.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Traversing Works .............................. 458
11.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Perform Traffic Engineering Survey ............... 470
CHAPTER 12: BASIC PAVEMENT STRUCTURES .............................................. 476

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 12.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 476
12.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 476
12.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 476
12.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 476
12.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Conduct Site Visit ........................................... 477
12.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design Highway, Drainage and Hydraulic Structures
............................................................................................................. 484
12.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Design Road Geometrics................................. 495
12.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Design Pavement Structure ............................. 505
12.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Design Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths ............... 511
12.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Design Road Furniture .................................... 516
CHAPTER 13: ROAD CONSTRUCTION WORKS ................................................ 523
13.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 523
13.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 523
13.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 523
13.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 523
13.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Carry out Earthwork Activities ....................... 524
13.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Construct Road/Pavement Structure Layers ... 534
13.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Construct Parking Walk Ways and Cyclist Lanes,
Foot Bridges, Bus Bays ....................................................................... 540
13.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Install Road Furniture ..................................... 546
13.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Construct Erosion Prevention Structures ........ 553
13.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Construct Highway Drainage and Hydraulic
Structures ............................................................................................. 561
13.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Undertake Highway Maintenance ................... 569
CHAPTER 14: ENGINEERING STRUCTURES DESIGN .................................... 579
14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 579
14.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 579
14.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 579
14.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 579
14.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Calculate Load Estimates ................................ 580
14.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design Structural Elements ............................. 587
14.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Assess Cost Effectiveness of the Design ........ 595

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 14.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Modify Structural Designs .............................. 601
CHAPTER 15: BUILDING DRAWINGS .................................................................. 606
15.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 606
15.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 606
15.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 606
15.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 606
15.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Interpret Architectural Drawings .................... 607
15.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Prepare Structural and Civil Drawings ........... 612
15.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Interpret Electrical Drawings .......................... 623
15.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Design Plumbing Layout ................................ 630
15.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Interpret Mechanical Drawings ....................... 637
CHAPTER 16: BUILDING WORKS ......................................................................... 643
16.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 643
16.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 643
16.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 643
16.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 643
16.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Execute Site Preliminary Works ..................... 644
16.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Execute Building Temporary Works .............. 652
16.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Execute Substructure Works ........................... 658
16.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Execute Superstructure Works ........................ 666
16.3.6 Learning Outcome No.5: Execute Building Finishes .............................. 674
16.3.7 Learning Outcome No. 6: Execute Building External Works .................. 682
CIVIL CHAPTER 17: WATER RESOURCE QUALITY MANAGEMENT ........ 689
17.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 689
17.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 689
17.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 689
17.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 689
17.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Monitor Water Resources Quality .................. 690
17.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Surface Water Quality Management ............... 698
17.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Ground Water Quality Management ............... 704
17.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Manage Wastewater Quality ........................... 708
CHAPTER 18: DESIGN OF WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND TREATMENT
INFRASTRUCTURE ................................................................................................... 714

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 18.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 714
18.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 714
18.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 714
18.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 714
18.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Hydraulic Engineering Principles ........ 715
18.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Analyse Structural Elements ........................... 720
18.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Design Structural Elements ............................. 725
18.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Collect Wastewater Infrastructure Design Data730
18.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Analyse Wastewater Infrastructure Design Data735
18.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Calculate Wastewater Infrastructure Design
Parameters ........................................................................................... 740
18.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Draw Wastewater Infrastructure Units............ 745
18.3.9 Learning Outcome No 8: Compile Wastewater Infrastructure Design Report
............................................................................................................. 751
CHAPTER 19: CONSTRUCT WASTEWATER INFRASTRUCTURE................ 765
19.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning ................................................................ 765
19.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 765
19.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 765
19.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 765
19.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Analyse Soil Properties ................................... 766
19.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Prepare Construction Schedule ....................... 773
19.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Organize the Construction Site ....................... 779
19.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Construct the Wastewater Infrastructure ......... 784
CHAPTER 20: DESIGNING ONSITE SANITATION FACILITIES .................... 790
20.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning ................................................................ 790
20.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 790
20.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 790
20.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 790
20.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Collect Onsite Sanitation Design Data ............ 791
20.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Analyse Onsite Sanitation Design Data .......... 795
20.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Calculate Onsite Sanitation Design Parameters799
20.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Draw Onsite Sanitation Units ......................... 805
20.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Design Shit Flow Diagram .............................. 810

xi
 20.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Compile Onsite Sanitation Design Report ...... 815
CHAPTER 21: CONSTRUCTION OF ONSITE SANITATION FACILITIES .... 820
21.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning ................................................................ 820
21.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 820
21.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 820
21.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 820
21.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Construction Schedule ....................... 821
21.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Organize the Construction Site ....................... 826
21.3.4 Learning No 3: Construct the Various Onsite Sanitation Facilities ......... 830
CHAPTER 22: CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT MANAGEMENT ................. 836
22.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning ................................................................ 836
22.2 Performance Standard ...................................................................................... 836
22.3 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................... 836
22.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes....................................................................... 836
22.3.2 Learning No 1: Manage Project Time ...................................................... 837
22.3.3 Learning No 2: Manage Construction Project Quality ............................ 842
22.3.4 Learning No 3: Manage Project Site, Safety, Health and Security .......... 847
22.3.5 Learning No 4: Manage Construction Project Cost ................................. 851
22.3.6 Learning No 5: Manage Project Labour ................................................... 857
22.3.7 Learning No 6: Manage Project Contracts ............................................... 862
22.3.8 Learning No 7: Manage Construction Materials, Plant, Tools and Equipment
............................................................................................................. 867

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Sketched Argand diagram. ................................................................................ 18

Figure 2: Solution on plotting polar equations. ................................................................ 25
Figure 3: Histogram .......................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4: Frequency Polygon ............................................................................................ 63
Figure 5: Bar Graph .......................................................................................................... 63
Figure 6: Pie Chart ............................................................................................................ 64
Figure 7: Probability Distribution ..................................................................................... 66
Figure 8: Bell curve .......................................................................................................... 67
Figure 9. Vectors ............................................................................................................... 78
Figure 10. Drafting tables ................................................................................................. 96
Figure [Link] templates. ........................................................................................... 97
Figure 12. Caliper and vernier scale ................................................................................. 97
Figure 13. Drawing compass. ........................................................................................... 97
Figure 14. Loose leg divider ............................................................................................. 98
Figure 15: Pencil grades.................................................................................................. 100
Figure 16: Rulers and squares ......................................................................................... 101
Figure 17: Protractor ....................................................................................................... 101
Figure 18: Protractor and a ruler ..................................................................................... 101
Figure 19: Mini drafter.................................................................................................... 102
Figure 20: T-square ......................................................................................................... 102
Figure 21: Set square ...................................................................................................... 103
Figure 22: French curve .................................................................................................. 103
Figure 23: Eraser ............................................................................................................. 104
Figure 24: Paper holder ................................................................................................... 104
Figure 25: Lines .............................................................................................................. 109
Figure 26: Drawn line ..................................................................................................... 109
Figure 27: Open Compass ............................................................................................... 110
Figure 28: Compass Position .......................................................................................... 110
Figure 29: An arc ............................................................................................................ 110
Figure 30: End point Position ......................................................................................... 111
Figure 31: Arcs above and below line segment .............................................................. 111
Figure 32: Connected arc intersections ........................................................................... 111
Figure 33: Perpendicular line .......................................................................................... 112
Figure 34: Completed Drawing ...................................................................................... 112
Figure 35: Plane Geometry ............................................................................................. 112
Figure 36: Plane Geometry ............................................................................................. 113
Figure 37: Shapes, Cone and Pentagonal pyramid with flat tops ................................... 119
Figure 38: Cone and 4-sided pyramid ............................................................................. 119
Figure 39: Cube and rectangular Box ............................................................................. 119
Figure 40: Tetrahedron and Pyramid .............................................................................. 119
Figure 41: Pyramid with flat top and octahedron ........................................................... 120

xiii
Figure 42: pentagonal Cone and Irregular polyhedron ................................................... 120
Figure 43: Icosahedron and decahedron ......................................................................... 120
Figure 44: Half Sphere .................................................................................................... 120
Figure 45: Plan and elevation of a sphere ....................................................................... 121
Figure 46: Plan and elevation of another sphere ............................................................. 121
Figure 47: Diametric Projection...................................................................................... 126
Figure 48: Isometric Projection ...................................................................................... 127
Figure 49: Naming of views ........................................................................................... 128
Figure 50: First Angle projection .................................................................................... 128
Figure 51: The Third Angle Projection ........................................................................... 129
Figure 52: Assembly drawing ......................................................................................... 130
Figure 53: Assembly drawing without detail Specifications .......................................... 131
Figure 54: Stainless steel plates ...................................................................................... 131
Figure 55: Working of a CAD system ............................................................................ 137
Figure 56: Types of CAD software ................................................................................. 137
Figure 57: Nano CAD ..................................................................................................... 139
Figure 58: 2D user interface ........................................................................................... 140
Figure 59: Setting CAD parameters ................................................................................ 140
Figure 60: 2D CAD illustration ...................................................................................... 141
Figure 61: 3D CAD illustration ...................................................................................... 141
Figure 62: Electrical drawing.......................................................................................... 142
Figure 63: Electrical engineer design ............................................................................. 142
Figure 64: Lights symbol ................................................................................................ 143
Figure 65: Switch symbol ............................................................................................... 143
Figure 66: Fuse symbol ................................................................................................... 143
Figure 67: Ground symbol .............................................................................................. 144
Figure 68: Wires symbol ................................................................................................. 144
Figure 69: Resistor symbols............................................................................................ 145
Figure 70: Capacitor ....................................................................................................... 145
Figure 71: Power sources symbols ................................................................................. 145
Figure 72: CAD mechanical design ................................................................................ 146
Figure 73: Sketch structural members ............................................................................ 154
Figure 74: bending moment ............................................................................................ 155
Figure 75: Flow chart for manufacturing concrete ......................................................... 196
Figure 76: Flowchart for manufacturing brick................................................................ 198
Figure 77: Quality construction materials selection ....................................................... 203
Figure 78: Process of material selection ......................................................................... 204
Figure 79: Dimensional Lumber (GLUELAM) being dried up in a kiln drier. .............. 227
Figure 80: Drill press ...................................................................................................... 247
Figure 81: Mortiser ......................................................................................................... 248
Figure 82: Band saw ....................................................................................................... 249
Figure 83: Multimeter ..................................................................................................... 256
Figure 84: Wire Stripper ................................................................................................. 257
Figure 85: Fish tape ........................................................................................................ 257
xiv
Figure 86: Electric drill ................................................................................................... 258
Figure 87 power saw; source [Link] ....................................................................... 258
Figure 88: AC Graph ...................................................................................................... 259
Figure 89: Transformer. .................................................................................................. 259
Figure 90: DC Graph ...................................................................................................... 260
Figure 91: Basic electric circuit ...................................................................................... 260
Figure 92: Sample Abstract sheet ................................................................................... 296
Figure 93: water pipes ..................................................................................................... 307
Figure 94: Water supply symbols ................................................................................... 311
Figure 95: International Standards Wastewater Symbols ............................................... 320
Figure 96: Irrigation method ........................................................................................... 324
Figure 97: Surface irrigation layout ................................................................................ 325
Figure 98: Evaporation Pan ............................................................................................ 340
Figure 99: Streamflow .................................................................................................... 341
Figure 100: Map rock types and aquifers ....................................................................... 346
Figure 101: Map rock types ............................................................................................ 346
Figure 102: Fanya juu terraces ........................................................................................ 357
Figure 103: Slump test .................................................................................................... 392
Figure 104: Analysis of tensile tests ............................................................................... 401
Figure 105: Compression test ......................................................................................... 412
Figure 106: Examples of shear on timber ....................................................................... 412
Figure 107: A geological sketch based on site observations .......................................... 420
Figure 108: Tacheometry ................................................................................................ 421
Figure 109: Dumpy Level ............................................................................................... 427
Figure 110: Tilting level ................................................................................................. 427
Figure 111: Tilting level ................................................................................................. 427
Figure 112: Automatic Level .......................................................................................... 428
Figure 113 : Pegs used in a site for layout ...................................................................... 428
Figure 114: Sketch to guide in levelling ......................................................................... 430
Figure 115: object glass .................................................................................................. 440
Figure 116: Defining on the ground the centerline ......................................................... 454
Figure 117: Traverse kits ................................................................................................ 459
Figure 118: Compass ...................................................................................................... 459
Figure 119: GPS Survey equipment ............................................................................... 460
Figure 120: Vertical angle .............................................................................................. 462
Figure 121: Readings or directions ................................................................................. 463
Figure 122: Vertical angle measurement ........................................................................ 464
Figure 123: Quadrantal and whole-circle bearing. ......................................................... 464
Figure 124: Types of Traverses ...................................................................................... 466
Figure 125: Closed traverse ............................................................................................ 467
Figure 126: quantity of runoff......................................................................................... 486
Figure 127: Example of a bridge, Nyali Bridge .............................................................. 488
Figure 128: Types of Horizontal Curves ........................................................................ 497
Figure 129: An Example of Crest Vertical Curve .......................................................... 499
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Figure 130: An Example of Sag Vertical Curve ............................................................. 499
Figure 131: pavement thickness...................................................................................... 507
Figure 132: Design elements .......................................................................................... 518
Figure 133: Clearing and Grubbing ................................................................................ 526
Figure 134: Traffic signs ................................................................................................. 547
Figure 135: terrace showing different base sizes ............................................................ 556
Figure 136: Sediment Basin Control Technique ............................................................. 557
Figure 137: Sub-surface drains and gullies ..................................................................... 564
Figure 138: Alligator cracking ........................................................................................ 570
Figure 139: Block cracking ............................................................................................. 571
Figure 140: Bleeding....................................................................................................... 571
Figure 141: Depression ................................................................................................... 571
Figure 142: Edge cracking .............................................................................................. 571
Figure 143: longitudinal and transverse cracking ........................................................... 572
Figure 144: Patching ....................................................................................................... 572
Figure 145: Rutting ......................................................................................................... 572
Figure 146: Shoving ........................................................................................................ 572
Figure 147: Road maintenance activities ........................................................................ 573
Figure 148: Floor plan and corresponding structural layout ........................................... 582
Figure 149: Example of load calculation of a slab ......................................................... 584
Figure 150: Design of a beam singly and doubly reinforced rectangular ....................... 591
Figure 151: Different types of dimensions and diagram ................................................ 608
Figure 152: Designed elements as per dimensions and relevant standards .................... 615
Figure 153: Detailed plan of a two-way spanning flanged beam ................................... 616
Figure 154: Relative positions adjacent to their vertical reinforcements ....................... 617
Figure 155: Reinforcement details of an end-span continuous slab (staircase) with 20mm
nominal cover.................................................................................................................. 618
Figure 156: 2750 × 600 reinforced pad footing .............................................................. 619
Figure 157: A simple Surface installation of one lamp controlled by two, two- way switches
......................................................................................................................................... 625
Figure 158: Circuit diagram ............................................................................................ 626
Figure 159: Simple Surface installation of a ring socket ................................................ 626
Figure 160: Ordinate dimension- axial measurements are displayed as text using a leader
......................................................................................................................................... 631
Figure 161: Calculation of pipe size arithmetically ........................................................ 632
Figure 162: Example of Calculation of pipe size arithmetically .................................... 632
Figure 163: Dimensions .................................................................................................. 639
Figure 164: UNION ........................................................................................................ 640
Figure 165: BENDS ........................................................................................................ 640
Figure 166: Timber vertical polling boards .................................................................... 653
Figure 167: Concrete by letting it dry and carry out curing ........................................... 661
Figure 168: Constructing masonry block wall ................................................................ 668
Figure 169: Pouring of concrete into the formwork ....................................................... 669
Figure 170: Curing Concrete .......................................................................................... 669
xvi
Figure 171: Erect building roof according to standard construction procedures ............ 670
Figure 172: Installation process of ceramic tiles flooring .............................................. 675
Figure 173: Installation process of terrazzo .................................................................... 676
Figure 174: Wood parquet .............................................................................................. 677
Figure 175: How to lay external pavers .......................................................................... 683
Figure 176: Schematic of a drainage system .................................................................. 685
Figure 177: Water quality parameters correlation matrix ............................................... 692
Figure 178: Center of gravity .......................................................................................... 721
Figure 179: Draw wastewater infrastructure units .......................................................... 746
Figure 180: Sewage treatment ........................................................................................ 747
Figure 181: Oxidation ditch ............................................................................................ 747
Figure 182: Circular primary clarifier............................................................................. 748
Figure 183: wastewater treatment process ...................................................................... 748
Figure 184: AASHTO classification ............................................................................... 768
Figure 185: Illustration of an engineering drawing ........................................................ 774
Figure 186: Preparation of the construction site ............................................................. 780
Figure 187: Design parameters for settling tank ............................................................. 800
Figure 188: Pit latrine design .......................................................................................... 802
Figure 189: Soak pit ........................................................................................................ 806
Figure 190 : Onsite sanitation facility drawings ............................................................. 807
Figure 191: SFD Promotion Initiatives Updates ............................................................. 812
Figure 192: Sanitation technologies................................................................................ 817
Figure 193: Project financial report ................................................................................ 854

xvii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The backward difference table of the data .......................................................... 75

Table 2: Classification of pencils ...................................................................................... 99
Table 3: Uses of engineering pencil grades .................................................................... 100
Table 4: How to calculate bending moment for various types of beams ........................ 161
Table 5: Bill of Quantity ................................................................................................. 181
Table 6: Materials needed to complete a project ............................................................ 182
Table 7: Initial cost estimate ........................................................................................... 182
Table 8: Bill of Quantities............................................................................................... 183
Table 9: Plumbing tools .................................................................................................. 239
Table 10: Plumbing machine tools ................................................................................. 240
Table 11: List of Tools .................................................................................................... 247
Table 12: A sample BoQ................................................................................................. 276
Table 13. Abstraction sheet columns .............................................................................. 297
Table 14 : Wastewater colour coding ............................................................................. 320
Table 15: Irrigation Water quality standards .................................................................. 326
Table 16: Hazard consideration ...................................................................................... 335
Table 17: Time frame of eons and eras ........................................................................... 345
Table 18: Minimum Safe Separation Distance in Deep Water Table ............................. 351
Table 19: Minimum Safe Separation Distance in Shallow Water Table ........................ 352
Table 20: Identification of Material Laboratory Personnel ............................................ 371
Table 21: Recording Chart .............................................................................................. 395
Table 22: Concrete Curing Duration............................................................................... 396
Table 23: Data recording table ........................................................................................ 401
Table 24: A Worked Out Tabled Using the Rise and Fall Method ................................ 432
Table 25: A worked-out table using the height of collimation ....................................... 433
Table 26: levelling table.................................................................................................. 435
Table 27: Tabulation ....................................................................................................... 436
Table 28: Procedure for computation of road levels using Rise and fall method ........... 445
Table 29: Procedure for computation of road levels using Height of Collimation method
......................................................................................................................................... 445
Table 30: Computation of reduced levels using Rise and fall method ........................... 446
Table 31: Computation of reduced levels using Height of Collimation method ............ 446
Table 32: Methods used in the calibration of traverse equipment and tools .................. 460
Table 33: Minimum Vertical Curve ‘K’ Values ............................................................. 500
Table 34: Vertical Curve Appearance Criteria. .............................................................. 500
Table 35: The member, description, bar No., spacing, bar shape, No. of bars, cut length,
total length ...................................................................................................................... 620
Table 36: Electrical devices ............................................................................................ 624
Table 37: The biological indicator commonly tested. .................................................... 692
Table 38: Quarterly schedule on Water and Effluent Monitoring .................................. 694
Table 39: Annual Water and Effluent Monitoring schedule ........................................... 694

xviii
Table 40: System Description ......................................................................................... 694
Table 41: Test reports ..................................................................................................... 695
Table 42: Quality of water .............................................................................................. 699
Table 43: Surface Water Recourses ................................................................................ 700
Table 44: Example of a water quality management plan ................................................ 701
Table 45: Quality of groundwater is based on features .................................................. 705
Table 46: Example of a water quality management plan ................................................ 705
Table 47: Sources of wastewater based on characteristics ............................................. 708
Table 48: Wastewater quality assessment report based on monitoring sites .................. 709
Table 49: Wastewater parameter concentrations before and after treatment .................. 710
Table 50: Wastewater quality assessment report based on the monitoring plan ............ 710
Table 51: Properties of fluids .......................................................................................... 716
Table 52: Tools and equipment....................................................................................... 716
Table 53: Data based on various themes......................................................................... 737
Table 54: Tools used during the calculation of Mass load ............................................. 741
Table 55: Drawing tools, equipment, supplies and materials ......................................... 746
Table 56: Waste stabilization ponds stages .................................................................... 753
Table 57: Design process ................................................................................................ 753
Table 58: Illustration of a construction work schedule ................................................... 775
Table 59: payment certificate based on progress report ................................................. 833
Table 60: Project budget according to the scope of the project ...................................... 852
Table 61: Procure, allocate and monitor site resource utilization according to the project
scope ............................................................................................................................... 853
Table 62: Construction materials .................................................................................... 868
Table 63: Construction equipment .................................................................................. 869

xix
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

This learning guide has been developed in line with the functions of TVET CDACC as
stipulated in Article 45 (1a) of the Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) Act No. 29 of 2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 2 of 2015 that embraces
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) system. It is, therefore, the sole intent
of this document to provide guidelines for a Competency-Based Civil engineering
curriculum for level 6.

Civil engineering level 6 qualifications consist of competencies that an individual must

achieve to create visual concepts either using a computer software or by hand,
communicate ideas that inform, captivate or inspire others via digital media, creative
publishing of advertisements, magazines, corporate reports and brochures. This learning
guide consists of interactive learning activities, content, further reading, self-assessment,
relevant and related references that enhance implemention of Civil engineering Level 6
qualification. It enables the trainee to acquire the competencies that enables him/her to
undertake the various processes in Civil engineering. The guide further provides
illustrations, web links, case studies, examples and resources on how to implement all the
learning outcomes/elements described in the Curriculum and Occupational Standards with
a particular focus on the trainee.

1.2 The Purpose of Developing the Learning Guide

Civil engineering Level 6 curriculum development process was initiated using the
DACUM methodology where jobs/occupations were identified. Further, job analysis charts
and occupational standards were generated in collabouration with the industry players
under the guidance of TVET CDACC (Curriculum Development Assessment and
Certification Council). The result of the process was Civil engineering Level 6
Occupational Standard (OS) and Curriculum. The Curriculum was further broken down
into units of learning. To effectively implement Civil engineering Level 6 Occupational
standard and Curriculum, learning guides are required to provide training content, guide
the learners and trainers on the learning process aimed at imparting the relevant knowledge,
requisite skills and the right work behaviour/attitude to the industry. Learning guides are
part of the training materials.

1
1.3 Layout of the learning guide
The learning guide is organized as per chapters. Chapter one presents the background
information and purpose of developing the trainee guide. Each of the units of learning/unit
of competency is presented as a chapter on its own. Each chapter presents the introduction
of the unit of learning/unit of competency, performance standard and list of the learning
outcomes/elements in the occupational standards.

1.4 Learning Activities

For each learning outcome, the learning activities are presented by covering the
performance criteria statements and trainee’s demonstration of knowledge in relation to the
range in the occupational standard and content in the curriculum.

1.5 Information Sheet

The information sheet is a section under each learning outcome that provides the subject
matter in relation to definition of key terms, methods, processes/procedures/guidelines,
content, illustrations (photographs, pictures, video, charts, plans, digital content, and
simulation) and case studies.

1.6 Self-Assessment
Self-assessment is linked to the performance criteria, required knowledge, skills and the
range as stated in the occupational standards. This section further provides questions and
assignments in which trainees demonstrate that they have acquired the required
competences and an opportunity to reflect on what they have acquired. It is expected that
the trainer keeps a record of their plans, their progress and the problems they encountered
which will go in trainee’s portfolio. A portfolio assessment consists of a selection of
evidence that meets the pre-defined requirements of complexity, authenticity and
reliability. The portfolio starts at the beginning of the training and will be the evidence for
the development and acquisition of the competence (summative and formative) by the
trainee. It is important to note that Portfolio assessment is highly emphasized in the learning
guide.

Finally, the guide presents tools, equipment, supplies and materials for each learning
outcome as guided by the performance criteria in the occupational standards and content
in the curriculum. References, relevant links and addendums are provided for further study.
The units of competency comprising this qualification include the following common and
core units of learning:

2
Common units of learning
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title Duration Credit
in Hours Factor
ENG/CU/CET/CC/01/6/A Applied Mathematics 80 8

ENG/CU/CET/CC/02/6/A Technical Drawing 60 6

ENG/CU/CET/CC/03/6/A Structural design and analysis 70 7

ENG/CU/CET/CC/04/6/A Material Science 90 9

ENG/CU/CET/CC/05/6/A Workshop technology practices 130 13

ENG/CU/CET/CC/06/6/A Measurement of works and cost 80 8

estimation
ENG/CU/CET/CC/07/6/A Water and wastewater technology 120 12

ENG/CU/CET/CC/08/6/A Water resources, water services

and sanitation management 120 12
principles
Total 750 75

Core units of learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title Duration Credit
in Hours Factor
ENG/CU/CET/CR/01/6/A Material Testing 150 15
ENG/CU/CET/CR/02/6/A Highway Survey 190 19
ENG/CU/CET/CR/03/6/A Designing pavement structures 120 12
ENG/CU/CET/CR/04/6/A Road construction works 150 15
ENG/CU/CET/CR/05/6/A Design of engineering structures 220 22
ENG/CU/CET/CR/06/6/A Building drawings 200 20
ENG/CU/CET/CR/07/6/A Building works 200 20
ENG/CU/CET/CR/08/6/A Water resource quality
60 6
management
ENG/CU/CET/CR/09/6/A Design of wastewater collection
200 20
and treatment infrastructure
ENG/CU/CET/CR/10/6/A Construction of wastewater
180 18
infrastructure
ENG/CU/CET/CR/11/6/A Designing onsite sanitation
80 8
facilities

3
 ENG/CU/CET/CR/12/6/A Construction of onsite sanitation
80 8
facilities
ENG/CU/CET/CR/13/6/A Civil engineering project
120 12
management
Industrial Attachment 480 48
Total 2430 243
Grand Total 3540 354

The total duration of the course is. 3,540 Hours

Entry Requirements
An individual entering this course should have any of the following minimum
requirements:
a) Civil Engineering craft certificate Level 5

Or
b) Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) C- (C Minus)

Or
c) Equivalent qualifications as determined by Kenya National Qualifications Authority
(KNQA)

Assessment
The course will be assessed at two levels: internally and externally. Internal assessment is
continuous and is conducted by the trainer who is monitored by an accredited internal
verifier while external assessment is conducted by accredited external assessors appointed
by TVET CDACC.

Certification
A candidate will be issued with a National Certificate of competency on demonstration of
competence in a unit of competency. To attain the National Civil engineering Diploma
Level 6, the candidate must demonstrate competence in all the units of competency as given
in qualification pack. These certificates will be issued by TVET CDACC in conjunction
with training provider.

4
 CHAPTER 2: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2.1 Introduction
This unit describes the competencies required by a technician in order to apply a wide range
of mathematical skills in their work; apply ratios, rates and proportions to solve problems;
estimate, carry out measurement; collect, organize and interpret statistical data; use
common formulae and algebraic expressions to solve problems.

2.2 Performance Standard

The trainee will apply algebra, trigonometry and hyperbolic functions, complex numbers,
coordinate geometry, carryout binomial expansion, calculus ordinary differential
equations, Laplace transforms, power series, statistics Fourier series, vector theory, matrix
and numerical methods in solving engineering problems.

2.3 Learning Outcomes

2.3.1 List of learning outcomes
a) Apply algebra
b) Apply trigonometry and hyperbolic functions
c) Apply complex numbers
d) Apply coordinate geometry
e) Carry out binomial expansion
f) Apply calculus
g) Solve ordinary differential equations
h) Carry out mensuration
i) Apply power series
j) Apply statistics
k) Apply numerical methods
l) Apply vector theory
m) Apply matrix

5
2.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Algebra
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Algebra

Learning Activities Special

Instructions

1.1 Perform calculations involving Indices • Group

1.2 Perform calculations involving Logarithms assignments
1.3 Use scientific calculator to solve mathematical problems
1.4 Perform simultaneous equations
1.5 Calculate quadratic equations

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO 1: Apply Algebra

Introduction
This learning outcome covers algebra and the learner should be able to: perform
calculations involving Indices as per the concept; perform calculations involving
Logarithms as per the concept; use scientific calculator is used mathematical problems in
line with manufacturer’s manual; perform simultaneous equations as per the rules. Algebra
is used throughout engineering, but it is most commonly used in mechanical, electrical,
and civil branches due to the variety of obstacles they face. Engineers need to find
dimensions, slopes, and ways to efficiently create any structure or object.

Definition of key terms

Algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these
symbols; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. It includes everything from
elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Calculations involving Indices are performed as per the concept
Indices
An index number is a number which is raised to a power. The power, also known as the
index, tells you how many times you have to multiply the number by itself. For example,
25 means that you have to multiply 2 by itself five times = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32

6
Laws of indices
(i) x0 = 1
1
(ii) x −n = xn
(iii) x n . x m = x n+m
(iv) x n − x m = x n−m
(v) (x n )m = x m.n
n
m
(vi) x m = √x n

Application of rules of indices in solving algebraic problems

a) y a x y b = y a+b

Examples:
24 x 28 = 212
54 x 5−2 = 52

b) y a ÷ y b = a − b

Examples
54 ÷ 58 = 5−4
74 ÷ 7−2 = 76

c) ym/n = (n√y)m

Examples
161/2 = √16 = 4
82/3 = (3√8)2 = 4

d) (y n )m = y nm

Example
25 + 84
= 25 + (23)4
= 25 + 212

e) y0 = 1

Example
50 = 1

7
1.2 Calculations involving Logarithms are performed as per the concept
If a is a positive real number other than 1, then the logarithm of x with base a is defined
By:
y = log a x or x = ay

Laws of logarithms
(i) log a (xy) = log a x + log a y
x
(ii) log a (y) = log a x − log a y
(iii) log a (x n ) = nlog a x for every real number

1.3 Scientific calculator is used in solving mathematical problems

Use the scientific calculator manufacturer’s manual on the steps to be followed in doing
so.

1.4 Simultaneous equations are performed as per the rules

Simultaneous equations are equations which have to be solved concurrently to find the
unique values of the unknown quantities which are time for each of the equations. Two
common methods of solving simultaneous equations analytically are:
(i) By substitution
(ii) By elimination

Simultaneous equations with three unknowns

Examples
Solve the following simultaneous equation by substitution methods
3x − 2y+ = 1 … … … . . (i)
x − 3y + 2z = 13 … … . (ii)
4x − 2y + 3z = 17 … … … (iii)

From equation (ii) x = 13 + 3y − 2z

Substituting these expression (13 + 3y − 2z for x gives)

3(13 + 3y − 2z) + 2y + z = 1
39 + 9y − 6z + 2y + x = 1
11y − 5z = −38 … … … … … . . (iv)
4(13 + 3y − 2z) + 3z − 2y = 17
52 + 12y − 8z + 3z − 2y = 17
10y − 5z = −35 … . . (v)

8
Solve equation (iv) and (v) in the usual way,
11y+38
From equations (iv) 5z = 11y + 38; z = 5
Substituting this in equation (v) gives:
11y+38
10y − 5 ( ) = −35
5
10y − 11y − 38 = −35
−y = −35 + 38 = 3
y = −3

11y + 38 −33 + 38 5
z= = = =1
5 5 5

But x = 13 + 3y − 2z
x = 13 + 3(−3) − 2(1)
=13 − 9 − 2
=2
Therefore, x = 2, y = −3 and z = 1 is the required solution
For more worked examples on substitution and elimination method refer to Engineering
Mathematics by A.K Stroud.

1.5 Quadratic equations are calculated as per the concept

Quadratic Equations
Quadratic equation is one in which the highest power of the unknown quantity is 2. For
example, 2x 2 − 3x − 5 = 0 is a quadratic equation.
The general form of a quadratic equation is ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are
constants and a ≠ 0 of solving quadratic equations.

1) By factorization (where possible)

2) By completing the square
3) By using quadratic formula
4) Graphically

Example
Solve the quadratic equation x 2 − 4x + 4 = 0 by factorization method

Solution
x 2 − 4x + 4 = 0
x 2 − 2x − 2x + 4 = 0
x(x − 2) − 2(x − 2) = 0
(x − 2)(x − 2) = 0

9
i.e. x − 2 = 0 or x − 2 = 0
x = 2 or x = 2
I.e. the solution is x = 2 (twice)
For more worked examples on how to solve quadratic equations using, factorization,
completing the square, quadratic formula refers to basic engineering mathematics by J.O
Bird, Engineering mathematical by K.A strand, etc.

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to perform calculations involving Indices as per the concept; perform calculations
involving Logarithms as per the concept; use scientific calculator in mathematical
problems in line with manufacturer’s manual; perform simultaneous equations as per the
rules.

Further Reading

1. Stroud, A.K. (n.d.). Engineering Mathematics

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Solve the following by factorization
a) x 2 + 8x + 7 = 0
b) x 2 − 2x + 1 = 0
2. Solve by completing the square the following quadratic equations
a) 2x 2 + 3x − 6
b) 3x 2 − x − 6 = 0
3. Simplify as far as possible
a) log(x 2 + 4x − 3) − log(x + 1)
b) 2log(x − 1) − log(x 2 − 1)
4. Solve the following simultaneous equations by the method of substitution
a) x + 3y − z = 2
b) 2x − 2y + 2z = 2
c) 4x − 3y + 5z = 5

10
5. Simplify the following
1 1
1
F = (22x y 4 )4 ÷ √ x 2 y 6 x (4 √x 2 y 4 )−1/2
9

Oral Assessment
What is your understanding of algebra?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

[Link] References

Khuri, A. I. (2003). Advanced calculus with applications in statistics (No. 04; QA303. 2,
K4 2003.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
Stoer, J., &Bulirsch, R. (2013). Introduction to numerical analysis (Vol. 12). Springer
Science & Business Media.
Zill, D., Wright, W. S., & Cullen, M. R. (2011). Advanced engineering mathematics. Jones
& Bartlett Learning.

11
2.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Functions
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Functions
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Perform calculations using trigonometric rules

2.2 Perform calculations using hyperbolic functions

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO2: Apply Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Functions

Introduction
This learning outcome equips the learner with knowledge and skills to perform calculations
using trigonometric rules and hyperbolic functions.

Definition of key terms

Trigonometry: This is a branch of mathematics which deals with the measurement of sides
and angles of triangles and their relationship with each other. Two common units used for
measuring angles are degrees and radians.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Calculations are performed using trigonometric rules
Trigonometric ratios
The three trigonometric ratios derived from a right-angled triangle are the sine, cosine and
tangent functions. Refer to basic engineering mathematics by J.0 Bird to read move about
trigonometry ratios.

Solution for right angled triangles

To solve a triangle means to find the unknown sides and angles; this is achieved by using
the theorem of Pythagoras and or using trigonometric ratios.

Example
Express 3 Sin θ + 4 Cosθ in the general form R Sin(θ + α)

Let 3 Sin θ + 4 Cos θ = R Sin (θ + α)

Expanding the right-hand side using the compound angle formulae gives
3 Sin θ + 4 Cos θ = R [Sinθ Cosα + Cos θ Sinα ]
= R cosα Sin θ + R Sin α Cos θ

12
Equating the coefficient of:
4
Cosθ: = R Sin α i. e Sin α =
R
3
Sin θ ∶ 3 = R Cos α i. e Cos α = R
These values of R and α can be evaluated.

R = √42 + 32 = 5
4
α = tan−1 = 53.130 or 233.130
3

Since both Sin α and Cos α are positive, r lies in the first quadrant where all are positive,
hence 233.130 is neglected.

Hence
3 Sinθ + 4 Cos θ = 5 Sin (θ + 53.130 )

Example
Solve the equation 3 Sin θ + 4 Cos θ = 2 for values of θ between 00 and 3600 inclusive

Solution
From the example above
3 Sinθ + 4 Cos θ = 5 Sin (θ + 53.130 )

Thus
5 Sin(α + 53.130 ) = 2

2
Sin(θ + 53.130 ) =
5
0 −1
θ + 53.13 = Sin 2/5
θ + 53.130 = 23.580 or 156.420
θ = 23.580 − 53.130 = −29.550
=330.450
OR θ = 156.420 − 53.130
=103.290

Therefore, the roots of the above equation are 103.290 or 330.450

For more worked examples refer to Technician mathematics book 3 by J.) Bird.

13
Double/multiple angles
For double and multiple angles refer to Technician mathematics by J.O Bird

Factor Formulae
For worked exampled refer to Technic mathematics book 3 by J. O Bird, Pure mathematics
by backhouse and Engineering mathematics by KA Stroud.

Half-angle formulae
Refer to pure mathematics by backhouse and Engineering mathematics by K.A STROUD

2.2 Calculations are performed using hyperbolic functions

Hyperbolic functions
Definition of hyperbolic functions, Sinhx cosh x and tanh x
• Evaluation of hyperbolic functions
• |Hyperbolic identifies
• Osborne’s Rule
• Solve hyperbolic equations of the form a coshx + bSinhx = C

For all the above refer, to engineering mathematics by KA strand.

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to perform calculations using trigonometric rules and perform calculations using
hyperbolic functions.

Further Reading

1. Stoer, J., &Bulirsch, R. (2013). Introduction to numerical analysis (Vol. 12). Springer
Science & Business Media.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. A surveyor measures the angle of elevation of the top of a perpendicular building
as190 . He moves 120m nearer the building and measures the angle of elevation as470 .
Calculate the height of the building to the nearest meter.

14
2. Solve the equation 5 cos θ + 4 Sinθ = 3 for values of θ between 00 and 3600
Inclusive.
3. Prove their identifies
a) Cash 2x = cash2 x + Sinh2 x
b) Sinh(x + y)SinhCoshy + coshySinhx
4. Solve the equation
5. 3 Sinhx + 4 Coshx = 5

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

[Link] References

Khuri, A. I. (2003). Advanced calculus with applications in statistics (No. 04; QA303. 2,
K4 2003.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
O’Neil, P. V. (2011). Advanced engineering mathematics. Cengage learning.
Stoer, J., &Bulirsch, R. (2013). Introduction to numerical analysis (Vol. 12). Springer
Science & Business Media.

15
2.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Apply Complex Numbers
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No3: Apply Complex Numbers
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Represent complex numbers are represented

3.2 Perform operations involving complex numbers are
performed
3.3 Perform calculations involving complex numbers

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO3: Apply complex numbers

Introduction
This learning outcome covers an introduction to complex numbers, their representation in
argand diagrams and calculations involving complex numbers using De Moivre’s theorem

Definition of key terms

Argand diagram: A diagram on which complex numbers are represented geometrically
using Cartesian axes; the horizontal coordinate representing the real part of the number and
the vertical coordinate representing the imaginary part of the number, as depicted below

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustration
A number of the form a + ib is called complex number where a and b are real numbers
and i = √−1 we call ′a′ the real part and ‘b’ the imaginary part of the complex a + ib
if a = o then ib is said to be purely imaginary, if b = 0 the number is real.
Pair of complex number a + ib are said to be conjugate of each other.

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers is achieved by adding or subtracting the real
parts and the imaginary parts.
Example 1
(4 + j5) + (3 − j2)
(4 + j5) + (3 − j2)=4 + j5 + 3 − j2
=(4 + 3) + j(5 − 2)
=7 + j3

16
Example 2
(4 + j7) − (2 − js) = 4 + j7 − 2 + js = (4 − 2) + j(7 + 5)
= 2 + j12

Multiplication of complex numbers

Example 1
(3 + j4)(2 + j5)
6 + j8 + j15 + j2 20
6 + j23 − 20 (sincej2 = −1)
=−14 + j23
Examples 2
(5 + j8)(5 − j8)
(5 + j8)(5 − j8) = 25 + j40 − j40 − j2 64
= 25 + 64 =89

A pair of complex numbers are called conjugate complex numbers and the product of two
conjugate. Complex numbers is always entirely real.
cosθ + jsinθ

Argand diagram
Although we cannot evaluate a complex number as a real number, we can represent
diagrammatically in an argand diagram. Refer to Engineering Mathematics by K.A Stroud
to learn more on how to represent complex numbers on an argand diagram. Use the same
back learn three forms of expressing a complex number.

Demoivre’s Theorem
Demoivre’s theorem states that [r(cosθ + jsinθ)]n = r n (cosnθ + jsinnθ)
It is used in finding powers and roots of complex numbers in polar

Example
Find the three cube roots of z = 5(cos2250 + jsin2250 )
1 2250 2250
Z1 = Z (Cos
3 + jsin )
3 3
1.71 (cos750 + jsin750
z1 = 1.71 (cos750 + jSin750 )

17
 3600
Cube roots are the same size (modules) i.e. 1.71 and separated at intervals of , i.e
3
0
120
z1=1.71 / 750
z2=1.71 cos (1950+jSin1950
zs = 1.71 (315+ +j Sin3150 )

1.1 Complex numbers are represented using Argand diagrams

Figure 1: Sketched Argand diagram.

Refer to engineering mathematics by K.A Stroud and learn more on how to find the
expansion of
cosn θAndcosn θ

1.2 Operations involving complex numbers are performed

LOCI problems
We sometimes required finding the locus of a point which moves in the Argand diagram
according to some stated condition.
Examples
z+1
IfZ = x + jy, find the equation of the locus [z−1] = 2
sinθZ = x + jy.
Z+1 r z [(x+1)2 +y2 ]
∴ (z−1) = r1 =(z1)= [(x−1)2)+ y2]
2 2
[(x + 1)2 + y 2 ]
(x − 1)2 + y 2
(x + 1)2 + y 2
∴ +4
(x − 1)2 + y 2
∴ (x + 1)2 + y 2 = 4 ((x − 1)2 + y 2 )
x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 = 4(x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 )
=4x 2 − 8x + 4 + 4y 2
∴ 3x 2 -10x+3+3y 2 = 0

18
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to represent complex numbers using Argand diagrams, perform operations involving
complex numbers and Perform calculations involving complex numbers using De Moivre’s
theorem.

Further Reading

1. Atkinson, K. E. (2008). An introduction to numerical analysis. John Wiley & Sons.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Find the fifth roots of −3 + j3 in polar form and in exponential form
2−j
2. Determine the three cube roots of giving the results in a modulus/ argument form.
2+j
3. Express the principal root in the form a + jb
Z−2
4. If z = x + jy, where x and y are real, show that the locus (z+2) = 2 is a circle and
5. Determine its center and radius.

Oral Assessment
1. Describe an Argand diagram according to your understanding.
2. What is a complex number?

Practical Assessment
1. Give an example of a complex number. Represent it in an Argand diagram
2. Find the root loci of the complex number above. Use De-Moivre’s theorem

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

19
[Link] References

Atkinson, K. E. (2008). An introduction to numerical analysis. John Wiley & Sons.

Stoer, J., & Bulirsch, R. (2013). Introduction to numerical analysis (Vol. 12). Springer
Science & Business Media.

20
2.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Apply Coordinate Geometry
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Apply Coordinate Geometry
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

4.1 Calculate polar equations

4.2 Draw graphs of given polar equations
4.3 Determine normal and tangents

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO4: Apply Coordinate Geometry

Introduction
This learning outcome covers calculation of polar equations using coordinate geometry,
drawing graphs of given polar equations using the Cartesian plane, determining normal and
tangents using coordinate geometry.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
The position of a point in a plane can be represented in two forms
i) Cartesian co-ordinate (x, y)
ii) Polar co-ordinate (r, θ)

The position of a point in the corresponding axis can therefore generate Cartesian and polar
equations which can easily change into required form to fit the required result.

4.1 Polar equations are calculated using coordinate geometry

Example
Convert r 2 = sinθ into Cartesian form.
x y
cosθ = y sinθ = x

Form Pythagoras theorem r 2 = x 2 + y 2

r 2 = sinθ
y
(x 2 + y 2 ) = x
(x 2 + y 2 )x = y
1
(x 2 + y 2 )(x 2 + y 2 )2 = y
3
(x 2 + y 2 )2 = y

21
Example 2
Find the Cartesian equation of
(i) r = a(1 + 2cos) (ii) rcos(θ − α) = p
[The Cosθ suggest the relationX = COSθ, so multiplying through by r}
∴ r 2 = a(r + 2rcosθ)
∴ x 2 + y 2 = a(√(x 2 + y 2 ) + 2x)
∴ x 2 + y 2 + 2x = a√(x 2 + y 2 )

Therefore, the Cartesian equation of r = a(1 + 2cos) is (x 2 + y 2 − 2ax)2 = a2 (x 2 + y 2 )

(ii) rcos(θ − α) = p
cos(θ − α) May be expanded
∴ rcosθcosα + rsinθsinα = p

(iii) Therefore, the Cartesian equation of rcos(θ − α) = p is xcosα + ysinα = p

Example 3
Find the polar equation of the circle whose Cartesian equation is x 2 + y 2 = 4x
x 2 + y 2 = 4x
Put x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ, then
r 2 cos2 θ + r 2 sin2 θ = 4rcosθ
∴ r 2 = 4rcosθ
Therefore, the polar equation of the circle isr 2 = 4rcosθ.

For more information on the conversion of Cartesian equation to polar equation and vice
versa refer to pure mathematics by J.K Backhouse.

4.2 Draw graphs of given polar equations using the Cartesian plane
It is shown using the below sketch

Example:
𝜋 𝜋
Given points (2, 6 ) and (−2, 6 )

22
 Sketch polar equation on the Cartesian plane

Example
Change 𝑥 = 3𝑡 + 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑡 − 5 to rectangular coordinates and then graph
𝑥 = 3𝑡 + 1 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)
𝑦 = 2𝑡 – 5 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)

From equation 1
𝑥–1
𝑇 = 3

Substitute to equation 2
We have:
𝑌 = 2((𝑥 − 1) / 3) – 5
Simplifying
3𝑦 – 2𝑥 + 17 = 0

To graph, simply to intercept from

𝑋 𝑦
+𝑏 = 1
𝑎

𝑋 𝑦
17 + 17
−
2 2

23
Example 1 Source (www [Link])
Graph the polar equation given by 𝑅 = 4 cos t and identify the graph.

Solution
T R
0 4
π/6 3.5
π/4 2.8
π/3 2
π/2 0
2π/3 -2
3π/4 -2.8
5π/6 -3.5
Π 4

24
Figure 2: Solution on plotting polar equations.
Source [Link]

4.3 Determine normal and tangents using coordinate geometry

A tangent is a line that touches the curve. A normal is the perpendicular line to the tangent
of the curve.

Note:
The tangent to a curve of any point will be parallel to 𝑋 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 if 𝜃 = 0 i.e. the derivative
at the point will be zero.

25
 𝑑𝑥
i.e. [𝑑𝑦] at (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑑𝑦
The tangent at a point to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) will be parallel to 𝑌 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 if = 0 at that
𝑑𝑥
point.

Example 1
Find the point on the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥² − 2𝑥 + 1 at which the slope of the gradient is 4
𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 – 2
𝑑𝑥

6𝑥 – 2 = 4
6𝑥 = 6
𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2, required point = (1, 2)

Example 3
Find the slope of tangent and normal to the curve 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 5 at (1, 1)
Solution:
The equation of the curve is
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 5
Differentiating (1) w.r.t, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 3 (𝑥 + 𝑦. 1) + 2𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥

Substituting𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 in (2) we get

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2 × 1 + 3 × 1 + 3 (𝑑𝑥 + 1) + 2 =0
𝑑𝑥
8
⸫ The slope of the tangent to the curve at (1, 1) is − 5

5
⸫ The slope of normal to the curve at (1, 1) is 8
Point is a set of values that describes its position on a two- or three-dimensional plane.

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to calculate polar equations using coordinate geometry, draw graphs of given polar
equations using the Cartesian plane, determine normal and tangents using coordinate
geometry.

26
Further Reading

Kreyszig, E. (1999), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed., John Wiley (New York).
O'Neil, P.V. (1995), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 4th ed., PWS-Kent Pub.
(Boston).

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Obtain the polar equation of the following loci
a) x 2 + y 2 = a2
b) x 2 − y 2 = a2
c) y = 0
d) y 2 = 4a(a − x)
e) x 2 + y 2 − 2y = 0
f) xy = c 2
2. Obtain the Cartesian equation of the following loci
a) r = 2
b) a(1+cosθ)
c) r = acosθ
d) r = atanθ
e) r = 2a(1 + sin2θ)
f) 2r 2 sin2θ = c 2
l
g) = 1 + 8cosθ
r
h) r = 4acotθcosecθ

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

27
[Link] References

Greenberg, M.D. (2000), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (2002), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (2000), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

28
2.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry Out Binomial Expansion
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Carry Out Binomial Expansion
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Determine roots of numbers using binomial theorem

5.2 Determine errors of small changes using binomial theorem

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO5: Carry Out Binomial Expansion

Introduction
This learning outcome seeks to equip the learner with knowledge and skills to determine
the roots of numbers using binomial theorem and to determine errors of small changes
using binomial theorem.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Carry out Binomial expansion
Binomial is a formula for raising a binomial expansion to any power without lengthy
multiplication. It states that the general expansion of (a + b)n is given as
n(n−1)an−2 b2 n(n−1)(n−2)an−3 b3
(a + b)n = an b0 + nan−1 n1 + + +…
2! 3!
Where n can be a fraction, a decimal fraction, positive or negative integer.

Example 1
Use binomial theorem to expand (2 + x)3
Solution
n(n−1)an−2 b2 n(n−1)(n−2)an−3 b3
(a + b)n = an b0 + nan−1 n1 + + +…
2! 3!
A = 2, b = x and n = 3
3(3−1)21 x2 3(3−1)(3−2)20 x3
(2 + x)3 = 23 x 0 + 3X22 x1 + + +…
2! 3!
= 8 + 12x + 6x + x 3 2

For more examples on positive power refer to Technician Mathematic Book by J.O Bird.

Binomial theorem for any index

It has been shown that:
n(n−1) 2
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + 2!
x +….
The series may be continued indefinitely for any value of n provided −1 < x < 1

29
Example
1
Use the binomial theorem to expand 1−x in ascending power of x as far as the term in x 3 .
Solution
1
Since 1−x may be written(a − x + x)−1, the binomial theorem may be used. Thus
−1(−2) 2 −1(−2)(−3)
(1 − x)−1 = 1 + −1(−x) + x + +….
2! 3!
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ⋯
1−x

Provided −1 < x < 1

5.2 Practical application of binomial theorem
Example1
The radius of a cylinder is reduced by 4% and its height increased by 2%. Determine the
appropriate percentage change in its volume neglecting products of small quantities.
Solution
Volume, V = πr 2 h
Let original values be, radius = r
Height = h
New values radius = (1 − 0.04)r
Height = (1 + 0.02)h
New volume = π(1 − 0.004)2 r 2 (1 + 0.02)h
Using binomial theorem, (1 − 0.04)2 = 1 − 2(0.04) + (0.04)2 = 1 − 0.08
=πr 2 h(1 − 0.08)(1.02) = πr 2 h(0.94)
(0.94−1)100%
Percentage change = = −6%
1
The new volume decreased by 6%

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to determine the roots of numbers using binomial theorem and to determine errors of small
changes using binomial theorem.

Further Reading

1. Hoyland, A., Rausand, and M. (1994), System Reliability Theory: Models and
Statistical Methods, John Wiley (New York).
2. Kaplan, W. (1984), Advanced Calculus, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley (Cambridge, MA).
3. Kreyszig, E. (1999), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed., John Wiley (New
York).

30
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Expand as far as the third term and state the limits to which the expansions are valid.
1
a) (1+2x)3

b) √4 + x
2. Show that if higher powers of x are neglected,
1+x x2
√ =1+x+
1−x 2
bl3
3. The second moment of area of a rectangular section through its centroid is given by .
12
Determine the appropriate change in the second moment of area if b is increased by
3.5% and l is reduced by 2.5%.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

[Link] References

Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1974), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1976), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

31
2.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Apply Calculus
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Apply Calculus
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Determine derivatives of functions

6.2 Determine derivatives of hyperbolic functions
6.3 Determine derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
6.4 Determine rate of change and small change
6.5 Perform calculation involving stationery points of functions of two
variables
6.6 Determine integrals of algebraic functions
6.7 Determine integrals of trigonometric functions
6.8 Determine integrals of logarithmic functions
6.9 Determine integrals of hyperbolic and inverse functions

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO6: Apply calculus

Introduction
This learning outcome equips the learner with relevant knowledge, skills and attitude so
that they are able to: determine the derivatives of functions using differentiation; determine
derivatives of hyperbolic functions using differentiation; determine derivatives of inverse
trigonometric functions using differentiation; determine rate of change and small change
using differentiation; perform calculation involving stationery points of functions of two
variables using differentiation; determine integrals of algebraic functions using integration;
determine integrals of trigonometric functions using integration; determine integrals of
logarithmic functions using integration; determine integrals of hyperbolic and inverse
functions using integration.

Definition of key terms

Calculus: It is a branch of mathematics involving calculations dealing with continuously
varying functions. The subject falls into two parts namely differential calculus
(differentiation) and integral calculus (integration).

Differentiation: The central problem of the differential calculus is the investigation of the
rate of change of a function with respect to changes in the variables on which it depends.

32
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Differentiation from first principles
To differentiate from first principles means to find f ′ (x) using the expression.
f(x+δx)
f ′ (x) = lim { }
δx→0 δx
f(x+8x)−f(x)
δx → 0, { }
δx
f(x) = x 2
f(x + δx) = (x + δx)2 = x 2 + 2xδx + (δx)2
f(x + δx) − f(x) = x 2 + 2 xδx + (δx)2 − x 2
=2xδx + (δx)2
f(x+δx)−f(x) 2xδx +(δx)2
=
δx δx
=2x + δx
f(x+δx)−f(x)
As δx → 0, → 2x + 0
δx

f(x+δx)−f(x)
∴ f ′ (x) = lim { }= 2x
δx→0 δx
At x = 3, the gradient of the curve i.e f ′ (x) = 2(3) = 6
Hence if f(x) = x 2 , f ′ (x) = 2x. The gradient at x = 3 is 6

6.2 Methods of differentiation

There are several methods used to differentiate different functions which include:
(i) Product Rule
(ii) Quotient Rule
(iii)Chain Rule
(iv) Implicit Rule

Example
dy⁄
Determine dx given that
a) y = x 2 Sinx

Solution
dv du
From product rule: uv(x) = u dx +v dx
u = x 2 and v = Sinx
du dv
=2x = Cosx
dx dx

dy
∴ dx= x 2 (Cosx) + Sinx (2x)
=x 2 Cos x + 2x Sin x

33
 x2 +1
b) y = x−3

Solution. Using Quotient rule:

du dv
u(x) v dx − u dx
=
v(x) v2
u = x 2 +1 v= x−3
du dv
= 2x =1
dx dx
(x−3)(2x)−(x2 +1)(1)
∴dy⁄dx= (x−3)2
2 2
2x − 6x − x − 1
=
(x − 3)2
2
x − 6x − 1
=
(x − 3)2
x 2 − 6x − 1
= 2
x − 6x + 9

For more examples on the cases of application of the other highlighted rates refer to
Engineering Mathematics by K Stroud.

6.3 Applications of differentiation

Differentiation can be used to determine velocity and acceleration of a moving body. It
can also be applied to determine maximum and minimum values.
Example: A rectangular area is formed using a piece of wire 36cm long. Find the length
and breadth of the rectangle if it is to enclose the maximum possible area.

Solution.
Let the dimension a rectangle be x and y
Perimeter of rectangle = 2x + 2y = 36
i.e.x + y = 18……………… (i)
Since it is the maximum area that is required, a formula for the area A must be obtained in
terms of one variable only.
Area = A = xy
From equation (i), y = 18 − x
Hence A = x(18 − x) = 18x − x 2
Now that an expression for the area has been obtained in terms of one variable it can be
differentiated with respect to that variable
dA
= 18 − 2x for maximum or minimum value i.e. x = 9
dx
d2 A
= −2, which is negative giving a maximum value
dx2

34
y = 18 − x = 18 − 9 = 9
Hence the length and breadth of the rectangle for maximum area are both 9 cm i.e. a square
gives the maximum possible area for a given perimeter length When perimeter is 36cm,
maximum area possible is 81cm2 .

6.4 Determine rate of change and small change using differentiation

We can always write the rate of change of one variable in terms of the other when the two
are varying with respect to time. Both the functions will be differentiated with time. We
therefore define 𝑑𝑥⁄𝑑𝑡 for the same function𝑓(𝑥).

The solution of this problem is done using the following algorithm:

i. Sketch the problem
ii. Identify the constants and variables in the equation
iii. Identify independent and dependent variables
iv. Differentiate with respect to time.
v. Evaluate at a given point.

6.5 Perform calculation involving stationery points of functions of two variables using
differentiation
A stationary point k is a point 𝑥 is one at which𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0. A point of a function 𝑓(𝑥) K
is said to be maximum point if and only if 𝑓(𝑘) ≥ 𝑓9𝑥) for all the 𝑥 in the 𝑓 domain.
A point 𝑘 of a function 𝑓𝑥 said to be a minimum point if and only if for all
𝑥 in the 𝑓 domain, 𝑓(𝑘) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥).

35
𝐋𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦

The occurrence of local maximum or minimum is determined by the derivations of a

given function.
Example
Find the turning points of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥4 + 16𝑥3 + 24𝑥2 and hence determine their
nature.

Solution
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 + 24𝑥 2 + 𝑏
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 + 48𝑥
= 12(𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)
= 12𝑥(𝑥 + 2)2
Solving the equation 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥(𝑥 + 2)2 = 0
We get 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2
= 𝑥 < −2 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0
−2 < 𝑥 < 0, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0
𝑥 > 0, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0
We can deduce that at 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −2, we get stationary point.
Also, at 𝑥 = 0 we have a minimum point and at 𝑥 = −2, is a point of inflexion.

36
6.6 Integrals of algebraic functions are determined using integration
Integration
Process of integration reverses the process of differentiation. In differentiation if f(x) =
x 2 , then f ′ (x) = 2x.
Since integration reverse the process of moving from f(x) to f ′ (x), it follows that the
integral of 2x is x 2 i. e it is the process of moving from f ′ (x) tof(x). Similarly if y = x 3
dy
then = 3x 2 . Reversing this process shows that the integral of 3x 2 is x 3 .
dx

Integration is also the process of summation or adding parts together and an elongated ′s′
shown as ⨜ is used to replace the words ‘integrated of’. Thus ⨜ 2x=x 2 and ⨜ 3x 2 = x 3
Refer to Engineering Mathematics by K.A Strand and learn those on definite and indefinite
integrals.

6.7 Methods of integration and application of integration

The methods available are:
a) By using algebraic substitution
b) Using trigonometric identities and substitutions
c) Using partial fraction
θ
d) Using t = tan 2 substitution
e) Using integration by parts

Refer to Engineering Mathematics by K. A. Strand and learn more about methods of

integration,
Also use the above stated book to learn more on application of integration to find areas,
volumes of revolutions, etc.

6.8 Determine integrals of logarithmic functions using integration

The natural logarithm function is always differentiable throughout is (0, 00) domain and
1
𝑙n(𝑥) = 𝑥 Also, in 𝑥 increase 0, ∞)
The rules of integrating logarithms functions are as follows:

f(x) ∫ 𝒇𝒙(𝒅𝒙)
𝑙𝑛(𝑥) 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
log 𝑥 (𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑘 − 𝑥) ln(10) + 𝑐
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑥(log 𝑎𝑥 − log 𝑎𝑒) + 𝑐

37
EXAMPLE:
Solve ∫ 𝑒 𝑥2 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥2 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
ii. let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2
iii. The new function is now: ∫ 𝑒 𝑥2 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 du
iv. According to laws of integration: ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 thus ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝑐
v. But 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥3 + 𝑐
The answer is hence: 𝑒 𝑥3 + 𝐶

6.9 Determine integrals of hyperbolic and inverse functions using integration

There are six basic hyperbolic which are defined in section 6.2 above. The table below
shows the integrals of hyperbolic function:
Function Integral
sinh 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑐𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑥 sinh 𝑥 + 𝑐
tanh 𝑥 𝑙𝑛/𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ/+𝐶
𝑥
csch 𝑥 𝑙𝑛/tanh ( )/+𝐶
2
sech 𝑥 arctan(𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥) + 𝐶 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥) + 𝑐)
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑙𝑛/𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 + 𝐶

The indefinite integral of one-to-one function is expresses as

∫ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 −1 (𝑥) − ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 ; 𝑢 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

A definite integral is expressed as;

𝑏 𝑓−1(𝑏)
∫𝑎 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑏𝑓 −1 (𝑏) − 𝑎𝑓 −1 (𝑎) − ∫𝑓𝑦(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢.

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to determine the derivatives of functions using differentiation, determine derivatives of
hyperbolic functions using differentiation, determine derivatives of inverse trigonometric
functions using differentiation, determine the rate of change and small change using
differentiation; perform calculation involving stationery points of functions of two
variables using differentiation; determine integrals of algebraic functions using integration;
determine integrals of trigonometric functions using integration; determine integrals of
logarithmic functions using integration; determine integrals of hyperbolic and inverse
functions using integration.

38
Further Reading

Read more on methods of integration.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Find the co-coordinator, of the points on the curve
1/3(5−6x)
y= 3x2 +2
Where the gradient is zero

4 2 1 d2 y d3 y
2. If y = 3x3 − x2 + 3x − √x . Find and
dx dx

3. Find ⨜cos6x Sin 2x dx

4 x3 −x2 −5x
4. Evaluate ∫3 dx
x2 −2x+2

Oral Assessment
1. What do you understand by differentiation and integration as applied in calculus?
2. How are they intertwined?
3. What are some of their practical applications?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Computers with internet connection

39
[Link] References

Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1974), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1976), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

40
2.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Solve Ordinary Differential Equations
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7: Solve Ordinary Differential Equations
Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1. Solve first order and second order differential equations

7.2. Solve first order and second order differential equations from given
boundary conditions

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO7: Solve Ordinary Differential Equations

Introduction
This learning outcome equips the learner with knowledge and skills to solve first order
differential equations using the method of undetermined coefficients and also when given
boundary conditions.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1. Solve first order and second order differential equations using the method of
undetermined coefficients
An equation involves differential co-efficient is called a differential equation.
Examples
dy 1+ x2
(i) =
dx 1−y2

d2 y dy
(ii) + 2 dx – 8y =0
dx2

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest differential coefficient present
in the equation. Differential equations represent dynamic relationships i.e. quantities that
change, and are thus frequently occurring in scientific and engineering problems.

Formation of a differential equation

Differential equations may be formed in practice from a consideration of the physical
problem to which they refer. Mathematically, they can occur when arbitrary constants are
eliminated from a given function.

41
Example
Consider y = Asinx + Bcosx, where A and B are two arbitrary constants. If we
differentiate, we get
dy d2 y
= ACosx − BSinx and dx2 = −ASinx − BCosx = −(ASinx + BCosx)
dx
d2 y
i.e. = −y
dx2
d2 y
∴ −y=0
dx 2
This is a differential equation of the second order.

Types of first order differential equations

a) By separating the variables
b) Homogeneous first order differential equations
c) Linear differential equations
d) Exact differential equations

Application of first order differential equations

Differential equations of the first order have many applications in Engineering and Science.

Example
dθ
The rate at which a body cools is given by the equations = −kθ where θ the temperature
dt
of the body above the surroundings is and k is a constant. Solve the equation for θ given
that t = 0 ,
θ = θ0
Solution
dθ
= −kθ
dt
−1
Rearranging gives: dt = kθ
−1 dθ
Integrating both sides gives: ∫ dt = ∫
k θ
−1
i.e.t = lnθ + c………………….. (i)
k
Substituting the boundary conditions t = 0 , θ = θ0 to find c gives
−1
0= lnθ0 + c
k
1
i.e. c = k lnθ0
−1
Substituting c = lnθ0 in equation (i) gives
k
−1 1
t= lnθ + k lnθ0
k
1 1 θ
t = k (lnθ0 + lnθ) = k ln ( θ0)

42
 θ
kt = ln ( θ0)
θ0
ekt = θ
−kt θ
e =θ
0

Hence, θ = θ0 e−kt

7.2 First order and second order differential equations are solved using the method
of undetermined coefficients
Formation of the second order differential equation
For formation of second order differential equations refer to Engineering Mathematics by
K.A Strand, Technician 4 and 5 by J.O Bird.

Application of second order differential equations

Many applications in engineering give rise to the second order differential equations of the
d2 y dy
form a dx2 + b dx + cy = f(x)

Where a, b, c are constant coefficients and f(x) is a given function of x.

Examples include:
(1) Bending of beams
(2) Vertical oscillations and displacements
(3) Damped forced vibrations

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to solve first order differential equations using the method of undetermined coefficients;
and also when given boundary conditions.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Solve the following equations:
dy
a) x(y − 3) 4y
dx
dy
b) (xy + y 2 ) + (x 2 − xy) dx = 0
dy
c) + ytanx = sinx
dx

43
2. Show that the change, q, on a capacitor in an LCR circuit satisfies the second order
differential equation
d2 q dq 1
L dt2 + b dt + c q = E
3. Show that if 2L = cR2 the general solution of this equation is
−t
1 1
q = ecR (Acos cR t + Bsin cR t) + cE
dq
4. If i = = 0 and q = 0 when t = 0, show that the current in the circuit is
dt
2E −t 1
i= ecR sin cR
R

Oral Assessment
1. Consider the following differential equation
dy
x(y − 3) dx = 4y. Is it of the first order or the second order?
2. Justify your answer above

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

[Link] References

Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1974), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (1976), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

44
2.3.9 Learning Outcome No 8: Carry Out Mensuration
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 8:Carry Out Mensuration

Learning Activities Special Instructions

8.1. Obtain perimeter and areas of figures

8.2. Obtain volume and surface area of solids
8.3. Obtain area of irregular figures
8.4. Obtain areas and volumes using Pappus theorem

[Link].2 Information Sheet No2/LO8: Carry Out Mensuration

Introduction
This learning outcome covers perimeter and areas of figures, volume and surface area of
solids, area of irregular figures and areas and volumes using Pappus theorem.

Definition of key terms

Area: Extent of part of a surface enclosed within a boundary.

Circumference: Distance around a circle.

Dimension: Measurable extent such as length, thickness and width.

Fraction: Number expressed as a quotient of two other numbers.

Mensuration: Act or art of measuring.

Perimeter: Bounding line or curve of a plain area.

Standard: Serves as a measure of reference.

45
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
8.1 Obtain perimeter and areas of figures
Perimeter
The perimeter is the length of the outline of a shape. To find the perimeter of a rectangle
or square you have to add the lengths of all the four sides. x is in this case the length of the
rectangle while y is the width of the rectangle.

The perimeter, P, is:

P=x+x+y+y
P = 2x + 2y
P=2(x+y) x

Find the perimeter of this rectangle

7

P =7+7+4+4
P = 2⋅7+2⋅4
P = 2 ⋅ (7 + 4)
P = 2 ⋅ 11
P = 22in
Area
Area is the measurement of the surface of a shape. To find the area of a rectangle or a
square you need to multiply the length and the width of a rectangle or a square.

X
Area, A, is x times y.
y
A=x⋅y

46
Examples
Find the area of this square.
5
6

A= x⋅y
A= 5⋅6
A = 30in2

There are different units for perimeter and area. Perimeter has the same units as the length
of the sides of rectangle or square whereas the area's unit is squared.

8.2 Obtain volume and surface area of solids

The surface area of a figure is defined as the sum of the areas of the exposed sides of an
object.
The volume of an object is the amount of three-dimensional space an object takes up. It
can be thought of as the number of cubes that are one unit by one unit by one unit that it
takes to fill up an object.

Surface Area of a Rectangular Solid (Box)

SA = 2(lw + lh + wh)
l = length of the base of the solid
w = width of the base of the solid
h = height of the solid
Volume
Volume of a Solid with a Matching Base and Top

V=Ah
A = area of the base of the solid
h = height of the solid

Volume of a Rectangular Solid (specific type of solid with matching base and top)
V=lwh

l = length of the base of the solid

w = width of the base of the solid
h = height of the solid

47
Examples

2.7

4.2 3.8

This figure is a box (officially called a rectangular prism). We are given the lengths of
each of the length, width, and height of the box, thus we only need to plug into the formula.
Based on the way our box is sitting, we can say that the length of the base is 4.2 m; the
width of the base is 3.8 m; and the height of the solid is 2.7 m. Thus we can quickly find
the volume of the box to be

V = lwh = 4.2 ∗ 3.8 ∗ 2.7 = 43.092m3

Although there is a formula that we can use to find the surface area of this box, you should
notice that each of the six faces (outside surfaces) of the box is a rectangle. Thus, the
surface area is the sum of the areas of each of these surfaces, and each of these areas is
fairly straight-forward to calculate. We will use the formula in the problem

A cylinder
A cylinder is an object with straight sides and circular ends of the same size. The volume
of a cylinder can be found in the same way you find the volume of a solid with a matching
base and top. The surface area of a cylinder can be easily found when you realize that you
have to find the area of the circular base and top and add that to the area of the sides. If
you slice the side of the cylinder in a straight line from top to bottom and open it up, you
will see that it makes a rectangle. The base of the rectangle is the circumference of the
circular base, and the height of the rectangle is the height of the cylinder

Volume of a cylinder
V=Ah
A = the area of the base of the cylinder
h = the height of the cylinder

Surface Area of a Cylinder

SA=2(πr2)+2πrh
r = the radius of the circular base of the cylinder
h = the height of the cylinder
π = the number that is approximated by 3.141593

48
Find the area of the cylinder

12 cm

10
cm

SA = 2(πr2) + 2πrh
SA = 2(π. 62) + 2π(6)(10) = 603.18579

8.3 Obtain Area of irregular figures

To find the area of irregular shapes, the first thing to do is to divide the irregular shape into
regular shapes that you can recognize such as triangles, rectangles, circles, squares and so
forth. Then, find the area of these individual shapes and add them up.

4
The figure above has two regular shapes. It has a square and half a circle. Find the area for
each of those two shapes and add the results

Square
Area of square = s2
Area of square = 42
Area of square = 16

Circle
Area of circle = pi × r2
Notice that the radius of the circle is 4/2 = 2
Area of circle = 3.14 × 22=3.14 × 4
Area of circle = 12.56

49
Since you only have half a circle, you have to multiply the result by 1/2
1/2 × 12.56 = 6.28
Area of this shape = 16 + 6.28 = 22.28

Example
Circle
To get the area of the half circle, we need to know the diameter. Notice that the diameter
is the hypotenuse of a right triangle, so use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of
the diameter

c 2 = a2 + b 2
c 2 = 122 + 162
c 2 = 144 + 256
c 2 = 400
c = √400
c = 20

Therefore, the diameter is 20. Since the diameter is 20, the radius is 10

Area of circle = pi × r 2
Area of circle = 3.14 × 102
Area of circle = 3.14 × 100
Area of circle = 314

Since you only have half a circle, you have to multiply the result by 1/2

1/2 × 314 = 157

Area of this shape = 384 + 96 + 157 = 637

8.4 Obtain Areas and volumes using Pappus theorem

Pappus' centroid theorems are results from geometry about the surface area and volume of
solids of revolution. These quantities can be computed using the distance traveled by the
centroids of the curve and region being revolved.

Theorem
Let CC be a curve in the plane. The area of the surface obtained when CC is revolved
around an external axis is equal to the product of the arc length of CC and the distance
traveled by the centroid of CC.

50
Let RR be a region in the plane. The volume of the solid obtained when RR is revolved
around an external axis is equal to the product of the area of RR and the distance traveled
by the centroid of RR.
Consider the cylinder obtained by revolving a rectangle with horizontal side r and vertical
side h around one of its vertical sides (say its left side). The surface area of the cylinder,
not including the top and bottom, can be computed from Pappus' theorem since the surface
is obtained by revolving its right side around its left side. The arc length of its right side
is h and the distance traveled by its centroid is simply 2\pi r, 2πr, so its area is 2 \pi r h,
2πrh.

The volume of the cylinder is the area rh of the rectangle multiplied by the distance traveled
by its centroid. The centroid of the rectangle is its center, which is a distance of r\2 from
the axis of revolution. So it travels a distance of 2\pi\big (\frac r2\big) = \pi r2π (2r)=πr as
it revolves. The volume of the cylinder is (rh) (\pi r) = \pi r^2 h= (rh)(πr)=πr 2 h.

Example of volume of revolution

Theorem of Pappus
Let R be a region in a plane and let L be a line in the same plane such that L does not
intersect the interior of R. If Ω is the distance between the centroid of R and the line, the
volume of the solid of revolution R about the line is;
V = 2πA

r
തതതത
𝑥, ത
𝑦

𝐗: (𝐌𝐘 =)/𝐌
Using Pappus’ theorem to find the volume of the solid of revolution, the turns formed by
revolution the circle.

51
 L

R
ഥ, 𝑌ത
𝑋

X 2 + (y + 5)2 = 9
About the x-axis.
V = 2π rA
V=2πrA
2(π)5(π(3)
90π

Example 2
Use the theorem of Pappus to find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by
revolving the region bounded by the graph of:
Y=√X, Y = 0 andx = 4 about the line x = 6

b
δ ∫a x[f(x)−g(x)]dx my
b = m = xത
δ ∫a x[f(x)−g(x)]dx

Moment about y−axis

= Mass of Lamina

52
Area of shaded region
b 1
A=∫θ (x 3 ∗ dx
2
[[3] x −3 ] -4
0
2 3
[4]4
3
2 3
[9]4
3

2 3
[8]4
3

2 16
(8) =
3 3

16 64
= n= , my =
3 5
4
1
= ∫ x(x 3 )dx
θ
1
4
my=∫θ x(x 2 )dx
4
3
= ∫ (x 2 ) dx
θ
2 5
[ ∗ ]
5 2

5
2
=5 (4)2

5 5
2 2
=5 42 − 5 (0)2

2
=5 (2)5

64
=5

18 16
v = 2πrA=2π( 5 )( 3 )

567
= π
15

53
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to obtain perimeter and areas of figures, volume and surface area of solids, area of irregular
figures and areas and volumes using Pappus theorem.

Further Reading

1. Hoyland, A., Rausand, and M. (1994), System Reliability Theory: Models and
Statistical Methods, John Wiley (New York).

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. An equilateral triangle of side length rr in the first quadrant, one of whose sides lies on
the xx-axis, is revolved around the line y= -r. y=−r. The volume of the resulting solid
is c\pi r^3cπr3 for some real number c.c. What is c.c?
2. Consider the single rectangle in R2 that passes through the points A = (1,2), B = (2,1),
C = (4,3), D = (3,4) A rotating around x-axis in R3. The volume of the surface of
revolution obtained can be written as A3 Aπ unit3. Submit A
3. Revolving a right triangle with legs of length r and h around the leg of length h produces
a cone. The surface of the cone (not including the circular base) is obtained by revolving
the hypotenuse around that leg. The centroid of the hypotenuse is just the midpoint,
located halfway up the side of the cone, which travels a distance 2π/2 as it rotates. So,
the surface area is 2πr√R2 + H2
4. Consider the cylinder obtained by revolving a rectangle with horizontal side r and
vertical side h around one of its vertical sides (say its left side). The surface area of the
cylinder, not including the top and bottom, can be computed from Pappus's theorem
since the surface is obtained by revolving its right side around its left side. The arc
length of its right side is h and the distance travelled by its centroid is simply2π, 2πr,
so its area is 2πr h. 2πrh.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Computers with internet connection
54
[Link] References

Kaplan, W. (2000), Advanced Calculus, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley (Cambridge, MA).

Kreyszig, E. (2004), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed., John Wiley (New York).

55
2.3.10 Learning Outcome No 9: Apply Power Series
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 9: Apply Power Series
Learning Activities Special Instructions

9.1 Obtain power series using Taylor’s Theorem

9.2 Obtain power series using McLaurin’s theorem

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO9: Apply power series

Introduction
This learning outcome covers; derivation of power series using Taylor’s Theorem and
derivation of power series using McLaurin’s theorem.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
9.1 Obtain power series using Taylor’s Theorem
The power series of McLaurin’s theorem is different functions can be carried out using two
theorems.
(i) Taylor’s Theorem
(ii) Maclaurin’s theorem

Taylor’s series states that;

h2 ′′ h3 ′′′
f(x + h) = f(x) + hf ′ (x) + f (x) + f (x) + …
2! 3!

Examples
Express Sin(x + h) as a series of powers of h and hence evaluates Sin 440 correct to four
decimal places.

Solution
h2 ′′ h3
f(x + h) = f(x) + hf ′ (x) + f (x) + f ′′′ (x) + ⋯
2! 3!
f(x) = Sinx
f′(x) = cos x
f′′(x) = −sinx
f ′′′ (x) =-cosx
f iv (x) = sin x

56
 h2 h3
∴ Sin(x + h) = sin x + hcos x − sin x - cos x ….
2 6

Sin440 = sin(450 − 10 )
=Sin(π⁄4) − 0.01745
π 0.017452 0.0174s3
=sin π⁄4 + 0.01745 cos 4 - sin π⁄4 − cos π⁄4
2 6

But sin45 = cos 45 = 0.707

= 0.707 (1 − 0.01745 − 0.0001523 + 0.0000009)
= 0.707(0.982395)
= 0.69466
0.6947(4dp)
For the use McLaurin’s theorem refer to Engineering Mathematics by Strand.

9.2 Obtain power series using McLaurin’s theorem

McLaurin’s series is a special type of Taylor series where b is centred around where the
variable x or y is zero. That is; from the Taylor series.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏) + (𝑓^′ (𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑏))/1! + (𝑓′′ (𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑏)2 /2! + ⋯ We obtain the following
McLaurin’s series:
𝑓 ′′ (0)(𝑥)2
f(x)= f(0)+ 𝑓 1 (0)(𝑥) + +⋯
2!

How to find the McLaurin’s series.

i. Get the derivatives of the given function until you notice a particular pattern
For example
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑝′ (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑝′′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑝′′′ (𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝑝′𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Note that 𝑝′ (𝑥) = 𝑝𝑣 (𝑥)
𝑝′′ (𝑥) = 𝑝𝑣𝑖 (𝑥)
𝑝′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑝𝑣𝑖𝑖 (𝑥) and so on
ii. Replace the variable in the first step with 0 as the input to get the McLaurin’s series
values.
That is;
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝(0) + 𝑝′ (0)𝑥1 + 𝑝′′ (0) 2! + 𝑝′′′ (0) 3! + ⋯

57
 𝑥3 𝑥5
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 0+ x+0 – +0+ +⋯
3! 5!
iii. Write what your get in step (ii) in sigma notation.
This is will enable one to obtain the final power series.
That is;
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
𝑥− + − −
3! 5! 7!
𝑥 2𝑛+1
=∑∞
𝑛=0 (2𝑛+1)! (−1)
𝑛

Example.
Obtain the McLaurin’s series for 𝑒 5𝑦.
𝑓(𝑦)=5𝑒 5𝑦.
𝑓 ′ (y)=5𝑒 5𝑦.
𝑓 ′ ′(y)=25𝑒 5𝑦. =52 𝑒 5𝑦.
𝑓 ′′ ′(y)=125𝑒 5𝑦. =53 𝑒 5𝑦.

𝑓(𝑦)=𝑒 5(0).=1
𝑓 ′ (y)=5𝑒 5(0) = 5
𝑓 ′ ′(y)=25𝑒 5(0) = 52

𝑓 ′′ ′(y)=125𝑒 5(0) = 125 = 53

5(𝑦−0) 52 (𝑦−0)2 53 (𝑦−0)3

𝑒 5𝑦 = 1 + + +
1! 2! 3!
𝑦 𝑛
= ∑∞
𝑛=0 5𝑛 𝑛!
Some common examples of the McLaurin’s series include:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯
=∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑥
𝑛
1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2 + 3 + 4 +⋯
2𝑥 6𝑥 24𝑥
1
=∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! 𝑥
𝑛

Conditions for McLaurin’s series.

• The derivative of the given function, say q(x) must exist for all n i.e
𝑞 𝑛 (𝑥)𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 for all 𝑛 = 1,2 … . . 𝑛
• 𝑓 𝑛 (0)must be defined for all n = 1,2 … . . , n
• The series obtained should converge to the given function say q(x).

58
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with knowledge, skills and attitude
to derive power series using Taylor’s Theorem and power series using McLaurin’s
theorem.

Further Reading

1. Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
2. Hildebrand, F.B. (1974), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
(New York).
3. Hildebrand, F.B. (1976), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Use McLaurin’s theorem to expand ln(3x + 1). Hence use the expansion to evaluate
1 ln(3x+1)
∫0 dx to four decimal places.
x2
π
2. Use Taylor’s series to expand cos ( 3 + h) in terms of h as far as h3 . Hence evaluate
cos680 correct to four decimal places.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

[Link] References

Hoyland, A., Rausand, and M. (2005), System Reliability Theory: Models and Statistical
Methods, John Wiley (New York).
Kaplan, W. (2003), Advanced Calculus, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley (Cambridge, MA).
59
2.3.11 Learning Outcome No 10: Apply Statistics
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 10: Apply Statistics
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Perform identification, collection and organization of data. • Illustrations

1.2 Perform interpretation, analysis and presentation of data in • Oral questioning
appropriate format. • Written tests
1.3 Obtain mean, median, mode and standard deviation from • Assignments
given data • Supervised
1.4 Perform calculations based on laws of probability exercise
1.5 Perform calculation involving probability distributions,
mathematical expectation sampling distributions
1.6 Apply sampling distribution methods in data analysis
1.7 Perform calculations involving use of standard normal
table, sampling distribution, t-distribution and estimation
1.8 Determine confidence intervals
1.9 Perform testing hypothesis using large samples and small
samples
1.10 Do calculations involving correlation and regression
1.11 Do calculations involving rank correlation coefficient and
equations of regression line

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO10: Apply Statistics

Introduction
This learning outcome covers classification of data, grouped data, ungrouped data, data
collection, tabulation of data, class intervals, class boundaries, frequency tables,
diagrammatic and graphical presentation of data e.g. histograms, frequency polygons, bar
charts and pie charts. It also covers cumulative frequency curves, measures of central
tendency mean, mode and median, measures of dispersion, variance and standard
deviation, definition of probability, laws of probability, expectation variance and S.D,
types of distributions, mean, variance and SD of probability distributions, application of
probability distributions, standard normal tables and sampling distributions and rank
correlation coefficient.

60
Definition of key terms
Mode: This is the number which is the most repeated in a series.

Standard deviation: This is the amount of variation of a set of numbers. It is the square
root variance.

𝜕 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜇 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑥1 − 𝐸𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Variance: This is the mean of the aquared differencesof the number from the mean.

Where N – size of the number

𝜇 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑥𝑖 − 𝐸𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1. Identification, Collection and Organization of data is performed
Data identification is described as the records that links the value to give more sensible
information or database such as age. Data collection on the other hand is the process of
acquiring information of the targeted variables in the system such as the ages of children
in class while data organisation refers to way of classifying where there are two main type
which grouped data and individual data.

1.2. Interpretation, analysis and presentation of Data in appropriate format is

performed
Data interpretation
This means analysing of data to infer information which enables proper answering of the
relevant question.

61
Data analysis
This means the process of cleaning and transforming the inspected data to model data with
an objective to achieve.
Data presentation
This means the arrangement of data into graphs, tables and charts. The data can be
classified as either grouped or ungrouped data.
Ungrouped data: It is the data (first data) gathered from a study or experiment.

Digrammatic and graphical presentation of Data

Histagram: IIt is an adequate representation of data and how it is distributed.
It is represented with a table which helps in showing the probability.

Figure 3: Histogram

Frequency polygon- This is a graph constructed by straight line passing on the midpoint
of the class.
For example:

62
Figure 4: Frequency Polygon

Bar chart: It is a graph or chart that uses rectangles and their differences in heights or
length to present data.

Chart Title

Category 4

Category 3

Category 2

Category 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Series 3 Series 2 Series 1

Figure 5: Bar Graph

63
Pie chart: This is a type of chart which represents data on a circle or pie where the pie is
the total number.

Sales

1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter

Figure 6: Pie Chart

Cumulative frequency curves: This is a curve which shows the cumulative frequency
distribution of data mainly grouped data.
Data tabulation
Class intervals; this is the size of the individual group of data.
Class boundaries; these are the upper limit or the lower limit of grouped data.
Frequency table; it is a representation of frequency of various outcomes in a sample.

1.3. Median mode and Standard deviation are obtained from given data
Mean: It is also known as average therefore it is addition of the number divided by the
number of the numbers.
∑ 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
Median: This is the number in the middle after being arranged from the lowest to the
highest number; if they are two, find the mean.
Mode: This is the number which is the most repeated in a series.
Variance: This is the mean of the squared differences of the number from the mean.
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∑(𝑥1− µ)2 /𝑛

Standard deviation: This is the amount of variation of a set of numbers known as square-
root variance.

64
1.4. Calculations are performed based on Laws of probability
Definition of probability; is a description of how likely an event or occasion to occur or
how likely to happen or true.

Laws of probability
The Law of large numbers is the principle that the more trials you have in an experiment,
the higher you get to the accurate value in probability. E.g a set of cards, probability to get
black cards in two take is 1/52𝑥2 = 1/26
𝑃(𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)
Addition rule
Based on the next turn 𝑃(𝐴𝑢𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴𝑛𝐵)
Multiplication Rule
It deals with the case in and of probabilities. It means the probability of two independent
events.
𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴). 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴𝑛𝐵)

Example 2
A bag contains 3 pink candies and 7 green candles. 2 candies are taken out from the bag
with replacement. Find the probability that both candies are pink.
Solution
Let A= event that 1st candy is pink and B= event that second candy is pink
𝑝(𝐴) = 3/10
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵) = 3/10
Therefore, multiplication law we got
𝑃(𝐴𝑛𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴)𝑥 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) 3/10𝑥3/10 = 9/100 = 0.09

1.5. Calculation involving probability distributions, mathematical expectation

sampling distributions are performed

Probability distribution is all the lekely and possible values that a random variable can
take within the range. Also known as the ‘bell curve’

65
Figure 7: Probability Distribution

There are 4 common statistics in sampling distribution; the sample sum, the sample mean,
the sample variance.

Sample sum is the sum of a random variables from the data

𝑋1 + 𝑋2…, 𝑋𝑛
Sample mean is the average of the random variables:
𝑀 = (𝑋1+ 𝑋2…,𝑋𝑛 )/𝑛

𝑆 2 = ([(𝑋1 − 𝑀)2 + (𝑋2 − 𝑀)2 … , ((𝑋𝑛 − 𝑀)2 ])/(𝑛 − 1)

Note square root estimates the standard deviation of a population.
Therefore the bell curve is from the standard deviation to the mean.

Example
Draw and show the bell curve if the mean is 30 and the standard deviation is 26.
The curve for the example is shown in the next page.

66
Figure 8: Bell curve

1.6 Sampling Distribution methods are applied in Data Analysis

There are three main types;
• Normal distribution; commonly used in investing, finance, science and
engineering. It fully based on its mean and standard deviation.
• Binomial distribution: It is discrete, as opposed to continuous, since 1 or 0 / yes
or no is a valid response.
• Chi-squared distribution
• Poisson distribution

NOTE: The first and second types are the most common used during data analysis in
Kenya.

1.7 Calculations involving use of standard normal table, sampling Distribution, T-

distribution and Estimation are done

Standard normal table (known Z table)

𝑥−µ
𝑍=
𝛼
𝑋 = 𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
µ = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝛼 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
A Z found on the both table should be used on the table provided to known the percentile
and therefore compare.
Note if it is a negative then a table for negative values is used.

67
Sampling distribution
It is also known as probability distribution and the standard deviation of this topic is known
as standard error.
Samplig distribution mean is equal to the mean of the population.
µ𝑥 =µ
Therefore standard error is:

SE Standard error
𝜕 =Standard deviation
𝜇=Size of population
n= size of sample

If 𝑓𝑝𝑐 = 1 from factor√𝑁 − 𝑛)/𝑁 − 1), therefore standard arror formula can be
approximated by
√(x = 𝛼)/√𝑛
Distribution
It is a type of distribution similar with the normal distribution curve but with a bit shorter
and fatter tail. Therefore distribution is used because small size is small.
𝑥−µ
𝑡= 𝑠
( )
√𝑛
Where,
xത is the sample mean
µ is the population mean
s is the standard deviation
n is the size of the sample given

Estimation
This is the process of identifying a value by approximating due to a certain purpose. It can
be done by rounding off to the nearest whole number.

68
1.8 Confidence intervals are determined
It is a type of estimate computed from the statistics of the observed data It is a range of
value where a true value lies on.
Calculation
1) Find mean 𝑥̅ and standard deviation s
2) Find 2 m table to find the percentile
Z=𝑥തതതതതതതതതത
− µ/𝛼
3) Using z un the formula for the confidence interval.
𝑠
തതതതത
𝑥 ±𝑧( )
𝑛

1.9 Testing hypothesis using large samples and small samples are performed
It is an act whereby an analyst test an assumption regarding a population parameter.
They are two types
a) Null hypothesis is equal to zero
b) Alternative hypothesis is not equal to zero

Steps of hypothesis testing

a) Analyse the state the 2 hypothesis so that only can be right.
b) Formulating an analysis plan, outline how the data will be evaluated.
c) Carry out the plan and physically Analyse the data.
d) Analyse the result either reject or accept if it is null hypothesis.

1.10 Calculations involving Correlation and regression are done

They are related because both deal with relationships among variable.
Where correlation is a measure of linear association between 2 variables while regression
involves identifying the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variable.
Calculation of correlation
തതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതത
തതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതതത
𝑟 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)(𝑦 − 𝑦/√{∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 )𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 𝑦)2 )

69
1.11 Calculations involving rank correlation coefficient and equations of regression
line are done
Rank correlation coefficient: It is a tool to discover the strength of link between sets of
data.
Method
a) Create a table
b) Rank the two data sets
c) Tied scores are given the mean rank
d) Square the differences

Linear regression
Formula
𝑌 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
𝑌 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑋 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑏 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑎 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered classification of data, grouped data, ungrouped data,
data collection, tabulation of data, class intervals, class boundaries, frequency tables,
diagrammatic and graphical presentation of data e.g. histograms, frequency polygons, bar
charts and pie charts. It also covered cumulative frequency curves, measures of central
tendency mean, mode and median, measures of dispersion, variance and standard
deviation, definition of probability, laws of probability, expectation variance and S.D,
types of distributions, mean, variance and SD of probability distributions, application of
probability distributions, standard normal tables and sampling distributions and rank
correlation coefficient.

Further Reading

Read more on:

1. Correlation from the book Cox. D, Principles of applied statistics, (2011).
2. Confidence interval from the internet.

70
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is NOT a way of presenting data?
a) Figures
b) Chart
c) Graph
d) Table
2. Suppose the covariance between Y and X is 12, the variance of Y is 25, and the variance
of X is 36. The correlation coefficient, r, between Y and X is closest to:
a) r = 0.000
b) r = 0.013
c) r = 0.160
d) r = 0.400
3. The following represents age distribution of students in an elementary class. Find the
mode of the values: 7, 9, 10, 13, 11, 7, 9, 19, 12, 11, 9, 7, 9, 10, 11.

a) 7
b) 9
c) 10
d) 11
4. Find the mean of 8, 5, 7, 10, 15, and 21
a) 15
b) 6
c) 11
d) 4
[Link] standard deviation of a sample of 100 observations equals 64. The variance of the
sample equals
a) 8
b) 10
c) 6400
d) 4096
6. Which of the following is not a measure of dispersion
a) Range
b) The 5th percentile
c) The standard deviation
d) The interquartile range

71
7. In a certain game, players toss a coin and roll a dice. A player wins if the coin comes up
heads, or the dice with a number greater than 4. In 20 games, how many times will a
player win?

a) 13
b) 8
c) 11
d) 15
8. Justify the use of binomial distribution in Modern mathematics?
9. Classify the laws of probability?
10. A box contains 30 red, green and blue balls. The probability of drawing a red ball is
twice the other colours due to its size. The number of green balls are 3 more than twice
the number of blue balls, and blue are 5 less than the twice the red. What is the
probability that 1st two balls drawn from the box randomly will be red?
11. There are 3 blue, 1 white and 4 red identical balls inside a bag. If it is aimed to take two
balls out of the bag consecutively, what is the probability to have 1 blue and 1 white
ball?
12. Kamau has two children and we know that she has a daughter. What is the probability
that the other child is a girl as well? Describe the term rank correlation coefficient?

Oral Assessment
1. The average age of 6 persons living in a house is 23.5 years. Three of them are majors
and their average age is 42 years. The difference in ages of the three minor children is
same. What is the mean of the ages of minor children?
2. The arithmetic mean of a set of 10 numbers is 20. If each number is first multiplied by
2 and then increased by 5, then what is the mean of new numbers?

Practical Assessment
In a group analyses the data and form a table of the type of cars passed in the nearest road
according to type.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Computers with an internet connection

72
[Link] References

Bland, J. M., & Altman, D. G. (2010). Statistical methods for assessing agreement between
two methods of clinical measurement. International Journal of Nursing Studies,
47(8), 931-936.
McCuen, R. H. (2002). Approach to confidence interval estimation for curve numbers.
Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 7(1), 43-48.
Torabi, H., & Behboodian, J. (2007). Likelihood ratio tests for fuzzy hypotheses testing.
Statistical Papers, 48(3), 509.

73
2.3.12 Learning Outcome No 11: Apply numerical methods
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 11: Apply numerical methods
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1. Obtain roots of polynomials using iterative numerical methods

(Newton Raphson and Gregory Newton)

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO11: Apply numerical methods

Introduction
This learning outcome covers Application of numerical methods, roots of polynomials, and
performing interpolation and extrapolation using numerical methods.

Definition of key terms

Numerical methods: Are algorithms used for computing numeric data.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Obtain roots of polynomials using iterative numerical methods (Newton Raphson
and Gregory Newton)
Numerical method is a complete and definite set of procedures for the solution of a
problem, together with computable error estimates. The study and implementation of such
methods is the province of numerical analysis.

Types of numerical methods

a) Bisection method
b) Newton Raphson method (Newton’s Iteration method)
c) Iteration method
d) Newton’s forward interpolation formula
e) Newton’s backward interpolation formula
f) Gauss Seided method
g) Curve fitting

Applications
• Used in computer science for root algorithm
• Used to determine profit and loss in the company
• Solving practical technical problems using scientific and mathematical tools

74
• Used for multidimensional root finding
• Network simulation
• Train and traffic signal
• Weather prediction
• Build up an algorithm

Worked example
Construct a difference table to find polynomial of the data
(1,1), (2,8), (3,27), (4,64), (6,216), (7,343),8,512).
Considering appropriate method find r, where (9,r) given.

Solution
We may construct anyone of forward backward and central difference tables. Since we
also have to; Find r for x=9, which is nearer at the end of the set of given tabular values,
so we will construct the backward difference table.

Table 1. The backward difference table of the data

X Y ∇ഥ ∇−2 ∇3 ∇4
1 1 7 12 6 0
2 8 19 18 6 0
3 27 37 24 6 0
4 64 61 30 6 0
5 125 91 36 6
6 216 127 42
7 343 167
8 512

This the required difference table:

Here:
Xn = 8, h = 1, Yn = 512
∇−2 Yn = 42, ∇3 Yn = 6, ∇4 Yn = 0
x − xn x − 8
Therefore ; P = = = (x − 8)
n 1
By newtons backward formular;
(p+1)∇yn p(p+1)(p+2)∇1yn p(p+1)(p+n−1)∇n
yn
Y(X) = Yn + p∇yn + p + -------+
2 3! n!
(x − 8) + (x − 8)(x − 8 + 1) ∗ 42
= 512 = 169
2!

75
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered apply numerical methods, roots of polynomials, and
perform interpolation and extrapolation using numerical methods.

Further Reading

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

[Link] References

Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).
Hildebrand, F.B. (2003), Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (New
York).
Hildebrand, F.B. (2002), Advanced Calculus for Applications, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

76
2.3.13 Learning Outcome No12: Apply Vector Theory
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 12: Apply Vector Theory
Learning Activities Special Instructions

12.1 Obtain vectors and scalar quantities in two and three dimensions Encourage students
12.2 Perform Operations (addition and subtraction) on vectors to practice
12.3 Obtain position of vectors
12.4 Work out resolution of vectors

[Link] Information Sheet No2/LO12: Apply Vector Theory

Introduction
This learning outcome covers vectors and scalar quantities in two and three dimensions,
operations on vectors, and position and resolution of vectors.

Definition of key terms

Vectors: A quantity having direction as well as magnitude, especially as determining the
position of one point in space relative to another. A vector has both magnitude and
direction, and both these properties must be given in order to specify it. A quantity with
magnitude but no direction is called a scalar.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
12.1 Apply Vector theory
Physical quantities can be divided into two main groups, scalar quantities and vector
quantities. A Scalar quantity is one that is defined completely by a single number with
appropriate units e.g. Lengths, area, volume, mass, time etc. A Vector quantity is defined
completely when we know not only its magnitude but also the direction in which it
operates, e.g. force, velocity, acceleration, etc.

Vector quantities are extremely useful in physics. The important characteristic of a vector
quantity is that it has both a magnitude (and size) and a direction. Both of these properties
must be given in order to specify a vector completely. An example of a vector quantity is
a displacement. This tell us how far away we are from a fixed point, and it also tells us our
direction relative to that point.

77
Another example of a vector quantity is velocity. This is speed, in a particular direction.
An example of velocity might be 60 mph due north. A quantity with magnitude alone, but
no direction, is not a vector. It is called a scalar instead. One example of a scalar is
distance. This tells us how far we are from a fixed point, but does not give us any
information about the direction. Another example of a scalar quantity is the mass of an
object.

12.2 Representing vector quantities

Represent a vector by a line segment
This diagram shows two vectors.

Figure 9. Vectors

The small arrow indicate that the first vector is pointing from A to B. A vector pointing
from B to A would be going in the opposite direction.

Position vectors
Position vectors are referred to as fixed point, an origin. The position vector of a point P
with respect to an origin O. In writing, might put OP for this vector. Alternatively, we could
write it as r. These two expressions refer to the same vector.

Notation for vectors

What does it mean if, for two vectors, a = b? This means first that the length of a equals
the length of b, so that the two vectors have the same magnitude. But it also means that a
and b are in the same direction. How can we write this down more succinctly?
If two vectors are “in the same direction”, then they are parallel. We write this down as
a//b.

78
For length, if we have a vector AB, we can write its length as AB without the bar.
Alternatively, we can write it as |AB|. The two vertical lines give us the modulus, or size
of, the vector. If we have a vector written as a, we can write its length as either |a| with two
vertical lines, or as a in ordinary type (or without the bar). This is why it is very important
to keep to the convention that has been adopted in order to distinguish between a vector
and its length.

The length of a vector AB is written as AB or |AB|, and the length of a vector a is written
as

a (in ordinary type, or without the bar) or as |a|

If two vectors a and b are parallel, we write a//b

12.3 Adding two vectors

In order to add two vectors, we think of them as displacements. We carry out the first
displacement, and then the second. So, the second displacement must start where the first
one finishes.

The sum of the vectors, a + b (or the resultant, as it is sometimes called) is what we get
when we join up the triangle. This is called the triangle law for adding vectors. There is
another way of adding two vectors. Instead of making the second vector start where the
first one finishes, we make them both start at the same place, and complete a parallelogram.
This is called the parallelogram law for adding vectors. It gives the same result as the
triangle law, because one of the properties of a parallelogram is that opposite sides are
equal and in the same direction, so that b is repeated at the top of the parallelogram.

79
Refer to Engineering mathematics by K. A Stroud to learn more on components of 0
Vector in terms of unit Vectors on page 368. Dot and cross product of vectors. The Scalar
product of two vectors is denoted by ā. 𝐛ഥ (sometimes called the ‘dot product’.
The dot product of two vectors is defined as 𝐚. 𝐛 = |𝐚||𝐛|𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 where θ is the angle
between a and b.

Refer to Technician mathematics 3 by J.O. Bird on page 297.

Examples
Solution
𝐚ത = 𝟐𝐢 + 𝟑𝐣 + 𝟓𝐤 And𝐛̅ = 𝟒𝐢 + 𝐣 + 𝟔𝐤, 𝐚ത. 𝐛̅
aത . bത = 2.4 + 3.1 + 5.6
= 8 + 3+ 30
=41

A typical application of scalar products is that of determining the work done by a force
when moving a body. The amount of work done is the product of the applied force and the
distance moved in the direction of the applied force.
Example
Find the work done by a force F newtons acting at point A on a body, when A is displaced
to point B, the coordinates of A and B being (3, 1, -2) and (4, -1, 0) metres respectively
and when
F = − i − 2j − k Newton’s.

Solution
If a vector displacement from A to B is d, then the work done is F. d Newton Meters or
joules. The position vector OA is 3i + j − 2k and OB is 4i − j

AB = d = OB − OA
= (4i – j) – (3i + j − 2k )
i – 2j + 2k.
Work done = F. d = (−1)/1) + (−2)(−2) + (−1)(2)
= −1 + 4 − 2
=1 Nm or joule
For more worked examples refer to Technician mathematics 3 by J. O. Bird.

80
Cross Product
The vector or Cross product of two vectors ā and bത is C where the magnitude of C is
|ā||b|Sinθ where θ is the angle between aത and b.
For more information refer to Technician mathematics 3 by J.O Bird and Engineering
mathematics by K. A Stroud.

Examples
i j k
ഥ ഥ
pത = 2i + 4j + 3k and Q = i + 5j − 2k find P x Q = |2 4 3 |
1 5 −2
4 3 2 3 2 4
=i | | − j́ | | + k| |
5 −2 1 −2 1 5
=−23i + 7j + 6k

Typical applications of vector products are to moments and to angular velocity.

Refer to Technician mathematics. 3 by J.O Bird on page 308.

12.4 Vector field Theory

Refer to further Engineering mathematics by K.A Stroud to learn and also go through the
worked examples and exercises on:
(i) Gradient
(ii) Divergence
(iii) Curl

Greens theorem: Learn how to perform vector calculations using Green’s theorem by
referring to further Engineer mathematics by KA. Stroud.

Stoke’s Theorem: Refer to further Engineer Mathematics by K.A Stroud to learn how to
perform vector calculations using Stroke’s theorem.

Gauss’s Theorem: Refer to the same book to learn how to determine line and surface
integrals using Gauss’s theorem.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered vectors and scalar quantities in two and three dimensions,
operations on vectors, and position and resolution of vectors.

81
Further Reading

1. Greenberg, M.D. (1998), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall
(Upper Saddle River, N.J).

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. If aത =2i - 3j + 4k and bത = i + 2j + 5k determine
(2́) aത . bത
(22́) aത x bത
2. Find the work done by a force F Newtons acting at a point A on a body, when A is
displaced to point B ,the coordinates of A and B being (5, 2, -4) and (3,-1,1) meters
respectively , and when F = −2i − 3j − 2k Newton’s.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Graph books
• Dice
• Computers with internet connection

[Link] References

Duffy, D. G. (2016). Advanced engineering mathematics with MATLAB. Chapman and

Hall/CRC.
Jeffrey, A. (2001). Advanced engineering mathematics. Elsevier.
Zill, D., Wright, W. S., & Cullen, M. R. (2011). Advanced engineering mathematics. Jones
& Bartlett Learning.

82
2.3.14 Learning Outcome No 13: Apply Matrix
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 11: Apply Matrix
Learning Activities Special Instructions

11.1 Obtain determinant and inverse of 3x3 matrix • Discussions

11.2 Obtained Solutions of simultaneous equations in • Projects
three unknowns are • Demonstration by the
11.3 Perform Calculation involving Eigen values and trainer
Eigen vectors

2.3.14.2Information Sheet No 2/LO11 Apply Matrix

Introduction
This learning outcome covers; the determinant of a 3𝑥3 matrix, inverse of a 3𝑥3 matrix,
solutions of three unknown simultaneous equations and the calculations on eigen values
and eigen vectors.

Definition of key terms

Matrix: This is a set of real or complex numbers arranged in rows and columns to form a
rectangular array and it is always denoted by capital letters.

Determinant: It is a physical quantity/value assigned to any square matrix. E.g. given

𝑎 𝑏
[ ] = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑐𝑑
𝑐 𝑑

Inverse: The inverse of a matrix 𝑄 −1 is the matrix than when multiplied by the original
matrix 𝑄 gives the identity matrix. i.e. 𝑄 𝑄 −1 =𝐼.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
11.1 Determinant and inverse of 3x3 matrix are obtained as per the method.
A matrix with P rows and Q columns is called a 𝑃 × 𝑄 matrix and is of order 𝑃 × 𝑄. Square
1 6
brackets [ ] or round brackets () are used when writing a matrix. For example, [ ] or
9 8
1 6
( )
9 8

83
Matrices are named by stating the number of rows followed by the number of columns. For
1 9 7
example, [6 5 4] is a 3 × 3 matrix
2 3 6
5 6 4 3
.[ 1 7 8 2] is a 3 × 4 matrix
10 9 6 5
A line matrix (row matrix) consists of one row only e.g. (5 6 4 3) while a column matrix
5
consists of one column only e.g.[ 1 ]
10
Double suffix notation
Each unit in a matrix can be defined by double suffixes. The first suffix is the row while
the second is the column.
𝑃11 𝑃12 𝑃13
E.g. (𝑃21 𝑃22 𝑃23 ) Thus 𝑃32 is on the third row and the second column.
𝑃31 𝑃32 𝑃33

Addition and subtraction of matrices

For two or more matrices to be added or subtracted, they must be of the same order. The
operation is done by adding or subtracting the corresponding elements.
Example:
5 6 7 12 9 8 17 15 15
(1 10 2)+( 6 5 3)=( 7 16 5 )
4 3 8 9 7 2 13 10 10
4 5 1 3 6 9 1 −1 −8
(2 7 8) − (5 5 4) = (−3 2 4)
3 6 9 4 12 8 −1 −6 1
Transposing a matrix
Example
3 6 9 3 5 4
Q=(5 5 4), 𝑄 𝑇 =(6 5 12)
4 12 8 9 4 8

Determinant of a 3x3 matrix

Suppose Q is a 3 × 3 matrix, the determinant of Q denoted by det Q or|𝑄| is obtained by
𝑞11 𝑞12 𝑞13
(𝑞21 𝑞22 𝑞23 )
𝑞31 𝑞32 𝑞33
𝑞22 𝑞23 𝑞21 𝑞23 𝑞21 𝑞22
det 𝑄 𝑜𝑟|𝑄| = 𝑞11 |𝑞 𝑞 | − 𝑞12 |𝑞 𝑞 | + 𝑞13 |𝑞 |
32 33 31 33 31 𝑞32
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑞11 (𝑞22 𝑞33 − 𝑞23 𝑞32 ) − 𝑞12 (𝑞21 𝑞33 − 𝑞31 𝑞23 ) + 𝑞13 (𝑞21 𝑞32 − 𝑞31 𝑞22 )
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑞11 𝑞22 𝑞33 − 𝑞11 𝑞23 𝑞32 − 𝑞12 𝑞21 𝑞33 + 𝑞12 𝑞31 𝑞23 + 𝑞13 𝑞21 𝑞32 − 𝑞13 𝑞31 𝑞22
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑞11 𝑞22 𝑞33 + 𝑞12 𝑞31 𝑞23 + 𝑞13 𝑞21 𝑞32 − 𝑞13 𝑞31 𝑞22 − −𝑞11 𝑞23 𝑞32 − 𝑞12 𝑞21 𝑞33

84
Thus
𝑞11 𝑞12 𝑞13 𝑞11 𝑞12 𝑞13
det Q= |𝑞21 𝑞22 𝑞23 | |𝑞21 𝑞22 𝑞23 |
𝑞31 𝑞32 𝑞33 𝑞31 𝑞32 𝑞33
Example
2 3 4
Q=(5 6 7)
8 9 1
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = (2 × 6 × 1) + (3 × 4 × 8) + (4 × 5 × 9) − (2 × 7 × 9) − (3 × 5 × 1)
− (4 × 6 × 8)
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑄 = 27
Minors and cofactors of a 3x3 matrix
Suppose R is a 3 × 3 matrix, R=𝑟𝑖𝑗 and S is 3 × 3 matrix obtained from R by deleting its
𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column. Then the determinant of 𝑠𝑖𝑗 is called the minor of the element 𝑟𝑖𝑗 of
R.
Cofactors are obtained by multiplying (−1)𝑖+𝑗 by the submatrix of the matrix.
Example.
5 3 8 58 −1 −34
If T=(1 10 2) Minor of T =(−27 3 18 )
4 6 7 −74 2 47

58 1 −34
Cofactors of T=( 27 3 −18)
−74 −2 47

Adjoint of a 3x3 matrix

Adjoint is the transpose of the cofactors of a matrix denoted by 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑇 .
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠
58 27 −74
Adj T= ( 1 3 −2 )
−34 −18 47

Inverse of a 3x3 matrix

The inverse of T, i.e. 𝑇 −1 is given by;
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑇
. 𝑇 −1 =
𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝑇
det 𝑇 = 5(58) − 3(−1) + 8(−34) = 21
58 27 −74
58 27 −74 21 21 21
−1 1 1 3 −2
𝑇 =21 ( 1 3 −2 )= 21 21 21
−34 −18 47 −34 −18 47
( 21 21 21 )

85
11.2 Solutions of simultaneous equations in three unknowns are obtained as per the
procedure
Consider 3 sets of linear equations
𝑟11 𝑥 + 𝑟12 𝑦 + 𝑟13 𝑧=𝐶1
𝑟21 𝑥 + 𝑟22 𝑦 + 𝑟23 𝑧=𝐶2
𝑟31 𝑥 + 𝑟32 𝑦 + 𝑟33 𝑧=𝐶3
Then the values 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑍 are obtained by,
𝑥 𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13 −1 𝐶1
(𝑦)=(𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23 ) (𝐶2 )
𝑧 𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33 𝐶3

Example
Obtain the values 𝑜𝑓 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 in the following system of simultaneous equations.
3𝑝 + 𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 5
5𝑝 + 3𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 7
9𝑝 + 8𝑞 + 7𝑟 = 3
Solution
3 1 2 𝑝 5
(5 3 2) (𝑞 ) = (7)
9 8 7 𝑟 3

𝑝 3 1 2 −1 5
(𝑞 ) = (5 3 2) (7)
𝑟 9 8 7 3
5 3 −1
−1 24 8 6
3 1 2 5 9 −4
1 −17 1 1
(5 3 2) = 24 (−17 3 4 )= 24 8 6
9 8 7 13 −15 4 13 −5 1
( 24 8 6 )
19
𝑝 6
−13
Thus (𝑞 =) 6
𝑟 −7
( 6 )
19 −13 −7
This implies that 𝑝 = 6 , 𝑞 = 6 , 𝑟 = 6

11.3 Calculation involving Eigen values and Eigen vectors are performed
If Q is a 𝑚 × 𝑚 matrix over some field N, then 𝜔𝜀𝑁 is an eigen value of Q if some non-
zero vector (column) r𝜀𝑁 𝑚 then 𝑄𝑟 = 𝜔𝑟. Thus, r is an eigen vector of Q which belong to
the eigen value w.

86
Example
Find the eigen values and the eigen
Vectors associated with the matrix.
3 1 0
Q= (0 1 −1)
0 2 4
Solution
𝜔 is an eigen value of Q is |𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄|=0 where I is the identity matrix.
𝜔 0 0 3 1 0
|𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄|=|( 0 𝜔 0 ) − (0 1 −1)| = 0
0 0 𝜔 0 2 4
𝜔−3 −1 0
| 0 𝜔−1 1 |=0
0 −2 𝜔−4
𝜔−1 1
𝜔 − 3| |=0
−2 𝜔−4
𝜔 − 3[(𝜔 − 1)(𝜔 − 4) + 2 ] = 0
𝜔 − 3[(𝜔 − 2)(𝜔 − 3)] = 0 𝜔 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 = 2
Thus, the eigen values are 𝜔 = 3, 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2.
For eigen vectors, solve the equation |𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄| r=0
When 𝜔 = 2
|𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄| r=0
−1 −1 0 𝑝 0
(0 1 1 ) ( 𝑠 ) = (0)
0 −2 −2 𝑡 0
−𝑝 − 𝑠 = 0
𝑆+𝑡 =0
−2𝑠 − 2𝑡 = 0 𝑠 = 0 𝑡=0 𝑝=0

Example:
Find the eigen values and the eigen vectors associated with.
7 0 0
M=(6 3 1)
2 10 6
Solution
Suppose 𝜔 is an eigen value of M, then |𝜔𝐼 − 𝑀|=0
𝜔 0 0 7 0 0
|𝜔𝐼 − 𝑀|=|( 0 𝜔 0 ) − (6 3 1)| = 0
0 0 𝜔 2 10 6
𝜔−7 0 0
= | −6 𝜔−3 −1 | = 0
−2 −10 𝜔 − 6
𝜔−3 −1
𝜔 − 7| |
−10 𝜔 − 6

87
𝜔 − 7[(𝜔 − 3)(𝜔 − 6) − 5] = 0
𝜔 − 7[𝜔2 − 6𝜔 − 3𝜔 + 18 − 10] = 0
𝜔 − 7[𝜔2 − 9𝜔 + 8] = 0
(𝜔 − 7)(𝜔 − 1)(𝜔 − 8) = 0
𝜔 = 7,1 𝑜𝑟 8
Thus, the eigen values are 1, 7 and 8
For eigen vectors;
Take |𝜔𝐼 − 𝑄|𝑟 = 0
𝜔−7 0 0 𝑥
( −6 𝜔−3 𝑦
−1 ) = 0
−2 −10 𝜔 − 6 𝑧
When 𝜔 = 1,
−6 0 − 𝑥
We have (−6 −2 −1) (𝑦) = 0
−2 10 −5 𝑧
−6𝑥 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑥 = 0
−6𝑦 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
−2𝑥 − 10𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
−2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
−10𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
−10𝑦 − 10𝑧 = 0
−10𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
−5𝑧 = 0
𝑍=0 𝑦=0
When 𝜔 = 7
0 0 0 𝑥
We have (−6 4 −1) (𝑦) = 0
−2 −10 1 𝑧
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 𝑧 = 0
When 𝜔 = 8
1 0 0 𝑥
(−6 5 −1 𝑦) = 0
) (
−2 −10 2 𝑧
𝑥=0 − 6𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
−2𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
−10𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 𝑦=𝑧=0

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the determinant of a 3𝑥3 matrix, solutions of three unknows
simultaneous equation and the calculations Eigen values and Eigen vectors.

88
Further Reading

Read more on
1. Multiplication of two or more matrices. Matrix algebra useful for statistics by John
Wiley and sons.
2. Eigen values and eigen values. Iterative methods for computing eigen values and eigen
vectors by Panju M.

2.3.14.3Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
[Link] the determinant of the following matrix.
4 3 −1
(−17 7 9)
13 25 1

a) 46
b) 48
c) 52
d) 64
[Link] the determinant of the following matrix.
10 5 1
( 3 6 2)
4 7 9

a) 300
b) 256
c) 272
d) 302

89
[Link] the inverse of the following matrices.
3 −5 −2
( 2 −2 4 )
−3 8 −5

11 41 6
38 76 19
1 21 4
a) 38 76 19
−5 9 −1
( 38 46 19 )
76 65 11
38 38 38
21 23 9
b) 38 76 19
−10 9 −1
( 19 76 19 )
3 −5 −1
38 38 19
1 −1 2
c) 19 19 19
−3 4 −5
( 38 9 38 )

11 82 12
19 76 19
1 42 8
d) 19 76 19
−5 9 −2
( 19 76 19 )
[Link] the inverse of the following matrix
13 12 9
(2 1 3)
2 −10 8

19 −93 27
88 88 176
−5 43 −21
a) 88 88 176
−1 7 −1
( 88 8 16 )
11 −93 27
88 88 176
−3 43 −23
b) 88 88 176
−1 7 −3
(4 8 16 )

90
 21 −95 27
88 88 176
−3 47 −27
c) 88 88 176
−5 7 −3
( 88 8 16 )

3 −1 −2
4 6 3
1 1 2
d) 5 7 9
3 5
1
(7 7 )

[Link] the values 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 in the following equations.

3𝑝 − 2𝑟 + 6𝑞 = 7
−7𝑝 + 4𝑟 − 8𝑞 = 15
9𝑝 − 3𝑟 + 17𝑞 = 3

31 15 23
a) P=13 q= 𝑟 = 26
26
−1 5 23
b) P= 3 𝑞 = 26 𝑟 = 26
−131 −115 123
c) P= 𝑞= 𝑟=
13 26 26
131 5 17
d) P= 26 𝑞 = 16 𝑟 = 19
[Link] the values of 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 in the following equation
2𝑝 + 7𝑟 + 18𝑞 = 0
15𝑝 + 19𝑟 + 20𝑞 = 3
17𝑝 − 5𝑟 − 7𝑞 = −10
7 9 17
a) 𝑃 = 8 𝑞 = 10 𝑟 = 823
−1897 652 −1057
b) 𝑃 = 𝑞 = 823 𝑟=
4115 4115
97 52 57
c) 𝑝 = 115 𝑞 = 23 𝑟 = 15
5 2 1
d) 𝑝 = 6 𝑞=3 𝑟=5
2 1 0
7. Obtain the eigen values of [0 1 −1]
0 2 4
a) 3, 3, 4
b) 2, 2, 3
c) 2, 2, 2
d) 1, 2, 3
8. Evaluate how to obtain the determinant of matrix.
9. Compare between adjoint and inverse of a matrix.
10. Differentiate between minors and cofactors?
91
11. Justify whether an eigen value the same as an eigen vector.
12. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
3𝑝 + 𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 5
5𝑝 + 3𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 7
9𝑝 + 8𝑞 + 7𝑟 = 3
Oral Assessment
1. Define an inverse of a matrix.
2. Discuss the process of finding the eigen vector.

Practical Assessment
In a given department, 3 lecturers may teach 3 units per week. The number of hours
required on each unit to be examined are given in the table below. The department
chairperson would like to assign the lecturers the units so that the number of hours is
minimized. Find the specific unit that each lecturer should be assigned.

Lecturer Math’s Science English

P 114 116 112
Q 19 228 109
R 113 600 110

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific calculator
• 15 cm ruler
• Pen, pencil

[Link] References

Aitken, A.C (2017) Determinant and matrices Read Book Ltd.

Panju,M(2011) Iterative methods for computing eigen values and eigen vectors [Link]
11051185
Searle. S.R., & Khun, A.I. (2017) matrix algebra useful for statistics. John wiley & sons.

92
 CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL DRAWING

3.1 Introduction
This unit covers the competencies required to prepare and interpret technical drawings. It
involves competencies to select, use and maintain drawing equipment and materials. It also
involves producing plain geometry drawings, solid geometry drawings, pictorial and
orthographic drawings and application of Computer Aided Design (CAD) packages.

3.2 Performance Standard

Use drawing equipment and materials according to task requirements, per workplace
procedures and maintained as per manufacturer’s instructions, waste materials are disposed
in accordance with workplace procedures and environmental legislations, use personal
protective equipment according to occupational safety and health regulations, produce
plain geometry drawings, produce solid geometry drawings, produce pictorial and
orthographic drawings of components and apply CAD packages in drawings according to
standard drawing conventions and task requirements.

3.3 Learning Outcomes

3.3.1 List of learning outcomes
a) Use and maintain drawing equipment and materials
b) Produce plain geometry drawings
c) Produce solid geometry drawings
d) Produce pictorial and orthographic drawings of components
e) Apply CAD packages

93
3.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Use and Maintain Drawing Equipment and Materials
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Use and Maintain Drawing Equipment and Materials
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

1.1. Identify and gather drawing equipment • Demonstration

1.2. Use and maintain drawing equipment • Group
1.3. Use drawing materials discussion
1.4. Dispose waste materials
1.5. Use Personal Protective Equipment (dust coats, gloves and
closed leather shoes)

[Link] Information Sheet No3/LO1: Use and Maintain Drawing Equipment and
Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers drawing equipment, drawing materials, maintenance of
drawing equipment as per manufacturer’s instructions as per workplace procedures. It also
covers on how to dispose waste materials in accordance with workplace procedures and
proper use of personal equipment. Use and maintain drawing equipment and materials.

Definition of key terms

Drawing: This is the use of lines, shapes, and sizes to construct objects or structures either
in 2-dimesnional or 3-dimensional view.

Technical drawing: This is a precise detailed representation of an idea using symbols,

lines, and signs in creating objects in the manufacturing of engineering articles.

Drafting: This is the act of producing a picture/sketch either in 2-dimesnional or 3-

dimensional view and providing dimensions and notes. It is usually a quick sketch/
presentation with details and not to scale.

Designing: This is the act of producing drawings to clearly define the requirements for
concepts or products in order to be in line with the expected outcome.

Maintenance: It is an excellent means of improving the performance and condition of

equipment and facilities.
94
A maintenance program: It is a comprehensive list of maintenance and its incidents.

A maintenance schedule: It is a list allocating specific maintenance of an area, including

equipment and tools to a specific period.

A maintenance checklist: It is a list of maintenance tasks (preventive or predictive)

typically derived through some form of analysis, generated automatically as work orders
at a predetermined frequency.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Use and maintain drawing equipment as per manufacturer’s instructions
Maintenance is an excellent means of improving the performance and condition of
equipment and facilities. An effective maintenance program identifies problems long
before any equipment or facility breaks down or deteriorate. A good maintenance system
presents the early discovery of problems, thus providing plenty of lead time for effective
maintenance planning. The trainer has to value the importance of maintaining the training
facilities, equipment and tools s/he is using or under his/her care if he values the presence
and availability of these resources for effective training and learning processes. Training
equipment is usually placed in the practical work area or the trainees’ resource area. The
sizes and uses of equipment vary in the different training qualifications and generally
classified into five (5):
a) Large items of equipment; motor vehicles, industrial sewing machines
b) Small items of equipment
c) Simple equipment; electric fan, floor polisher
d) Complex equipment; plasma cutting machine, simulator (automotive)
e) Equipment with significant health and safety implications; duplicator machine

Reasons for maintenance

• To extend the useful life of physical facilities
• To assure the operational readiness of installed equipment and maximum possible
return on investments
• To properly discard hazardous wastes
• To ensure the safety of personnel using the facilities, physical properties and the
environment

95
Importance of maintenance
• Improved morale of human resources
• Reduced operational cost
• Increased production
• Prolonged life of facilities
• Prompt delivery of services/product
• Waste/garbage reduction
• Ensured safe environment

Ways of implementing a maintenance program

The question on how do we implement the maintenance program will centre on the 5Ms as
follows:
• Manpower
• Money (financial resources)
• Methods and system
• Machines (facilities)
• Materials and supplies

Tools and equipment used in technical drawing

i. Drafting Tables/board
Draftsmen create technical drawings using a tilting table. Parallel rulers on each side of the
drawing surface align the drawing paper and provide horizontal and vertical guides for
drawing.

Figure 10. Drafting tables

Source: [Link]

ii. Curve Templates and Compasses

Draftsmen create curves using irregular curve templates made of clear rigid plastic. They
draw circles and portions of circles called arcs with an adjustable compass and calculate
angles from 1 degree to 180 degrees with clear plastic protractors.

96
Figure [Link] templates.
Source: [Link]

Caliper and Vernier Scale

A caliper is a tool which is used for a measurement of some objects

Figure 12. Caliper and vernier scale

Source: [Link]

Drawing Compass
A drawing compass is a tool for drawing circles on a specific material but also for
navigational help and measuring distances

Figure 13. Drawing compass.

Source: [Link]

97
Types of Drawing Compasses
Beam Compass
A beam compass is made of brass of wooden beam, and it is used for drawing circles that
are larger than those made by regular compass.

Scribe Compass
This type of compass is the simplest by form. It is used by carpenters to scribe a circle
instead of drawing it.

Loose Leg Divider

It is also used to scribe circles. Loose leg wing dividers also provide stepping off repetitive
measurements with particular accuracy.

Figure 14. Loose leg divider

Source: [Link]

Proportional Compass
It is a tool consisting of two rulers which are equal length and joined by a hinge.

iii. Lettering Guides

Lettering templates guide the draftsman in the execution of uniform lettering throughout
the drawing. As a matter of common practice most creators of technical drawings hand
letter in personally developed styles that identify their work as clearly as fingerprints.

iv. Drawing Pencils

Most draftsmen use sharp 2H and 4H pencils for drawing. Pencils may be wooden or
mechanical pencils with replaceable leads. They utilize erasing shields and soft gum or
nylon erasers to make corrections.

v. Inking Pens
Technical drawings created in pencil are usually over-traced with ink to render durable
final drawings. Early inking pens consisted of a mechanical device with an adjustable nib.
Modern disposable inking pens have built in ink reservoirs and are available in many point
widths.
98
Pencils
Pencil is used to draw on the paper. Any type of pencil is not suitable for drawing. There
are some limitations, the drawing appearance should be very neat and understandable.
Every line of the drawing should indicate its importance. It depends upon the hardness of
the pencil. Based on the hardness quality pencils are classified into 18 grades and they are
as shown in the table below:

Table 2: Classification of pencils

Grade of Pencil Hardness of Pencil

9H Hardest

6H, 5H, 4H Extremely Hard

3H Very hard

2H Hard

H Moderately hard

F Firm

HB Medium hard

B Moderately soft and black

2B Soft and black

3B Very soft and black

4B, 5B, 6B Very soft and very black

7B Softest

Out of the above 18 grades of pencils, the following grades are used in engineering
drawings.

99
Table 3: Uses of engineering pencil grades

Grade of Pencil Used to Draw

3H Construction lines

2H Dimension lines, center lines, sectional lines, hidden lines

H Object lines, lettering

HB Dimensioning, boundary lines

Figure 15: Pencil grades

Source: [Link]

vi. Drafting Machines

Modern drafting machines combine horizontal and vertical rulers or scales and a protractor
head that allows adjustment of the rulers to required angles for drawing. The device is
permanently attached to the drawing board and uses a pair of connected arms to move
freely around the drawing surface.

vii. CAD: Computer Aided Design

Drawings and designs using computer software drastically reduce hand and machine
drafting, especially in the professional sectors. Lower drawing cost and greater degrees of
accuracy dictate increasing use of CAD as a primary tool for creating technical drawings.
Large computer screens for creating designs and plotters for printing large technical
drawings are replacing traditional technical drawing tools. Colleges and trade schools offer
CAD training to a growing number of specializing technicians who are replacing
conventional draftsmen in the drafting room.

100
viii. Rulers and Squares
Using a T-square and clear plastic triangle, draftsmen create lines. Common triangles they
use are an eight-inch triangle with forty-five- and ninety-degree sides and a ten-inch
triangle with 30- and 60-degree sides. Draftsmen measure dimensions with triangular
shaped rulers that have different scales on each of three surfaces.

A ruler is an instrument that can be used for measuring distances or to draw straight lines
in printing, geometry, technical drawing and many other things.

Figure 16: Rulers and squares

Source: [Link]

The protractor is an instrument used for measuring angles. It is usually made of

transparent glass or transparent plastic

Figure 17: Protractor

Source: [Link]

Figure 18: Protractor and a ruler

Source: [Link]

101
Mini Drafter
Mini drafter is an instrument which can be used for multiple functions in drawing. It
contains two arms which is adjustable to required angle and at the end of the lower arm a
scale set is attached.

Figure 19: Mini drafter

Source: [Link]

T-Square
A T-square is used to draw horizontal and vertical lines on drawing sheet. It is made of
wood or plastic and in T shape. The vertical part of T is called as blade and horizontal part
of T is called as head.

Figure 20: T-square

Source: [Link]

Set Squares
Set squares are used to draw lines with an angle between them. In most of the structures,
30, 45, 60 and 90-degree lines are most common. So, set squares make the work easier for
this type of drawings.

102
 Figure 21: Set square
Source: [Link]

French Curves
French curves are made of plastic and they are in irregular shapes. Sometimes the drawing
requires irregular curves or shapes or arcs which cannot be drawn using compass. In that
case French curves are suitable.

Figure 22: French curve

Source: [Link]

Drawing Sheet
Drawing sheet is a white paper on which an object is drawn which is available in various
sizes. The sheet used for engineering should be of good quality. It should be white in color
with uniform thickness which must resist the easy torn of paper. The surface of sheet must
be smooth.

Eraser
Eraser is used to remove the lines or spots which were drawn by mistake or with wrong
measurements. The eraser used should be of good quality and soft. It should not damage
the paper while erasing.

103
Figure 23: Eraser
Source: [Link]

Paper Holders
When the drawing sheet is placed on the board it may not be in fixed position. To fix the
drawing sheet to the board paper holders are used.

Figure 24: Paper holder

Source: [Link]

Disposing of waste materials so as to prevent air pollution is a recent requirement in the

history of waste disposal. Proper disposal of waste resulting from technical drawing must
be followed. Degradable waste must be disposed separately with non-degraded waste.
Broken compasses and rules must be disposed properly as they can cause harm to the
trainee in the work place. Personal protective equipment, or PPE, is designed to protect
you from hazards found on or off the job. The PPE prevent the draftsmen from hazards
when they are working in the drawing rooms. These PPE include:
• Grooves
• Closed shoes
• Dust coat
• Helmets
Proper procedures must be observed and adhered to know when to put on the protective
gears to minimize injuries during and after the exercise.

104
Conclusion
The learning outcome covered or equipped the learner with drawing equipment, drawing
materials used and maintenance of drawing equipment, drawing materials, dispose of waste
materials, and proper use of productive equipment in accordance with workplace
procedures and environmental legislations.

Further Reading

1. Engineering drawing by K. Venugopal. Published by: New Age International (p)

limited (2016).
2. Engineering drawing + Auto CAD. By: Venugopal. K PUBLISHED BY New Age
International pvt ltd

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The accuracy of the drawing depends on ________.
2. Which of the following instrument is made of thin strips of wood arranged in a line to
form a rectangle and on which, the drawing is made?
a) Mini-drafter
b) Drawing Board
c) Protractor
d) Scale
3. Which of the following tools is used to draw horizontal lines?
a) Mini – drafter
b) Protractor
c) T – square
d) French curve
4. Which of the following instruments can be used to draw accurate perpendicular lines,
parallel lines and angular lines?
a) Mini-drafter
b) T-square
c) Protractor
d) Set square

105
5. According to the Indian Standard Institute (ISI), which among the following
designation has the size 1000 x 700 (in mm)?
a) B0
b) B1
c) B2
d) B3
6. Which is the most common tool used for drawing circles?
a) French curve
b) Mini – drafter
c) Divider
d) Compass
7. For drawing circles with a large radius, which of the following tool is used?
a) Bow compass
b) Lengthening bar compass
c) Divider
d) Protractors
8. The preferred size of the drawing sheets is recommended by the ______
a) B.I.S.
b) ASME
c) ASTM
d) NIST
9. SP: 46 (2003) recommends the borders of _______ mm width for the sheet sizes A0
and A1, and _______ mm for the sizes A2, A3, A4 and A5.
a) 10, 20
b) 15, 20
c) 20, 10
d) 15, 10
10. The false statement regarding orientation mark.
a) The orientation mark coincides with one of the centering marks
b) Represents the direction to which sheet is placed
c) Orientation mark can be used for the orientation of drawing sheet on the
drawing board
d) Facilitate positioning of the drawing for reproduction purpose
11. Select and apply different drawing paper holders
12. Discuss the best methods of drawing waste materials disposal which is environmentally
friendly.
13. State three importance of drawing tools maintenance

106
Oral Assessment
1. State two uses of protractors in technical drawing
2. Give two types of pencils used to make faint lines

Practical Assessment
Make a sketch of a CAD design

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab
• Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

[Link] References

Hubka, V. (2015). Principles of engineering design. Elsevier.

Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and engineering drawing. Routledge.
Shrock, C. R. (2009). Advanced AutoCAD 2010 Exercise Workbook. Industrial Press Inc.

107
3.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Produce Plane Geometry Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Produce Plain Geometry Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Identify different types of lines used in drawing and their • Use correct tools
meanings (drawing and
2.2 Construct different types of geometric forms (circles, measurement)
triangles, rectangles, parallelogram, polygons, pyramids, • Demonstrations
conic sections, prisms, loci) and group
2.3 Construct different types of angles discussion
2.4 Measure different types of angles using appropriate • Use the correct
measuring tools. dimensions
2.5 Bisect angles
2.6 Conduct freehand sketching of different types of
geometric forms, tools, equipment and diagram.

[Link] Information Sheet No3/LO2: Produce Plain Geometry Drawings

Introduction
This outcome covers a variety of plain geometry drawings that include lines, triangles,
quadrilaterals, polygons, dimensioning and drawing rules, bisecting angles according to
standard and measurement of different types of angles.

Definition of key terms

Drawing instruments: These are the tools/equipment that are essential in producing
drawings.

Drawing materials: These are consumables that are utilized in technical drawing.

Plane geometry: This type of geometry involves production of drawings in two

dimensions.

Solid geometry: Solid geometry involves production of drawings in three dimensions.

108
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
Plane geometry principle
A line projects as a true length when a view is taken looking perpendicular to the line. A
line parallel to the vertical plane will appear as a true length in elevation. A line parallel to
the horizontal plane will appear as a true length in plane. Parallel lines appear parallel in
every orthographic view. If a line is parallel to any line on a plane, it is parallel to the plane.
A line projects as a point when we look along its true length. A plane projects as an edge
when any line on the plane projects as a point. The true shape of a plane is seen on a
projection plane which is parallel to the plane. Two planes intersect in a line.

Line
A geometric primitive that has length and direction, but no thickness. It may be straight,
curved or a combination of these. Lines also have important relationship or conditions,
such as parallel, intersecting, and tangent. Specific length and non-specific length. Straight
line that extends to infinity from a specified point.

Relationship of one line to another line or arc

Figure 25: Lines

Bisecting a line
Steps
a) Preparing the Compass
i. Draw the line segment you need to bisect. If the line segment is not already given,
you will need to make it using a straightedge.

Figure 26: Drawn line

ii. Choose an appropriately sized compass. If you open the compass completely, and
its span is one-half the length of the line or less, you need to choose a bigger
compass.

109
 Figure 27: Open Compass
Source: [Link]

iii. Position the compass on an endpoint. To do this, place the needle of the compass on
either endpoint. Open the compass so that it spans a little more than half the length
of the line

Figure 28: Compass Position

Source: [Link]

a) Bisecting the Line

i. Draw an arc above and below the line segment. Make sure the needle stays on the
endpoint, and that you do not adjust the compass setting. The length of the arcs
does not matter.

Figure 29: An arc

Source: [Link]

110
ii. Reposition the compass on the other endpoint. Make sure you do not change the
compass setting.

Figure 30: End point Position

Source: [Link]

iii. Draw another set of arcs, above and below the line segment. Make sure the needle
stays on the endpoint, and that you do not adjust the compass setting. The two sets
of arcs you’ve drawn should intersect.

Figure 31: Arcs above and below line segment

Source: [Link]

iv. Connect the arc intersections. To do this, place your straightedge on the point where
the arcs above the line intersect, and align it with the point where the arcs below
the line intersect.

Figure 32: Connected arc intersections

Source: [Link]

111
 v. Draw your perpendicular bisector. The line you draw between the two arc
intersections bisects the line at a ninety-degree angle.

Figure 33: Perpendicular line

Source: [Link]

vi. Understand why this works. You have used the compass to outline two congruent
circles centered over either endpoint. The intersecting arcs represent the endpoint
of a radii from the center of either circle. The length of the radii will be the same
since the circles are of the same size.

Figure 34: Completed Drawing

Source: [Link]

Plane Geometry
Plane geometry can take various shapes.

Figure 35: Plane Geometry

Source: [Link]

112
 Figure 36: Plane Geometry
Source: [Link]

Conclusion
This outcome covered plane geometry drawings i.e. types of lines, polygons, triangles,
quadrilaterals, dimensioning and drawing rules

Further Reading

1. K Morling geometric and engineering drawing

2. Hubka,V.( 2015)Principles of engineering design, Elserier
3. Davies, B. L., Robotham, A. J., & Yarwood, A. (1991). Computer-aided drawing and
design. London: Chapman & Hall.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. While drawing a perpendicular to a line from a point within the line but nearer to the
end of the line, all the arcs drawn in the process are of _______?
a) Different radii
b) Different radii but one
c) Same radii but one
d) Same radii

113
2. In the given figure which of the following construction line is drawn first?

a) Line AP
b) Arc DPC
c) Arc DQC
d) Line DC
3. For drawing parallel lines to a given line through a given point we make use of ____
a) Arcs
b) Triangles
c) Lines
d) Quadrilaterals
4. Which of the following arcs is made first to draw a parallel line to the given line PQ?

a) A
b) B
c) C
d) D
5. A tangent to a circle is a line which touches the circle at one and only one point.
a) True
b) False
6. The line perpendicular to a tangent and is passing through the point of contact is called
_____
a) Perpendicular bisector
b) Angle bisector
c) Normal
d) Tangent
7. In the following figure, the tangent at point A can be drawn by _______

114
 a) Angle bisector
b) Perpendicular bisector
c) Rectangle
d) Arc
8. How many tangents can be drawn from a point outside a given circle?
a) 4
b) 3
c) 2
d) 1
9. In the following figure, how will you make a tangent from the point outside the circle?

a) By drawing a semicircle with diameter as OA

b) By drawing a perpendicular bisector
c) By drawing an angle bisector
d) By drawing circle with the same radius from A
10. Which geometric principle is used to justify the construction below?

a) A line perpendicular to one of two parallel lines is perpendicular to the other

b) Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect to form congruent adjacent
angles

115
 c) When two lines are intersected by a transversal and alternate interior angle
are congruent, the lines are parallel
d) When two lines are intersected by a transversal and the corresponding
angles are congruent, the lines are parallel
11. The diagram below shows the construction of the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Which statement is not true?

a) AM=MB
b) MB=1/2AB
c) AM=2AB
d) AM+MB=AB
12. Construct an isosceles triangle given the perimeter and the altitude (perimeter 150mm
and altitude 70mm).
13. Construct a rhombus given the diagonal and the length of the sides.
14. Construct a trapezium given the lengths of the parallel sides, the perpendicular distance
between them and one angle.
15. Construct a regular octagon given the diameter, i.e. within a given square.

Oral Assessment
1. Which steps are followed when bisecting a line?

Practical Assessment
1. Construct an equilateral triangle, given one of the sides, AB = 100.
2. Construct a triangle given the base, the altitude and the vertical angle (base 100mm and
vertical angle 650)
3. Construct a triangle similar to another triangle but with a different perimeter

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab

116
 • Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

[Link] References

Childs, P. (2003). Mechanical design. Butterworth Heinemann.

Olkun, S. (2003). Making connections: Improving spatial abilities with engineering
drawing activities. International journal of mathematics teaching and learning, 3(1),
1-10.
Shrock, C. R. (2009). Advanced AutoCAD 2010 Exercise Workbook. Industrial Press Inc.
Yamaguchi, F. (2012). Curves and surfaces in computer aided geometric design. Springer
Science & Business Media.

117
3.3.4 Learning outcome No 3: Produce Solid Geometry
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Produce Solid Geometry
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Interpret drawings of patterns • Demonstrations and group

3.2 Develop patterns discussion
• Use the correct dimensions

[Link] Information Sheet No3/LO3: Produce Solid Geometry

Introduction
In this outcome, the areas covered are interpretation of sketches and drawings of patterns,
surface development of interpenetrating solids and truncated solids, and interpenetration
of solids.

Definition of key terms

Straight line: It is a line such that, if any portion of it is placed with its ends in the line,
the entire portion so placed will lie in the line, however it may be applied.

A plane surface (or plane): It is a surface of unlimited extent such that whatever two of
its points are taken, a straight-line joining them will lie wholly in the surface.

A plane figure: It is a geometric figure all of whose points lie in one plane. Plane Geometry
treats of plane figure.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
Solid geometry: interpretation of sketches and drawings, surface development of prisms,
cylinders, truncated prisms, cones and pyramids. Development of surfaces of
interpenetration cylinders and truncated solids, and interpenetration of cylinder to cylinder
and cylinder to prism or prism to prism of equal and unequal diameters.

118
Design elements
Solid geometry

Figure 37: Shapes, Cone and Pentagonal pyramid with flat tops
Source: [Link]

Figure 38: Cone and 4-sided pyramid

Source: [Link]

Figure 39: Cube and rectangular Box

Source: [Link]

Figure 40: Tetrahedron and Pyramid

Source: [Link]

119
Figure 41: Pyramid with flat top and octahedron
Source: [Link]

Figure 42: pentagonal Cone and Irregular polyhedron

Source: [Link]

Figure 43: Icosahedron and decahedron

Source: [Link]

Figure 44: Half Sphere

Source: [Link]

120
Use these shapes to draw your geometrical diagrams and illustrations
1. The sides of the quadrilateral are in the ratio of 2:3:4:5. The triangle BCE is half
the area of the quadrilateral.
a) Draw the given figures showing clearly how the points C, D and E are
obtained.
b) Draw a square which shall have the same area as the figure ABCDE.

Figure 45: Plan and elevation of a sphere

2. The figure below shows the plan and elevation of a sphere with a point P on its
surface. The elevation of a cone which is in contact with the sphere is also shown.
a) Draw the plan and elevation of both solids and show the position of the
point P in the plan.
b) Draw the plan and elevation of another sphere, having a diameter of 40mm,
which shall be in contact with the given sphere at point P.

Figure 46: Plan and elevation of another sphere

121
Conclusion
This outcome covered interpretation of sketches and drawings, surface development of
solids, and interpenetration of surfaces.

Further Reading

1. Davies, B. L., Robotham, A. J., & Yarwood, A. (1991). Computer-aided drawing and
design. London: Chapman & Hall.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. A cylinder is placed on H.P on its base and section plane is parallel to V.P cutting the
solid the section gives ______________
a) parabola
b) circle
c) rectangle
d) ellipse
2. A cylinder is placed on H.P on its base and section plane is parallel to H.P cutting the
solid the section gives ______________
a) Parabola
b) Circle
c) Rectangle
d) ellipse
3. A cylinder is placed on H.P on its base and section plane is inclined to V.P and
perpendicular to H.P cutting the solid the section gives ______________
a) Parabola
b) Circle
c) Rectangle
d) ellipse
4. If a plane is inclined with both the reference plane then the plane come under
____________
a) auxiliary plane
b) oblique plane
c) perpendicular plane
d) cross planes

122
5. If a plane is inclined to both the reference planes then the traces would meet at
_________ line except the plane perpendicular to picture plane.
a) XY reference
b) Vertical reference
c) Above the XY reference plane
d) Below the XY reference plane
6. Draw a radial element (0, 1) in one of the orthographic views. Find the points on the
line of interpenetration (i.e., p & q) and project them to the other views. Repeat with
more radial elements until you have enough points to draw the lines of interpenetration.

7. An isometric view of a shaped solid is shown the figure below.

a) Draw an elevation of the solid looking in the direction of the arrow.
b) Project a plan from the elevation.
c) Project a new elevation from the plan of the solid which will show the true
shape of the surface

123
Oral Assessment
What is solid geometry

Practical Assessment
Given pyramid is cut by plane, ⊥ to the frontal plane and inclined at 70o to the top plane.
The cutting plane cuts the axis of the pyramid at 15mm from the apex. Draw the projections
of the remaining part of the pyramid and the true shape of the cut section.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab
• Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

[Link] References

Aouad, G., Wu, S., Lee, A., & Onyenobi, T. (2013). Computer aided design guide for
architecture, engineering and construction. Routledge.
Bergen, S. D., Bolton, S. M., & Fridley, J. L. (2001). Design principles for ecological
engineering. Ecological Engineering, 18(2), 201-210.
Liu, S. X., Hu, S. M., Chen, Y. J., & Sun, J. G. (2001). Reconstruction of curved solids
from engineering drawings. Computer-Aided Design, 33(14), 1059-1072.

124
3.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Produce Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings of
Components
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Produce Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings of
Components
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

4.1 Identify and interpret the meaning of symbols and

abbreviations
4.2 Interpret and produce first and third angle orthographic
drawings
4.3 Dimension orthographic elevations
4.4 Interpret and produce isometric drawings
4.5 Produce
[Link] and interpret
Information Sheetassembly
No3/LO4:drawing
Produce Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings
of Components

Introduction
This outcome covers meaning of pictorial and orthographic drawings, sectioning, symbols
and abbreviations, drawing of isometric, oblique, axonometric, auxiliary and perspective
views, drawing of first and third angle projections, sectioning of components, and free hand
sketching of tools, equipment, components, geometric forms and diagrams.

Definition of key terms

Axonometric (Pictorial) Projections- These are drawings in which the object is drawn in
three dimensions (3-D) i.e. three sides of the object

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Solid geometry principles
All views presented in a solid geometry are assumed to be from the same object, and only
the particular object but from different points of view and that all views are at the same
scale. All the visible edge is depicted by a line and assumptions are made that those edge
progress away from the viewer to form faces that are flat but at right angles. The true angle
between a line and a plane is seen in a view showing the line as a true length and the plane
as an edge. All horizontal sections of an upright or inverted right cone are circles. A sphere
appears as a circle in every view.

125
A sphere and cone in contact will have a common tangent plane. When two spheres touch
one another: the point of contact lies on the line joining the two centers, the distance
between their centers is equal to the sum of the radii, and the point of contact can be located
in any view, by dividing the line in the ratio of the radii. The vertical trace of a plane is the
line in which the plane meets the vertical lane. The horizontal trace of a plane is the line in
which the plane meets the horizontal plane.

Axonometric (Pictorial) Projections

These are drawings in which the object is drawn in three dimensions (3-D), i.e. three sides
of the object appear in one drawing. Normally only one drawing is prepared/used.
• They are used extensively in artistic drawing.
• A three-dimensional view (i.e. shows length, width and height of the object
simultaneously).
• Provides only a general impression of the shape of the object by allowing the
observer to see three of its sides as well as its three overall dimensions.
• An exact and complete description of its shape, particularly as applied to its slots
on the underside is lacking.

Two standards are currently used for axonometric projections: diametric projection and
isometric
Projection.

Diametric Projection
In diametric projection, all dimensions along two axes are drawn to TRUE SIZE. The
dimensions along the third axis are HALVED. This projection is preferred when one view
of the object is to be emphasized than the other two views (i.e. when that one view is of
more interest than the other views).

Figure 47: Diametric Projection

126
Isometric Projection
In isometric projection, all dimensions along all the three axes are drawn to TRUE SIZE.
Isometric projection is preferred when the three views of the object are of equal importance
for accurate presentation of the object.

Figure 48: Isometric Projection

4.3 Orthographic Projections

To present an object in a unique way, generally more views (and sometimes sections) are
required. In orthographic projection, the views are seen in directions that make right angles
(i.e. 900) with each other. The number of views needed should be sufficient to represent
the object completely and conveniently, but it should be kept to the minimum. For most
purposes, three views are usually sufficient.
• Engineering (Technical) drawings usually utilize orthographic views (OV) rather
than pictorial views.
• Orthographic (OV) help to record the shapes of objects exactly and completely.
• OV is a two-dimensional (2-D) drawing. It shows only one side of an object and
two of its overall dimensions.
• A minimum of two OV is required to show the three dimensions of any object and
therefore to describe its shape completely Some features of the object that do not
directly appear on viewing the object from any specific direction (known as hidden
details) are shown on the drawing as dotted lines.

Naming of Views
In orthographic projection, three views are normally drawn. The three chosen views may
be any of the six hypothetical faces of the object. These views are named as shown below.

127
 Figure 49: Naming of views
The Front View (ABCD) – abbreviated as FV, is that view of utmost importance in
representing the object (normally the most complicated of all the views) as seen when the
object is placed directly in front of the viewer. This view generally serves to represent the
object (e.g. a work piece) in the most common position in which it is used. It is normally
the first view to be drawn – other views following thereafter. The Rear View – RV (EFGH)
is directly opposite the FV at the back of the object. The Right-Hand Side View – RHSV
(BFGC) and the Left-Hand Side View – LHSV (AEHD) appear on the right and left sides
of the object, respectively. The Top (ABFE) and Bottom (DCGH) Views are at the top and
bottom sides of the FV. As you must have noted, these six views are at right angles to one
another.

4.4 Standard Orthographic Projections

Two standards are commonly in use in orthographic projection of drawings; the First
Angle Projection and the Third Angle Projection (American projection). It should be noted
that corresponding views are identical in both methods of projection except for their
relative positions on the drawing paper.

The First Angle Projection

Symbol:

Figure 50: First Angle projection

In here, the front view (A) is the basis (reference) and the other views are drawn as
‘shadows’ of that view. That is, the left-hand side view for instance is drawn on the right
side of the front view. Similarly, the top view (plan) is drawn at the bottom of the front
view, etc.

128
The Third Angle Projection
Symbol

Figure 51: The Third Angle Projection

In here, the front view is the basis (just as before) but the other views are drawn as
‘reflections’ of that view. The left-hand side view is drawn on the left-hand side of the front
view. Similarly, the top view (plan) is drawn at the top of the front view.
Example: The Front View (FV), Left Hand Side View (LHSV) and Top View (PLAN) of
the given object

SOLUTION I
First Angle Projection

SOLUTION II

129
Third Angle Projection

Assembly Drawings
As the name indicates, assembly drawings are nothing more but a collection of detail
drawings (each of which forms part of that assembly) put together in a logical way. The
drawing serves someone who is to assemble the individual parts so as to get a single unit
in its working condition.
Notes
• Only the external extreme dimensions of the assembly are indicated.
• Each component is identified by its part reference number. This number is used in
the parts list.
• (Where details of that part are indicated e.g. the drawing number for its detail
drawing).
• Sectional views are in most cases preferred as they show in a detailed form how the
parts interact in an assembly.
• Only one view is normally drawn, unless where the unit is so complex such that the
interaction of all parts cannot be clearly presented in one view.

Figure 52: Assembly drawing

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If the unit has one or more moving parts, the extreme positions of the moving part are
indicated in dotted lines (and the dimensions). This allows for consideration on space
limitation during installation

Figure 53: Assembly drawing without detail Specifications

Detail specifications of the individual parts are never shown on an assembly drawing (as
they already appear on the respective detail drawing of the respective part)

Exercise to summarize
1. Draw an assembly of two stainless steel plates (SS 306) held together by a bolt and
a nut (SS 318).

Figure 54: Stainless steel plates

NOTE: Materials SS 306 and SS 318 are different

131
 2. Draw the orthographic projections of the following points.
a) Point P is 30 mm above HP and 40 mm in front of VP
b) Point Q is 25 mm above HP and 35 mm behind VP
c) Point R is 32 mm below HP and 45 mm behind VP
d) Point Sis 35 mm below HP and 42 mm in front of VP
e) Point T is in HP and 30 mm. is behind VP
f) Point U is in VP and 40 mm below HP
g) Point V is in VP and 35 mm above HP
h) Point W is in HP and 48 mm in front of VP

Projection of Lines
The shortest distance between two points is called a straight line. The projectors of a
straight line are drawn therefore by joining the projections of its end points. The possible
projections of straight lines with respect to V.P and H.P in the first quadrant are as follows:
i. Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other.
ii. Parallel to both the planes.
iii. Parallel to one plane and inclined to the other.
iv. Inclined to both the planes.

Conclusion
This outcome covered orthographic views, pictorial drawing, oblique drawings, sectioning,
axonometric, auxiliary first, and third angle projections, and free hand sketching.

Further Reading

1. Geometric and Engineering drawing Third Edition K Morling.

2. Engineering Drawing with CAD Applications by O. OSTROWSKY

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Orthographic projection is drawn using two methods which is ___________
a) Second angle and third angle method
b) First angle and third angle method

132
 c) First angle and fourth angle method
d) Second angle and fourth angle method

2. The method in which the object is placed in the first quadrant is known as ____ method.
a) Third angle
b) Second angle
c) First angle
d) Fourth angle
3. In first angle method the top view is drawn _______ of the front view.
a) Above
b) Right Side
c) Left side
d) Bottom
4. The method in which the object is placed in the third quadrant is known as __________
method.
a) Third angle
b) Second angle
c) First angle
d) Fourth angle
5. In third angle method the top view is drawn _______ of the front view.
a) Above
b) Right Side
c) Left Side
d) Bottom
6. Question that fall is for the diagram drawn below:

133
7. Taking ‘A’ as the FRONT VIEW. Which view will letter ‘D’ represent?

a)

b)

c)

d)

Oral assessment
What is the difference between orthographic projection and isometric drawing?

Practical Assessment
Draw the orthographic of vehicle engine

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab
• Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

134
[Link] References

Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and engineering drawing. Routledge.

Shrock, C. R. (2004). Exercise workbook for beginning AutoCAD 2005. Industrial Press
Inc.
Yamaguchi, F. (2012). Curves and surfaces in computer aided geometric design. Springer
Science & Business Media.

135
3.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply CAD Packages in Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Apply CAD Packages in Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Select CAD packages • Provide all the

5.2 Apply CAD packages in production of electrical information of the object
drawings to be drawn i.e.
dimensions
[Link] Information Sheet No3/LO6: Apply CAD Packages in Drawings

Introduction
This outcome covers use of CAD applications to draw pictorial and orthographic drawings
and sectioning, symbols and abbreviations, 2D and 3D drafting technique and apply CAD
packages in production of electrical drawings.

Definition of key terms

CAD (Computer Aided Design): It is the use of computer software to design and
document a product’s design process.

Engineering drawing: The use of graphical symbols such as points, lines, curves, planes
and shapes.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
CAD (Computer Aided Design) is the use of computer software to design and document a
product’s design process. To many engineering problems, a solution requires a
combination of organization, analysis, problem solving principles and a graphical
representation of the problem. Objects in engineering are represented by a technical
drawing/drafting that represents designs and specifications of the physical object and data
relationships. Since a technical drawing is precise and communicates all information of the
object clearly by use of Computer Aided Design. CAD is used to design, develop and
optimize products. CAD is used in the design of tools and equipment required in the
manufacturing process as well as in the construction domain.

136
How CAD software system works

Figure 55: Working of a CAD system

CAD software enables

• Efficiency in the quality of design
• Increase in the Engineer’s productivity
• Improve record keeping through better documentation and communication

Types of CAD Software

• 2D CAD
• 3D CAD
• 3D Wireframe and Surface Modelling
• Solid Modelling

Figure 56: Types of CAD software

137
2-Dimensional CAD (2D CAD)
2D CAD is the pioneer of CAD software, developed in the early 70s. It relies on basic
geometric shapes like lines, rectangles, circles, etc. to produce flat drawings. Autodesk is
one of the pioneering companies that has played a significant role in developing CAD
software.

3-Dimensional CAD (3D CAD)

It is a step up from the 2D CAD software. It allows creation of 3D images that are realistic.
These images are called 3D models as they can be viewed and rotated in any direction –
X, Y or Z.

Classification of CAD software in terms of their operating parameters

a) Single-file-mode systems: This type of CAD software that allows only a single
user to work on a single file at a time.
b) Referenced file-mode systems: This type of software, users work on their own
files with the files of other users attached as a background. This enables users to
leverage other users' work as background data.
c) Collabourative-mode systems: These CAD systems take the referenced-mode
system to the next level. They allow a team of users to collabouratively work with
each other's data and see the changes other users make to the data as they go. The
giants in this field e.g. AutoCAD is used in different modes of an operation.
d) Wire-frame models: They create skeleton like models with lines and arcs. Since
they appear to be made of wires, and everything in the background is visible, they
are called wire-frame models.
e) Surface models: These models are created by joining 3D surfaces. The surface
models are quite realistic.
f) Solid models: They are the most useful CAD models. They also have additional
properties like weight, volume and density, just like actual physical objects. These
models are commonly used as prototypes to study engineering designs.
g) Nano CAD: It is a professional grade CAD tool that is used by thousands of
engineers and designers around the world. Nano CAD plus comes with some
additional features. Both of the versions are available at a low-cost annual
subscription including timely updates and priority online support.

138
Figure 57: Nano CAD
Source: [Link]

Features
• Nano CAD and Nano CAD versions are designed For Microsoft Windows (Vista
7, 8, and 10).
• Nano CAD software provides great user experience as it is a multipurpose free
drafting software.
• The classic-style CAD user interface offers a command set and UI elements that
are familiar and comfortable to users of many other compatible applications of
CAD.
• Nano CAD software natively uses the industry-standard DWG (*.dwg) file format.
• It has a powerful Excel-style table editor having an extensive set of capabilities.
• ActiveX Automation and LISP to automate everyday routine tasks.
• C++/C# API and several other types of API to build CAD applications.

User interface and various tool bars and commands

CAD has a very versatile user interface that allows you to control the program in several
different ways. At the top of the window is a row of menus. Clicking on the Home, Insert,
or Annotate causes another selection of menus to appear. This new selection of commands
is frequently called a Ribbon or a Dashboard. You can operate the program by clicking on
the icons in these menus.

139
Figure 58: 2D user interface
Source: [Link]

Application of CAD in engineering (2D and 3D)

Set the CAD parameters as per the drawing’s requirements.

Figure 59: Setting CAD parameters

Source: [Link]

140
Apply different commands to produce engineering drawings.

Figure 60: 2D CAD illustration

Source: [Link]

Figure 61: 3D CAD illustration

Source: [Link]

Electrical drawings
Electrical drawings are technical documents that depict and notate designs for electrical
systems. Workers use these documents to install systems on-site. Every type of component
and connection has its own specialized symbol and every detail matter in electrical
drawings.

141
Figure 62: Electrical drawing
Source: [Link]

CAD enables these engineers to create electrical and electronic diagrams, control circuit
diagrams, schematics and documentation. CAD certainly improves the productivity of
electrical engineers as they are able to build default circuits and reuse them later. CAD
comes with libraries of parts and symbols which allow electrical engineers to automate
design tasks and generate bills of materials (BOM) reports. It’s possible to create electrical
schematic designs based on wire material type, temperature and maximum voltage drop.

Figure 63: Electrical engineer design

Source: [Link]

142
How to read electrical drawings
Symbols used to notate components in an electrical drawing
Lights
Use AutoCAD tools to diagram lighting sources

Figure 64: Lights symbol

Source: [Link]

Switches
From single-pole to multiple-pole, AutoCAD can help you diagram electrical circuits.

Figure 65: Switch symbol

Source: [Link]

Fuses
Fuses limit the flow of current to prevent damage to other components. With AutoCAD,
fuses are easier to design and diagram.

Figure 66: Fuse symbol

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Ground
Electrical circuits must connect to the ground to maintain safety. the correct ways to
diagram electrical grounds with AutoCAD

Figure 67: Ground symbol

Source: [Link]

WIRES
Wires connect components, and AutoCAD gives you the design power to specify what you
need.

Figure 68: Wires symbol

Source: [Link]

144
Resistors
AutoCAD gives you the design tools to diagram resistors, which reduce current flow, adjust
signal levels, divide voltages, and more.

Figure 69: Resistor symbols

Source: [Link]

Capacitors
Capacitors store potential energy; they're polarized or non-polarized. The AutoCAD
Electrical toolset enables you to diagram capacitors correctly.

Figure 70: Capacitor

Source: [Link]

Power sources
AutoCAD makes the planning and design from DC to AC currents and batteries process
easy.

Figure 71: Power sources symbols

Source: [Link]

145
Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical engineers are concerned with the improvement and modification of mechanical
components and systems. They research, design, develop and test mechanical devices.
They also research designs and make recommendations based on industry standards and
regulations. CAD comes in handy as engineers can design components and assemblies to
fit their strict technical specifications. Some CAD programs can also automatically
generate a bill of materials (BOM) for a particular design, based on a library of
components. Mechanical engineers also make use of simulation to test everything from
stress to measuring vibrations in order get the perfect output without having to create and
modify real-world prototypes.

Figure 72: CAD mechanical design

Source: [Link]

Advantages of CAD
• Designs can be altered without erasing and redrawing.
• It offers "zoom" features analogous to a camera lens, whereby a designer can
magnify certain elements of a model to facilitate inspection.
• Computer models are three dimensional and can be rotated on any axis, much as
one could rotate an actual three-dimensional model in one's hand, enabling the
designer to gain a fuller sense of the object.
• Lend themselves to modelling cutaway drawings, in which the internal shape of a
part is revealed, and to illustrating the spatial relationships among a system of
parts.

146
Disadvantages of CAD
• Have no means of comprehending real-world concepts, such as the nature of the
object being designed or the function that object will serve.
• Function by their capacity to codify geometrical concepts thus the design process
using CAD involves transferring a designer's idea into a formal geometrical model.

Benefits of CAD to the Engineering Industry

• More precision and control
• Faster design execution
• Cost efficiency
• Better documentation and collabouration

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered types of CAD and 2D and 3D drafting technique.

Further Reading

1. [Link]

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The computer-aided design (CAD) hardware doesn’t include ___________
a) Graphic display terminals
b) Computer
c) Computer programs
d) Keyboard
2. How many types of CAD are there?
a) 6
b) 4
c) 2
d) 5
3. Modem CAD systems are based on ____________
a) ICG
b) GCI
c) GIF
d) IFG

147
4. The computer communicates with the user via ___________
a) CPU
b) CRT
c) Graphics
d) Display button
5. The process of designing consists of __________ identifiable steps.
a) 8
b) 5
c) 4
d) 6
6. The functionality areas of CAD application can be grouped into __________
categories.
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
7. The colour on CRT screen is obtained by the combination of ____________
a) Red, yellow, blue
b) Red, green, blue
c) Green, black, yellow
d) Red, black, yellow
8. The input devices in CAD can be divided into _____________
a) 2
b) 5
c) 3
d) 4
9. An orthographic projection map is a map projection of __________
a) Sphere
b) Earth
c) Cartography
d) Top view

Oral Assessment
1. What are the benefits of CAD?
2. What are the uses of CAD in mechanical engineering?

148
Practical Assessment
1. Use CAD application to draw the following views of the figure below in first angle
projection.
a) Front elevation looking from the direction arrow A
b) End elevation looking from the direction arrow B

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing room
• Computer lab
• Drawing equipment and materials
• Computers
• CAD package
• Overhead projector

149
[Link] References

Hubka, V. (2015). Principles of engineering design. Elsevier.

Morling, K. (2012). Geometric and Engineering Drawing. Routledge, amazon

150
 CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
This Unit describes the competencies required to Perform Structural Design and Analysis.
It involves analysing structural designs, designing structural elements, preparing structural
drawings interpreting structural drawings and applying structural drawings

4.2 Performance Standard

Analyse structural elements, design structural elements, prepare structural drawings,
interpret structural drawings and apply structural drawings according to building codes,
structure, drawing and support requirements, and structural design requirements.

4.3 Learning Outcomes

4.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Analyse structural elements
b) Design structural elements
c) Prepare structural drawings
d) Interpret structural drawings
e) Apply and use structural drawings

151
 4.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Analyze Structural Elements
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Analyse Structural Elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Determine methods used in analyses of structural • Demonstration by trainer

members • Practical work by trainee
1.2 Work loadings • Demonstration videos
1.3 Sketch structural members • Projects
1.4 Determine maximum moments in each section • Group discussions
1.5 Draw shear force and bending moments diagram

[Link] Information Sheet No4/L01: Analyse Structural Elements

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Analyses of structural elements, Preparation of sketches,
Determination of maximum moments and Structural designs.

Definition
Building codes: These are laid down standards for any building structure.

Bending moments: These are structural reactions when a structure is subjected to moment
or applied load.

Shear force: This is the reaction imposed by a structure when loads are imposed.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Determine Methods used in analyses of structural members according to building
codes
Several methods are used in the analysis of structural members. A structural system is made
up of different members and each member is analysed differently. The methods of analysis
used in beams include:
a. Energy methods
Two methods are commonly used i.e.
• Methods of virtual work
• Castigliano’s theorem

152
 b. Displacement methods of analysis
• Slope deflection methods
• Moment distribution methods
c. Approximate methods of analysis.
• This method is used in the analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
d. Double integration method
• In this method, sign convention and boundary conditions are well defined. It
is mostly used in determining deflections.
e. Elastic beam theory
• The method relates to slope, displacement as well as the internal moments of
a beam. Its development is fully dependent on this.
f. Moment area methods
• This method is mainly used when checking for deflection. It involves
determining slope and deflection of an elastic curve.
g. Conjugate- beam method
• This method relies mainly on statics for determining deflection in beams.
h. Stiffness method of analysis

1.2 Work loadings on according to the structure

These are loadings that are subjected to a structure. Different structures are subjected to
different loadings depending on the location, height as well as purpose of use.
a. Dead loads
• These are loads that are permanent in a structure. They include the self-weight
of the structure, finishes, masonry etc.
• During analysis, these loads are taken into considerations to ascertain the
safety of the structure.
b. Live loads
• These are loads that are temporary. They include people, furniture, etc.
• There are other types of live loads such as impact loads (loads imposed by
moving cars), highway bridge loads (caused by traffic), wind loads and snow
loads.

153
1.3 Sketch structural members as per the drawings and support requirements

i. Column ii. Frame iii. Beam

iv. Truss
Figure 73: Sketch structural members

1.4 Determine maximum moments in each section in accordance with appropriate

methods
Maximum moments in different sections of a structural member is determined using
mathematical equations.
It is also necessary to note that maximum moment occurs at zero- shear force.
The line of influence method of determining maximum moment is often used for
statically determinate structures.
The method assumes that summation of shear force area under the influence line is
the moment at any given section in the structure.

That is, Mmax= Summation of area under shear

✓ For statically indeterminate structures, the force method is used in which,
𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ----- fixed support beams
8

𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ------ Simply supported beams
8

154
1.5 Draw shear force and bending moments diagram according to structural design
requirements
Drawing shear force and bending diagrams is very essential since it creates an image of
how a structure will fail.
Before doing so, one is required to follow certain procedures as discussed below:
Shear force diagram
a. Determine Shear, V at distance x. Distance x is always the distance from
one load application to another.
b. Plot a graph of V against x
Bending moment diagram
a. Determine moment, M by find the area under shear in the SFD.
b. Plot a graph of moment M, against distance x.
The diagram attached below is an example of how to draw a bending moment diagram
(BMD) as well as the shear force diagram (SFD)

Figure 74: bending moment

Source: Structural mechanics, 2008

155
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered Analyses of structural elements, Preparation of sketches,
Determination of maximum moments and Structural designs.

Further Reading

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1 Which one of the following is a type of load?
a) Furniture load
b) Rail truck load
c) Live load
d) Steel load
2 Which of the following is a method is used to analyze statically indeterminate
structure?
a) Influence line analysis method
b) Superposition
c) Energy methods
d) Finite element method.
3 The following methods are used in the analysis of trussed which one is not?
a) Method of joints
b) Method of sections
c) Virial work methods
d) Influence line methods
4 Which of the following is not a displacement method of analysis?
a) Castigliano’s theory
b) Slope deflection equations
c) Moment distribution method
5 Which of the following is not a structural member?
a) Beams
b) Walls
c) Columns
d) Frames
6 Define what is a structure

156
7 Explain the importance of structural analysis
8 Differentiate between Structural design and structural analysis
9 What is the difference between influence line and shear force and bending moment
diagram?
10 Differentiate
1. Column
2. Beam
3. Frame
4. Truss
11 Discuss Displacement methods in details
12 For each of the methods outlined, discuss their shortcomings.

Oral Assessment
1. What is analysis?
2. Why do we need to analyze structures?

Project Assessment
1. Analyze a one-story building.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British Standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

[Link] References

Bhavikatti, S. (2010). Structural analysis. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.

Hibbeler, R. (2012). Structural analysis. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Kaveh, A. (2004). Structural mechanics. Baldock, England: Research Studies Press.
Stanford, J. (2012). Structural Analysis Made Easy.

157
4.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design structural elements
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Design structural elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Gather Design recourses • Demonstration by trainer

2.2 Identify types of structural elements • Practical work by trainee
2.3 Identify different methods of designs • Demonstration videos
2.4 Identify different types of standard design codes • Projects
2.5 Determine maximum moments used in design • Group discussions
2.6 Identify and gather design tools and equipment
2.7 Design structural elements

[Link] Information Sheet No4/L02 Design structural elements

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Structural designs, Methods of designs, Design codes,
Design tools and equipment, Structural elements designs and Schedules for different
elements.

Definition of key terms

Structural elements: Structural elements have to do with the part of the building that is
concerned with preserving the physical integrity (ensuring the structure satisfies the
ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state requirements) and continues to exist in
the world as a physical object.

Structural designs: This refers to the process of undertaking a structural analysis and
selecting materials, member types, configuration and size to safely carry and transfer the
intended loads both in a serviceability and ultimate limit state.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Gather Design recourses according to standard design requirements
In design, it is said that there is no one way of solving a design problem. Focusing on just
one solution instead of considering other alternatives is almost certain that you are
overlooking other attractive solutions. Generating design options is a phase in project
planning known as conceptual design and it includes producing ideas and taking into
account the advantage and limitations of implementing those ideas.

158
This is done to manage costs, minimize the likelihood of errors, evaluate success and assess
risks of undertaking the intended project. Some of the design recourses undertaken in
project include:
i) Changing the materials.
ii) Changing the member types.
iii) Changing the member configuration and arrangement.
iv) Changing the member sizes.

2.2 Identify types of structural elements as per building codes

Structural elements have to do with the part of the building that is concerned with
preserving the physical integrity (ensuring the structure satisfies the ultimate limit state and
the serviceability limit state requirements) and continues to exist in the world as a physical
object. The following are some of the structural elements:
i) Foundations: The foundation is part of an engineered system that transmits to
the underlying soil or rock the loads supported by the foundation itself and its
self-weight in such a way that the soil is not overstressed or excessive settlement
occurs.
ii) Columns: These are vertical members that majorly resist axial compressive
loads.
iii) Beams: These are horizontal members that primarily carry vertical loads and
resist failure in bending.
iv) Walls: A wall is a structure that demarcates the different spaces in a building
as well as the external boundary. Some walls are load bearing and carry the
structural loads of the building.
v) Ties: This is a slender structural element that carries the loads in tension.
vi) Struts: This a structural member that carries the loads in compression only.
vii) Trusses: This a structure that is composed of a series of struts and is used to
carry loads in compression.
viii) Frames: This type of structure is composed of beams and columns that are
either pin or fixed connected.
ix) Slabs: This are horizontal structures built to provide a flat surface in buildings.

2.3 Identify different methods of designs as per the design manuals

The following are the design methods according to BS 5950:
i) Simple design method: The connections between members are assumed not to
develop moments adversely affecting either the members or structure as a
whole. So, the structure is assumed to be pinly-jointed for analysis.
ii) Semi-rigid design method: Are capable of transmitting some moments. Here
the joints are capable of transmitting partial moment.

159
 iii) Rigid design method: Connections are assumed to be capable of transmitting
100% moment required by analysis assuming full continuity.
iv) Experimental verification: The code states that where design of a structure or
elements by calculation in accordance with any of the above methods is not
practical, the strength will be confirmed by loading tests.

2.4 Identify different types of standard design codes according to construction

materials
The following are some of the design codes currently in use in Kenya:
i) Design of reinforced concrete structures- BS 8110
ii) Design of steel framed buildings- BS 5950
iii) Design of timber structures- BS 5628
iv) Design code on the occupancy load requirements of a building- BS 6399 Part
1.

2.5 Determine maximum moments used in design according to standard

specification manuals
The maximum bending moment occurs in beam where the shear force is zero. Below is a
table showing how to calculate bending moment for various types of beams:

160
Table 4: How to calculate bending moment for various types of beams

Source: [Link]

2.6 Identify and gather design tools and equipment according to standard design
manuals
Check the tools, equipment, supplies and materials section.

2.7 Design structural elements as per the design codes

The following is the procedure followed in the design of a beam according to BS 5950:
i) Determine the loading condition of the beam.
ii) Calculate the design load of the beam.
iii) Perform structural analysis to determine the design moment and the design
shear.
iv) Perform a strength classification and section classification.
v) Choose a section based on its moment capacity equation.
vi) Perform a moment capacity check.
vii) Perform a shear capacity check.
viii) Evaluate whether it’s a low or high shear load.
ix) Perform a deflection limits check.
x) Perform a web bearing check.

161
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered structural designs, methods of designs, design codes, design
tools and equipment, structural elements designs and schedules for different elements.

Further Reading

1. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of reinforced concrete structures-BS 8810.

BSI.
2. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of steel structures-BS 5950. BSI.
3. British standards Institute. (2002). Design of timber structures-BS 5628. BSI.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a type of foundation?
a) Mat
b) Isolated footing
c) Retaining wall
d) Combined footing
2. Which of the following is not a check done during the design of reinforced concrete
beam?
a) Shear capacity check.
b) Moment capacity check.
c) Web buckling check.
d) Deflection check
3. Which of the following is not a phase during design of structures?
a) Technical design
b) Developed design
c) Conceptual design
d) Handover
4. Which of the following is not a structural element?
a) Ties
b) None
c) Trusses
d) Joists
5. Design a reinforced concrete beam of your choosing according to the design code BS
8110.

162
6. Describe the various type of foundations and when should be used.
7. Describe the design principles that should guide an engineer during the design process.
8. Describe the main design theories.
9. Write an essay describing the how an engineer with poor communication skills can
lead to poor quality construction.

Project Assessment
1. Using a BIM software application of your choice obtain architectural drawings from
the internet and develop a corresponding structural model.

Oral Assessment
1. Describe how you as a student pursuing a diploma of civil engineering can develop
shop drawings for fabrication of steel members when requested by the professional
engineer.
2. What skills have you gained as a result of performing the project assessment described
above.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals

[Link] References

Abdy Kermani (2008) Structural timber design. Blackwell science, London.

N. Subramanian (2010). Steel structures design and practice. Oxford university press, New
Delhi.
W.H Mosley, R. Hulse, J.H Bungey (2012). Reinforced Concrete Design. Red Globe Press,
New York.

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4.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Prepare Structural Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Prepare structural drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify and gather drawing resources • Demonstration by trainer

3.2 Determine methods of drawing for structural • Practical work by trainee
members • Demonstration videos
3.3 Prepare standard working structural drawings for • Projects
various elements • Group discussions
3.4 Prepare materials schedules

[Link] Information Sheet No4/ L03 Prepare structural drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Drawing tools and equipment, Methods of drawing, Standard
structural drawings and Preparation of material schedules.

Definition of key terms

Drawing resources: This refers to the various resources required in order to produce the
complete set of structural drawings.

Structural members: Structural members have to do with the part of the building that is
concerned with preserving the physical integrity.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Identify and gather drawing resources according to structural elements designed
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals

164
3.2 Determine methods of drawing for structural members as per the designs
Structural drawings confine themselves to the load-carrying members of a structure.
The following outlines the methods for drawing structural members:
i) Structural plan. These drawings show the floor, foundation and roof plan of a
building and provide information like location and size of different elements
present in the plans.
ii) Elevations. These shows the exterior walls of a building or structure and the
structural properties of elements present in the walls and cannot be seen in plan
drawings.
iii) Sections. These are referenced in the plan drawings and provide more
information about elements that may not be seen in plan drawings.
iv) Detail drawings. These provides particular information on how to connect or
construct the structural elements.

3.3 Prepare standard working structural drawings for various elements as per
designs
Structural drawings have to be produced as the design process evolves since the drawings
are required in construction of the structure. Production of structural drawings takes place
as follows:
i) The schematic architectural drawings are obtained from the architect.
(Conceptual design phase)
ii) The engineer determines the loadings applied to the structure based on the
drawings and performs design to size the members according to the forces
applied to the building. (Developed design phase)
iii) As the design process evolves the engineer produces more detailed drawings,
bar bending schedules, notes, specifications, details and at the end of this stage
we have construction ready documents. (Technical design phase)
iv) The drawings are included in a tender pack to be tendered together with
drawings from other disciplines during the bidding and tendering process.

3.4 Prepare materials schedules as per design codes

A material schedule is a detailed list of construction materials required to complete
construction of the intended project.
i) Decide what is required. This requires that you thoroughly interrogate the
drawings and specifications to determine the required materials.
ii) Decide whether to prefabricate the materials or construct on-site. This involves
deciding whether to purchase materials for construction on-site or purchase
prefabricated components.

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered drawing tools and equipment, methods of drawing, standard
structural drawings and preparation of material schedules.

Further Reading

1. [Link] Raju (1992) Structural design and drawing: Reinforced concrete and steel.
Universities Press.
2. Leonard Koel. (1999) Construction print reading. Delmar Cengage Learning.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a method of drawing structural members?
a) Specifications
b) Structural plans
c) Elevations
d) Details
2. Which of the following is not among the drawing resources required to produce
structural plans?
a) Computers
b) Computer software
c) Standard design manuals
d) Office equipment
3. Which of the following is not a phase during design of structures?
a) Technical design
b) Developed design
c) Conceptual design
d) Handover
4. State the various computer software required in the production of structural drawings.
5. Explain the procedure of developing shop drawings.
6. Describe what is detailing of structural drawings.
7. Write an essay describing Building Information Modelling (BIM) and its impact on the
production of structural drawings.

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Project Assessment
Obtain a set of structural drawings for a project from the internet and interpret them to draw
up a material schedule.

Oral Assessment
1. Explain the skills required to competently interpret structural drawings.
2. Explain the steps followed in interpreting structural drawings.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals

[Link] References

R.K Dhawan (2012). A textbook of engineering drawing. [Link] 3rd rev.

Leonard Koel. (2000) Construction print reading. Delmar Cengage Learning.

167
4.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Interpret structural drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Interpret structural drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Identify project • Demonstration by trainer

4.2 Identify and obtain structural drawings • Practical work by trainee
4.3 Obtain and prepare steel schedules and • Demonstration videos
materials schedules • Projects
• Group discussions

[Link] Information Sheet No4/ L04 Interpret structural drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Identification of project, Structural drawings, Steel and
material schedules preparation and Standard construction procedures

Definition of key terms

Steel schedules: This is a list that explains the location, mark, type, size, length and number
of each steel bar in a reinforcement drawing of a structure.

Structural drawings: These are plans illustrating in detail how a structure or building
should be constructed. Engineers come up with structural drawings from performing
checks using the loads that the structure is to carry, co-currently with standard codes.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Identify project according to the contract document
Project Identification is one of the major stages of a project cycle
Steps taken in identifying a project:
• Preliminary stakeholder analysis
• Analyzing the problem
• Setting of Objectives
• Analyzing alternatives
• Analyzing accountability
• Logical framework thinking
• Analyzing assumptions and associated risks
• Definition of Progress indicator
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4.2 Identify and obtain structural drawings as per design manuals
Structural drawings
These are plans illustrating in detail how a structure or building should be constructed.
Engineers come up with structural drawings from performing checks using the loads that
the structure is to carry, co-currently with standard codes.

Structural drawings should basically include the following information;

• Setting out dimensions
• Notes describing the specifications
• Sections, plans and elevations
• Compass direction – North point

Reinforcement Drawing
These are drawings describing the location, number, size, type of reinforcement and
illustrate the direction in which the reinforcement is to be laid.

Standard Details
This is a description of certain standard details that keep recurring in several structural
drawings and are kept for use whenever necessary.
Standard details include;
• Notes
• Expansion joints details
• Concrete box culverts
• Pile caps and column bases

Record Drawings
This is a drawing that has been revised to cater for unforeseen challenges. A revision letter
is normally included in the revised drawing to indicate that it is a revision.

4.3 Obtain and prepare steel schedules and materials schedules according to
construction procedures
Factors to be considered when preparing a Steel Schedule
• Location of reinforcement
• Mark of reinforcement
• Type of reinforcement
• Size of reinforcement – diameter of steel
• Length of reinforcement
Factors to be considered when preparing a Materials Schedule
• Type of material
• Amount of material

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of project, structural drawings, steel and
material schedules preparation and standard construction procedures.

Further Reading

Read further on the Project cycle

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Structural drawings should basically include the following information. Which one is
not among them?
a) Setting out dimensions
b) Notes describing the specifications
c) Sections, plans and elevations
d) Amount of material
2. While developing a steel schedule, the site engineer left out one crucial detail
necessary. Which one of the following is it?
a) Color of reinforcement
b) Location of reinforcement
c) Dimensions of structure
d) Height of the structure
3. Define the term Structural drawings
4. State three types of construction drawings
5. Discuss in detail the steps taken in project identification

Oral Assessment
Why is it necessary to master the art of interpreting structural drawings?

Practical Assessment
Get construction drawings of a given structure and point out the different structural element
present and come up with a steel schedule for the reinforcement

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[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

[Link] References

McCormac. (2007). Structural Steel Design. Prentice Hall, 4th edition. ISBN:013221816X
Segui (2006). Steel Design. Cengage-Engineering, 4th edition. ISBN: 0495244716

171
4.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Apply and use Structural Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Apply and use Structural Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Identify and obtain construction resources • Demonstration by trainer

5.2 Gather statutory documents • Practical work by trainee
5.3 Determine setting out activities • Demonstration videos
5.4 Establish foundation • Projects
5.5 Prepare structural members • Group discussions
5.6 Develop and adhere to working drawing, steel
schedules and materials schedules

[Link] Information Sheet No5/ L05 Apply and use structural drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Interpretation of drawings, Statutory requirements,
Foundation engineering, Preparation of structural elements and Development of working
drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules

Definition of key terms

Statutory documents: This refers to documents with instructions or requirements which
are applicable by virtue of law enacted by the government.

Steel schedules: This is a list that explains the location, mark, type, size, length and number
of each steel bar in a Reinforcement Drawing of a Structure.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Identify and obtain construction resources as per the tender documents
Construction resources – this is basically the materials and personnel necessary for the
construction process from start to finish.

Construction resources include;

a) Time – Time as a resource in construction is very sensitive since most construction
projects are working under a certain time frame requested by the client. The fact
that some construction works such as concrete works which require curing time
makes the resource of time quite valuable.

172
 b) Materials – Construction materials are a great resource since they sum up the
ingredients necessary to have a finished structural work. These include but are not
limited to building blocks, cement, sand, water, ballast etc.
c) Labour – this includes human personnel, from the manual worker to the
construction experts such as engineers.
d) Plant and Machinery – These are necessary in order to have some finished
products such as concrete which requires a concrete mixer.
e) Health and safety equipment – This is whereby we have guard rails at the edge
of high-rise buildings under construction, the use of bright coloured tape
surrounding shafts, presence of fire extinguishers on site and health and safety
training for all personnel.
f) Technology – technology such as a crane which is necessary for lifting heavy
construction materials such as steel, scaffolding, shuttering, buckets of concrete etc.
g) Works Requirement – This comprises of the working drawings and specifications
required for the construction project.
h) Construction site – This is the very place where the proposed structure is to be
constructed.

5.2 Gather statutory documents as per the project requirements

Statutory documents
This refers to documents with instructions or requirements which are applicable by virtue
of law enacted by the government. Almost every proposed development project has
statutory obligations that do not arise out of the contract, but are imposed by law. These
obligations are applicable to the design, construction and operation of buildings and will
depend on the specific nature of the proposed development.

Statutory documents are required for the following areas when drafting construction
contracts:
Labour
• The Employment Act 2007
• The Labour Institutions Act
• The Labour Relations Act

Tax
• The Income Tax Act
All workers in any construction project must be subject to the payment of income tax

Health and Safety

• Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007 (OSHA)
• Work Injury Benefit Act, 2007

173
Environment and Pollution
• Environmental Management and Coordination Act

Noise
• Legal Notice No.61 (NEMA)

Traffic
• The Road Traffic Act

Building
• Building Regulations

Planning
• The Urban Planning Act

Public Procurement
• The Social Value Act

Products and Services

• The Supply of Goods and Services Act

5.3 Determine setting out activities according to the approved drawings and standard
construction processes
Setting Out – the act of establishing the location points of site boundaries, columns,
foundations, center-lines of walls and any other necessary structural part.

Types of Setting Out

• 3-4-5 method
Used especially in setting out right angles from certain points on the base line.
• Rope method
The rope method is used in setting out a perpendicular line in reference to the base
line, beginning from a point which is not on the base line.
• Single and Double Prismatic Square
This is used in setting out both right angles and perpendicular lines.
The methods of setting out listed above are used in conjunction with the total station,
prisms, etc.

174
Steps undertaken in Setting out a building
• Clearing the site
• Obtain the working drawing of the proposed building
• Ensure that the materials for construction are ready
• A parallel line is then established
• The 3-4-5 setting out method is then used for setting out
• Profiles are then established
• The points of excavation on the profiled are nailed
• The points of the column on the profile are then nailed.

5.4 Establish foundation as per the working drawings and standard construction
procedures
Factors to be considered when establishing the foundation
• Excavation depth and volume
• Soil bearing capacity
• Base area of foundation
• Proximity to property lines

5.5 Prepare structural members in accordance with the working drawings

Structural Members
These are simple structural elements that when viewed or put together, make up the
structural body in a drawing

Structural members include;

• Columns – these are vertical elements that carry loads from slabs and beams.
• Beams – these are horizontal elements that carry loads from slabs and
sometimes walls
• Slab – these is a horizontal element that covers a described portion in the x-
plane and carries both fixed and static loads depending on the use of the
structure
• Stairs – are structural elements that are in the z-plane. They can be diagonal or
vertical in the y-plane and are horizontal in the x-plane.
• Walls – These are vertical elements constructed using masonry and can carry
loads.
• Foundations – this is a substructure element that transfers the loads of the
superstructure to ground

175
5.6 Develop and adhere to working drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules
according to standard construction processes
Factors to be considered in developing Working Drawing
• Internal forces – Moment and Shear (ULS – Ultimate limit state)
• Safety Checks on deflection, cracking, corrosion and fire resistance
• Loads – dead loads and imposed loads
• Partial Safety factors – On dead loads a partial safety of 40% (1.4Gk) and a partial
safety factor of 60% on imposed loads (1.6Qk)
• Moment distribution

Factors to be considered when developing a Steel Schedule

• Location of reinforcement
• Mark of reinforcement
• Type of reinforcement
• Size of reinforcement – diameter of steel
• Length of reinforcement

Factors to be considered when developing a Materials Schedule

• Type of material
• Amount of material

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered interpretation of drawings, statutory requirements,
foundation engineering, preparation of structural elements and development of working
drawing, steel schedules and materials schedules.

Further Reading

Read further on statutory documents necessary for construction works in Kenya.

176
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Sophia is a student undertaking a diploma course in civil engineering. While arranging
a bookshelf at her home, she came across structural drawings to their proposed new
home in Ruai. Which of the following was not a structural member in the drawings?
a) Columns
b) Beams
c) Slab
d) Steel reinforcement
2. Victor a recently graduate civil engineer was asked to come up with a steel schedule
back at work. Which of the following is not a factor he should consider while
developing the steel schedule?
a) Location of reinforcement
b) Size of reinforcement
c) Color of reinforcement
d) Length of reinforcement
3. In an interview for a civil engineering job, an interviewee was asked to state the steps
undertaken when setting out a building. Which of the following should have been his
first step?
a) Establishing the profile
b) Using the 3-4-5 method to set out
c) Clearing the site
d) Establishing a parallel line
4. State construction resources necessary for the construction process
5. State 5 factors to be considered when developing a working drawing
6. Using examples, define statutory documents
7. Discuss the significance of partial safety factors on loads and materials

Performance Based Evidence

Oral Assessment
What are the factors considered when selecting concrete cover?

Practical Assessment
Given a 4 by 5 two-way spanning solid slab, with the aid of a structural drawing, develop
a steel schedule for the slab.

177
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule
• Computer software
• Design codes (British standards)
• Stationery
• Standard design manuals
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

[Link] References

McCormac. (2007). Structural Steel Design. Prentice Hall, 4th edition. ISBN:013221816X
Segui (2006). Steel Design. Cengage-Engineering, 4th edition. ISBN: 0495244716

178
 CHAPTER 5: CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL SCIENCE

5.1 Introduction
This unit describes the competence in applying building materials science. It involves
identifying essential construction materials, selecting quality construction materials,
testing construction materials and demonstrating knowledge in use of construction
materials.

5.2 Performance Standard

Identify essential construction materials, identify properties of construction materials,
manufacture construction materials, and select quality construction materials, use
construction materials, test construction materials and handle construction materials safely
based on construction requirements and project scope.

5.3 Learning Outcomes

5.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Identify essential construction materials
b) Identify the properties of construction materials
c) Manufacture construction materials
d) Select quality construction materials
e) Use construction materials appropriately
f) Test construction materials
g) Handle construction materials safely

179
5.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Identifying Essential Construction Materials
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Identifying Essential Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1. Obtain and interpret Bills of Quantities and working Visit construction
drawings sites.
1.2. Identify essential construction materials (stones, Conduct practical
bricks, clay and clay products, lime, cement, timber lessons.
and timber products, metals and alloys, paints and
varnishes and roofing materials)

[Link] Information Sheet No5/LO1: Identifying Essential Construction Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers engineering drawings interpretation, bills of quantities and
construction materials.

Definition of key terms

Bill of Quantities: This is a document typically prepared by the quantity surveyor that
provides a project’s specified measured quantities of the items of work in accordance with
the drawings and specifications in the tender documentation. Also referred to as BOQs or
BQ.

Drawings: These are visual representations of structures or objects which provide

dimensional and graphical information that can be used by a contractor in construction
works or suppliers to fabricate components of the work.

Specifications: They describe the specific materials and level of workmanship required
i.e. by compliance with manufacturers’ requirements.

Construction material: This refers to any material used for construction purposes.

180
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1. Bills of Quantities and working drawings are obtained and interpreted
Bills of Quantities list all the materials required to complete the design for a construction
project of any structure. The BQs assist tenderers in the calculation of the construction cost
of their tender. The quantities may be measured in number, length, area, volume, weight
or time.

How to prepare Bills of Quantity (BQs)

Preparing a Bill of Quantity requires that the design is complete and a specification has
been prepared.

A standard method of measurement (SMM) is a reference document used to determine

the localized technique of construction measurement procedure needed to produce a valid
and good Bill of Quantity which is then incorporated into the contract document for the
project. Preparing a BQ based on SMM will help a contractor price the tender in a realistic
way. A standard method of measurement is reflective of actual works.

Set up a spreadsheet for the BQ (bill of quantity)

This includes columns to fill the item number, the rate for the item and total cost for the
item.

Table 5: Bill of Quantity

Item No Description Unit Quantity Rate Total Cost

The columns on the rate and total cost will be filled in by the contractor or binding on the
project. Technically you won’t have any values in those columns while drafting your BQ

List all the materials needed to complete the project

From the architect's plan, write a list of the building materials required and the amounts
needed for each. The architect can also specify the type of materials recommended for the
project. For example, when building a residential house, one might need bricks, concrete,
flooring materials etc. It is important to identify the unit of measurement for each of the
materials. Once you have determined the materials needed, fill your spreadsheet i.e,

181
Table 6: Materials needed to complete a project
Item Description Unit Quantity Rate Total
no cost
Excavations
Clear the site of all shrubs and
A undergrowth S.M. 249 50
Excavate vegetable soil average 150mm
B deep S.M. 249 100

Categorize the project into specific sections.

Since different parts of the project will be handled by different subcontractors, it is good
to split the list into sections. This makes it easier for the contractors or subcontractors to
know exactly what their cost will be for the project.

Make an initial cost estimate based on the architect's design

The standard method of measurement provides the prices of materials and labour required.
Summing up all these cost estimates gives a rough idea of the project cost even before it
starts. Materials suppliers, on the other hand, give different costs during the bidding.
Comparing bids from contractors ensure that one gets the best bid for their project.

Table 7: Initial cost estimate

Item No Description
A Element No 1

Substructures
B Excavations

A Element No 2
Superstructure
B Reinforced concrete

182
Example: Proposed residential house
Table 8: Bill of Quantities
Item Description Unit Quantity Rate Total
cost
Element No 3
Internal Finishes
FLOORS
Cement and sand (1: 4) screeding smooth
trowelled
A 32mm thick sand cement screed prepared SM 120 36,000.00
to floor 300
B 32mm thick screed prepared to receive SM 120 66,000.00
ceramic tiles
TOTAL FOR ELEMENT NO 8
(CARRIED TO SUMMARY)

Advantages of Bills of Quantities

• Assist tenderers in the calculation of construction costs for their tenders
• Provides a schedule of rates assisting with the valuation of variations s
• Helps in valuing interim payments or the labourers
• For tenderers, it helps to create a low-risk and low-cost tendering environment

Working Drawings
These are construction drawings provided by the architect, to the contractor to facilitate
construction of works, or given to suppliers to fabricate components of the works.
Working drawings describe plans, sections, and elevation.

Types of Construction Drawings

• Architectural drawings: These demonstrate where the building will be located
and where all the building parts will be placed provided by the architect to the
contractor on site
• Structural drawings: They are drawings Prepared by the structural engineer
showing information about the structure, like the strength of different structural
elements, size and placement of reinforcement
• Electrical drawings: These are prepared by the electrical engineer showing details
and location of electrical wiring, fixtures, sub-station etc
• Plumbing and Sanitary drawings: Prepared by the services engineer, they show
location of sanitary, piping for water supply systems, fixtures and process to
connect every fixture.

183
Essential construction materials
Building /construction materials refer to any substance either natural or manmade which is
used for construction purposes to create structures and buildings.
Some of the most building materials include;
a) Stone
It is the most commonly used material in Kenya.
There are two types of stones;
• Manually cut stones

b) Fired bricks
Commonly used for constructing walls and also arches, as a substitute to stone. How bricks
are made-clay is compressed to form blocks. It is then left to dry in the air. After drying,
they are burnt or fired in a kiln to permanently harden them.

c) Metal
Steel is the most popular metal used in the structural framework of buildings. It is preferred
in construction because it is strong, flexible and long-lasting. Other metals used are
aluminium and copper because of their rust and corrosion resistance. Copper is used for
electric wires, piping for water supply etc. Aluminium is used as roofing sheets, gutters,
decorations etc.

d) Sand
Used together with cement to make mortar, or masonry work and plaster.

e) Cement
Cement is mixed with sand and gravel aggregates to form concrete, used in building floors,
roads, bridges etc.
• It is the most essential building material.
• It is used in masonry work as an adhesive to hold bricks, blocks and stones in place.
• It is also used in plastering

f) Wood
Wood is used mostly in flooring, panelling and finishes. It is also popularly used in the
construction of roofs (trusses), doors etc

g) Roofing tiles
Most commonly known as clay tiles, they are durable and good in harvesting rainwater.
The tiles are thin flat slabs of fired clay, concrete, cement or metal laid in rows to form a
cover. Other types of construction materials include; glass, bamboo, EPs panels, glazed
ceramic tiles etc.

184
The choice of building materials to be used in construction is determined by the following
factors;
• Availability
• Cost
• Durability

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered engineering drawings interpretation, bills of quantities and
construction materials.

Further Reading

1. Read more on building materials in modern industry from building material (2002) by
SK Nugget.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What is the purpose of a working drawing?
a) To convert a design into construction information and communicate to different
players in construction.
b) Present to the client for presentation works
2. Which material among the following is preferred as a load-bearing?
a) Fired bricks
b) Glass
c) Manually cut stones
3. Cement is mixed with gravel and sand aggregates to form?
a) Concrete
b) Tiles
c) Blocks
4. What is the role of an architect in relation to identification of materials?
a) Provide a Bill of Quantities
b) Generate construction drawings which will be used by the contractor

185
5. Which of the following is not a virtual building material?
a) Images
b) Text
c) Wood
6. Is finishing drawing also a type of working drawing?
a) Yes
b) No
7. Which of the following is not a roofing material
a) Clay tiles
b) Aluminium sheets
c) Cement
8. Describe the difference between presentation drawings and working drawings?
9. Justify the roles of a quantity surveyor in relation to Material identification.
10. Using relevant examples, construct five types of working drawings
11. Steel is a preferred metal in construction. Justify.
12. Mention and explain 5 popular building materials in modern industry

Oral Assessment
1. Summarize the properties of building stone as a Building material.
2. Mr Waweru wants to construct a two bed room house. As an architecture, you have
been contracted to oversee the project and advice. Prepare a list of the materials he is
likely to use and justify the reasons.

Practical Assessment
Generate a complete Bill of Quantities from the information provided by the lecturer
Use the standard method of measurement (SMM) as a reference document

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Labouratory testing equipment
• Labouratory apparatus
• Hand tools
• Machine tools

186
[Link] References

S.K. Duggal (2000). Building Material, New York: New International Publishers
The federation of civil engineering contractors (2015) Civil Engineering Standard Method
of Measurement: ICE Virtual Library
The constructor (2009), Building Technology Guide. Nairobi: New International
Publishers

187
5.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Identifying Properties of Construction Materials
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Identifying Properties of Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

2.1. Identify physical properties (porosity, surface texture, • Demonstration

strength, density, thermal conductivity and wear and tear) of • Practical
construction materials assessment
2.2. Identify chemical properties (corrosion resistance and • Direct
chemical resistance) of construction materials instruction
2.3. Identify mechanical properties (toughness, hardness,
fatigue, strain and stress and creep and stress rupture) of
construction materials

[Link] Information Sheet No5/LO2: Identifying Properties of Construction Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers physical properties of construction materials, chemical
properties of construction materials, mechanical properties of construction materials
engineering drawings interpretation, bills of quantities and construction materials.

Definition of key terms

Code of practice: It is a document containing guidelines on how professionals in a specific
industry are supposed to conduct themselves in different situations when they appear as
consultants.

Chemical properties: It is any material’s character that showcases itself during or after its
interaction with the environment or other materials.

Mechanical properties: These are physical properties that construction materials exhibit
when forces (tension, compression and shear forces) are applied in different ways. Some
of these include tensile strength, elongation, fatigue limit and hardness.

Physical properties: These refer to physical attributes of materials that can be measured
or observed without changing the composition of materials. They include
porosity/permeability, surface, density, thermal conductivity and wear and tear.

188
Building code: This refers to a document created/drafted by a government to control or act
as a standard for which all activities and specifications within the industry have to be met.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Physical properties of construction materials
Porosity
It is the measure of void spaces within the composition of a material and forms the basis
of telling how permeable material is (permeable-ease with which fluids percolate through
the voids of a material). It majorly affects materials such a masonry blocks and bricks
among others. It can be determined by checking the weight change of a material after it has
been submerged in water for a specific period of time by a structural engineer or
experienced masons. It affects the choice of the place where the material will be used
whether indoors or as an external material.

Surface texture
• It refers to the overall appearance of a material in its natural form and varies from
smooth to rough.
• It is necessary as it influences additional activities that are required for it to perform its
intended purpose and appearance.
• It is mostly decided by the client and architect based on the desired appearance.
• Its value is internationally determined but also subject to local trading laws and desired
profit margins by manufacturers.

Strength
• It refers to the ability of a material to bear an applied force without failure or
deformation.
• The desired strength of building material is determined by a structural engineer before
construction during the design stage when calculating the loading.
• It majorly affects loads bearing materials like columns and beams (concrete and steel
reinforcement) among others.
• It’s the measure that determines structural soundness.
• It’s determined by calculating comprehensive strength.

An important strength calculation in buildings is that of steel and it’s done through the
formula
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ÷ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎.

𝐶𝑆 = 𝐹 ÷ 𝐴

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Density
It refers to the mass per unit volume of a material. Knowledge of density is important as
it provides necessary information for the distribution of loads for structural purposes.
It’s calculated by the formula.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ÷ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
It’s mostly relevant to the structural engineer.

2.2 Chemical properties of construction materials

Corrosion resistance
Corrosion refers to a process through which metallic materials change into more stable
compound namely oxides, sulfides and hydroxides in a natural gradual destruction process
due to exposure to elements. Corrosion-resistance refers to how well a material can
withstand damage from exposure to elements such as moisture and wind. It’s determined
by carrying out experiments in controlled environments by manufacturers. It majorly
affects reinforcement window and door frames and roofing materials.

Chemical resistance
It refers to the strength of a material to withstand changes from interaction with other
chemicals or solvents. It majorly affects the choice of paints and construction adhesives.
It’s measured and rated by manufactures with consideration made to the ISO standards. It
is necessary as it aims products that have zero to minimal effect on the people using the
spaces the materials are used. This is rather important when choosing materials for internal
finishes as use of toxic substances cannot be allowed in (reader's digest, 2020) (reader's
digest, 2020)living spaces. This is rather important when choosing materials for internal
finishes as toxic substances cannot be allowed in living spaces.

2.3 Mechanical properties of construction materials

Toughness:
It refers to a material strength to understand adverse conditions or rough handling.
It is necessary as fragile materials are handled with care while tough ones can even be left
exposed to the elements. The degree of toughness also affects the location and mode of
storage as well as when they would be ordered, purchased and delivered on-site.
Manufactures normally outline their materials degree of toughness and how to install and
handle them. It’s necessary as it enables professionals to avoid loses due to poor handling
and installation.

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Hardness
It refers to the comparative resistance of a mineral to scratching or the ability of a material
to resist deformation, indentation or penetration by means such an abrasion, drilling, impact
and wear measure in Mohs hardness scale. It’s important as it affects the workability of
materials.

Fatigue
It refers to the weakening of material in a progressive and localized manner caused by
repeating application of load. In structures, damage occurs when the materials experienced
stress range is considerably higher than material rating. It is calculated by manufactures
who then produce products with different ranges. On-site cracking of members shows that
there is fatigue.

Strain, stress, creep and stress rupture

These are forces that affect materials.
• Strain: Occurs as a result of tensional forces along the long axis.
• Stress: It refers to force per unit area that a material experiences which can be
tensile or compressive majorly external forces.
• Creep: Refers to the tendency of a solid material to slowly change in position or
deform when exposed to long term forces.
• Stress rapture: Its sudden and complete failure of a material under stress.

The impact of forces on materials is carried out by manufacturers and structural engineers
refer to their standards in designing. As the spectrum of ranges is rather varied it is
necessary to conform to standards.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered physical properties of construction materials, chemical
properties of construction materials, mechanical properties of construction materials
engineering drawings interpretation, bills of quantities and construction materials.

Further Reading

From the internet read more on:

1. Properties of manufactured products/ engineered materials
2. Special materials such as rubber.
3. ISO standards

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the followings, not a construction material property?
a) Surface texture
b) Density
c) Corrosion
d) Hardness
2. Which of the following properties is necessary when choosing a waterproof material?
a) Density
b) Surface texture
c) Fatigue
d) Hardness
3. Which of the below is not a physical construction material property.
a) Thermal conductivity
b) Wear and tear
c) Strength
d) Corrosion resistance
4. When a material undergoes permanent deformation, we say it has undergone? I.e. (over
a long period of time gradually)
a) Stress
b) Creep
c) Strain
d) Stretch
5. Who is in charge of calculating the strength of building materials?
a) Construction manager
b) Structural engineer
c) Client
d) Architect
6. Why is calculating of forces necessary?
a) To avoid fatigue
b) To cut on cost
c) To enhance the construction rate
d) To produce quality.
7. What does porosity affect?
a) Permeability
b) Toughness
c) Fatigue
d) Hardness

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8. Analyse permeability in reference to selection of Building materials.
9. Name two factors that affect the strength of building materials.
10. Summarise chemical properties that affect strength of materials during construction.
11. The mechanical properties of materials affect the strength of the material. As an
architect, justify.
12. Evaluate ways in which the toughness of a material affects its handling and storage?

Oral assessment
1. John has been advised to buy bricks to build a 5-storey building. Compose a report
outlining the advantages and physical properties of Brick.
2. State two mechanical properties of materials.

Practical Assessment
With reference to this learning outcome, carry out a project within a period of a weeks.
Collect 5 samples of building materials and produce a properties document for
presentation.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Calculators.
• A computer for research/ smartphones

[Link] References

Adam, S., Ogier, J. M., Cariou, C., Mullot, R., Labiche, J., & Gardes, J. (2000). Symbol
and character recognition: Application to engineering drawings. International
Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition, 3(2), 89-101.
Chang, S. Y., Al Bahar, S. K., & Zhao, J. (2012). Advances in Civil Engineering and
Building Materials. CRC Press.
Pacheco-Torgal, F., Jalali, S., & Fucci, A. (Eds.). (2012). Toxicity of building materials.
Elsevier.

193
5.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Manufacturing Construction materials
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Manufacturing construction materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1. Identify raw materials • Demonstration

3.2. Manufacture construction materials • Use of charts
• Field trips

[Link] Information Sheet No5/LO3: Manufacturing construction materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers identifying raw materials based on construction materials to
be produced and manufacturing construction materials as per manufacturing procedures.

Definition of key terms

Raw materials: Raw materials are substances or materials used in the initial
manufacturing and production of materials

Concrete: It is a material comprising a mixture of aggregate and cement or asphalt.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1. Raw materials are identified based on construction materials to be produced
There are three main types of construction materials in Kenya:
• Cement: Primary raw materials are limestone (supplies the lime in bulk) and clay,
marl or shale (supplies the silica, alumina and ferric oxide in bulk). Other
supplementary materials such as fly ash / pulverised fuel ash (PFA), sand or
ironstone to achieve the desired bulk.
• Brick: The raw material is clay.
• Concrete: The raw materials are fine and coarse aggregate, water and cement.

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3.2 Construction materials are manufactured as per manufacturing procedures
Cement: Cement manufacturing is a complex procedure that begins with mining and
grinding raw materials which include clay and limestone, to a fine powder known as raw
meal, which is then heated to a sintering temperature as high as 14500c in a cement kiln. In
this process, the chemical bonds of the raw materials are broken down and recombined into
new compounds which are known as clinker, which are rounded nodules between 1mm
and 2.5mm across. Clinker is ground to a fine powder in a cement mill and mixed with
gypsum to create cement. The powdered cement is then mixed in water and aggregates to
form the concrete that is used in construction.
Clinker quality depends on raw materials composition, which has to be closely monitored
to ensure cement quality.

Concrete
The main concrete manufacturing process is as follows
• Batching
• Mixing
• Transporting
• Placing
• Compacting
• Curing

Batching: This is a major stage in the manufacturing of concrete. There is a measuring of

materials (raw materials) such as aggregates, cement and water necessary for the
preparation of different grades.
There are two processes:

• The volume batching is by mixing volume of the materials.

• The weight batching is by mixing materials with its volume. it has a ratio according
to standard codes such as M10, M20, M25, and M30 for concrete

Mixing: This is done to produce high quality and uniform concrete. Separate paste mix
shows the mixing of water and cement into a paste then combines with aggregates. This
increase the compressive strength of concrete. This mix of paste in shear-type mixer is at
high speed with 0.30 to 0.45 water-cement ratio. Aggregates are blended with premix paste.
The remaining batch final and water mix complete in a rotating concrete mixing equipment.

Transporting - After mixing, it should be transported on the site with great care. The
concrete transporting by trucks reach the construction site early and are more efficient.

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Placing: In a good manner without segregation to reach maximum efficiency. The height
depends on the separation of cement paste and aggregates; the higher the height the more
probability of separation. Segregation of concrete causes honeycomb.
Compacting: Is the process which expels air trapped from freshly placed concrete and
packs the particles together to increase the density of the concrete.

Curing: This is done to provide the best hardness and strength to concrete which helps the
concrete to gain strength. It prevents cracking at the surface and avoids freezing and
overheating of concrete.

Flow chart for manufacturing concrete

Figure 75: Flow chart for manufacturing concrete

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Brick
There are four main different operations are involved.
• Preparation of clay
• Moulding
• Drying
• Burning

a) Preparation of clay
It is done in six steps:
i. Unfailing of clay- Pure clay is needed, the top layer of soil contains impurities,
therefore, 200mm depth of clay is thrown away
ii. Digging- Clay is dug out from the ground and spread on the plain ground
iii. Cleaning- is the removal of stones and vegetable matter, then it is washed and cleaned.
iv. Weathering- The clean clay is exposed to the atmosphere for softening. The period
maybe 3-4 weeks.
v. Blending- Addition of any ingredient to the clay by making the clay loose and
spreading the ingredients over it.
vi. Tempering- Addition of water to clay and mixing or pressing. The pressing is done
by cattle or men according to the scale of the project.

b) Moulding of clay
The prepared clay is moulded into a brick shape. It can be done in two ways (according to
the scale of the project)
• Hand moulding for small scale
• Machine moulding for large scale

c) Drying of raw bricks

It is done otherwise they may be cracked while burning. The process is done naturally.
Therefore, it is to remove moisture from the bricks.

d) Burning of brick
The dried bricks are burned either in kilns (for large scale) or clamps (for small scale) up
to a certain temperature. The required temperature required for burning is about 11000c.
this stage, the bricks gain hardness and strength as require.

197
Figure 76: Flowchart for manufacturing brick

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered identifying raw materials based on construction materials
to be produced and manufacturing construction materials as per manufacturing procedures.

Further Reading

1. Building Materials by S.S Bhavikatti

2. Building Materials by S.K Duggal
3. Fundamentals of Building Construction by Edward Allen

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which process stage is not in the manufacturing of concrete?
a) Compacting
b) Burning
c) Batching
d) Curing

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2. How many degrees are needed in burning during the manufacturing of bricks?
a) 11000c
b) 15000c
c) 6500c
d) 9000c
3. Which is the supplementary material information of cement?
a) Water
b) Clay
c) Limestone
d) Fly ash
4. Which batching ratio is not according to standard code?
a) M10
b) M25
c) M40
d) M30
5. What is the purpose of compacting in concrete manufacturing?
a) To remove impurities for the concrete
b) To strength the concrete
c) To make the concrete durable
d) To remove entrapped air from the concrete
6. Which one is not a stage in preparation of clay?
a) Digging
b) Moulding
c) Weathering
d) Blending
7. What determines the type of moulding will be done?
a) The scale of the project
b) The number of raw materials
c) Time of the year
d) The workmanship of the workers
8. Demonstrate batching of different types of materials.
9. Briefly discuss the main stages in concrete manufacturing.

Oral Assessment
1. Demonstrate the process of manufacturing of bricks?
2. Identify the raw materials used in cement, concrete and brick respectively?
3. Outline the procedure for preparing concrete

Practical Assessment
In groups of five with the aid of teacher bake ten bricks in the school workshop.

199
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computer
• Labouratory testing equipment
• Labouratory apparatus
• Hand tools
• Machine tools

[Link] References

Cachim, P. B. (2009). Mechanical properties of brick aggregate concrete. Construction and

Building Materials, 23(3), 1292-1297.
Rajgor, M., & Pitroda, J. (2013). Stone Sludge: Economical solution for the manufacturing
of bricks. International journal of innovative technology and exploring engineering,
2(5), 16-20.
Roberts, L. R., & Taylor, P. C. (2007). Understanding cement-SCM-admixture interaction
issues. Concrete International, 29(1), 33-41.

200
5.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Selecting Quality Construction Materials
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Selecting Quality Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1. Evaluate and analyse cost implications of construction • Written tests

materials • Oral
4.2. Select quality construction materials • Practical
tests/Project

[Link] Information Sheet No4/LO4: Selecting Quality Construction Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers evaluating and analysing cost implications of construction
materials and selecting quality construction materials based on their costs and project
requirements.

Definition of key terms

Cost implications: This refers to the technique used to derive the duration, cost and energy
required to manufacture and maintain construction materials.

Quality of construction material: This is the stability, durability and cost-efficiency of

construction material.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1. Cost implications of construction materials are evaluated and analysed
The cost implication of construction materials involves analysis of time, money and energy
required to efficiently produce and maintain building materials. Currently, the construction
industry is one of the fastest-growing sectors of any economy, be it in developed countries
or developing ones. The urge to deliver the best product output in terms of a well-designed
building project, which is able to satisfy the client’s needs and ultimate users cannot be
emphasized (Safiki. A, Solikim. M, Nursahid. M, 2015). This can also be expressed by the
value of money i.e. having to incur costs that cannot be dealt with. It is essential to calculate
the most likely cost of a project to check if the project will be able to start and finally be
successful. As an architect, you have to balance the need to maintain adequate internal
control of a project while still constraining the construction budget. This is done to satisfy
the needs of the client according to his/her budget. To do this, an effective control system
is vital to making sure that long- term investment goals are achievable.

201
There are two types of cost implications that affect construction materials i.e. direct and
indirect cost implications.
a) Direct cost implications
This focuses on how building strategies can affect the annual budget of a project. For
instance, hiring additional casual labourers to a site to increase the rate of
construction/manufacturing building materials might be too expensive for small
firms/construction companies. Therefore, the number of casual labourers are decreased to
increase the rate of affordability. This also improves, the quality of production improves
due to efficiency in quality check.

b) Indirect cost implications

Efficiency in operations and productivity can be affected by the indirect cost of a project.
For instance, managing manual cash in a site through verification of transactions e.g.
purchase of steel, cement or stone; payment authorization from the lead
consultant/contractor; and account reconciliation procedures between the parties. All these
might lower efficiency resulting in wastage of time in production resulting in fewer
products.

A change to the work or design as per the contract will incur additional charges that will,
in turn, increase the cost of construction. This can occur through time lag between
completion of designs and the time the project is to start depending on client’s finance. As
a result, friction between the client and contractor can result to cost overrun. If this is not
solved, then the project might end up being abandoned. To control the variations in a
project, the architect ensures that the variations are valid. I.e. they exist in writing, signed
by the lead consultant, and finally submitted to registered offices for approval purposes.

4.2. Quality construction materials are selected based on their costs and project
requirements
Materials will determine the aesthetics of your design or building. By ensuring high-quality
materials, the level of workmanship is assumed to be of high quality. The factors that
promote material and process selection include; the number of elements to be constructed,
the size of elements, weight of the component and the precision required to satisfy the
needs of the client. In terms of material, evaluation of material selection focuses on the
ability of the material to be manufactured and processed into a finished structure. For
instance, how easily can steel be cut on-site as compared to the manufacturing company?
Also, the sustainability of the products i.e. whether or not the materials manufactured can
be reused for a different purpose as compared to what it is designed for. The quality of
materials is determined by defect-free, the surface finish, dimensional accuracy and
tolerance from external factors. From this, one can establish economic considerations
which include, the cost to be considered, the quantity according to the volume of
commodity and the rate of production of the commodity.
202
Figure 77: Quality construction materials selection

203
Figure 78: Process of material selection

Conclusion
The learning outcome covered evaluating and analyzing cost implications of construction
materials and selecting quality construction materials based on their costs and project
requirements.

Further Reading

1. Read further on cost implications and its effect on the built environment.
2. Read further on the selection of materials in relation to quality, availability and cost.

204
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Who of the following is in charge of ensuring variations are in the contract?
a) Contractor
b) Architect
c) Clients
d) Structural engineer
2. Why should cost implications be derived?
a) To produce sustainable materials
b) To derive solutions to construction
c) To supply goods efficiency
d) To efficiently connect pre-fabricated materials.
3. Which of the below is not a factor that promotes material and process selection?
a) Size of materials
b) Process of materials
c) Weight of materials
d) Number of materials
4. Identify the type of cost implication from the following?
a) Cost implication variable
b) Material cost implication
c) Direct cost implication
d) Serviceability cost implication
5. How can a building strategy affect the annual budget?
a) Following the contract variable
b) Addition of construction material
c) Reduction of time for a project
d) Employing additional casual labourers
6. Which activity is material selection in design associated with?
a) Technical design
b) Manufacturing
c) The efficiency of the product
d) Processing.
7. What factor describes the quality of the product?
a) Availability
b) Location of production
c) Freedom from defects
d) Ease of use

205
8. Justify the quality of construction materials used in building wood houses.
9. Evaluate freedom from defects?
10. Summarize the process of determining the quality of workmanship?
11. Briefly describe the process planning?
12. Justify material experience?

Oral Assessment
1. Propose the strategy will you use to ensure efficient cost analysis.
2. Evaluate material selection in reference to Construction.

Case study
Dunhill towers, Nairobi constructed a skyscraper using masonry concrete and steel. With
references, produce a cost-benefit analysis and cost implications of the project.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Labouratory testing equipment
• Labouratory apparatus
• Hand tools
• Machine tools

[Link] References

Lotey .J. (2020). Cost Implications Of Internal Control. Retrieved From Https: // Small
Business. [Link]/Cost-Implications-Internal-Control [Link]
Ruegg, R., & Marshall, H. (2013). Building Economics: Theory and Practice. Springer
Science & Business Media.
Science Direct (2020). Material Selection Process. Retrieval from
Htpp//[Link]/Topics Engineering/ Material Selection Process

206
5.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Using Construction Materials Appropriately
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Using Construction Materials Appropriately
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1. Assemble construction materials, tools and equipment • Demonstration

5.2. Use Construction materials depending on the construction • Oral assessment
process • Written assessment

[Link] Information Sheet No4/LO5: Using Construction Materials Appropriately

Introduction
In this learning, outcome covers assembling construction materials, tools and equipment
based on the construction method and using construction materials based on the
construction process.

Definition of key terms

Construction tools: This is any manufactured product component or equipment that is
used in the construction process

Construction equipment: This is a variety of heavy-duty vehicles, tools and machinery

which are capable of withstanding the harsh conditions experienced throughout the
construction site.

Construction methods: These are the procedures and techniques that are used during the
building process.

Building: It is the relatively permanent enclosed construction over a plot of land, having
roof, windows doors often have a different use such as living, entertainment, manufacturing
or residential.

207
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1. Construction materials, tools and equipment are assembled based on
construction methods
In order to come up with a structurally strong building and completion of a construction
project, appropriate use of materials is one of the key elements. Use of materials majorly
determined by the use of the building which includes the following:
• Residential building
• Education
• Assembly
• Storage
• Infrastructure
• Institutional
• Commercial

Construction materials
This is any manufactured product compound or equipment that is useful in the construction
process. The most common materials used are:
• Stone
• Brick
• Lime
• Cement
• Concrete

a) Stone
Use of stone
• Structure- stones are used for foundation walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs,
floors, damp proof.
• Aesthetic- stones are adapted to give the massive appearance to the structure wall
of bricks and facing is done in stones of desired shades.
• Paving stones- these are used to cover the floor of buildings of various types such
as residential commercial, industrial etc.
• Basic material- are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for
cement concrete forum of roads

b) Bricks
Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by
drying and burning them.

208
Properties of bricks as a construction material:
• Durability
• Colour
• Texture
• Size variation
• Compressive strength
• Absorption

Classification of Bricks
First-class brick (A-type)
Thoroughly burnt bricks are deep, red, or copper colour. The surface of these bricks is
smooth and rectangular with sharp and straight edges and square corners.
It is used for painting, exposed face work in a masonry structure, flooring and
reinforcement brickwork. The water absorption is about 12%- 15%.

Second class (B-Type)

They are supposed to have some of the requirements in 1st class though they have some
cracks and distortions and have more absorption power of about 16%- 20%
They are used in important hidden masonry works and centring of reinforced brick
structures.

Third class bricks (C-Type)

These are under burnt bricks. They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull sound when
struck against each other. Their absorption power is about 25% of dry weight. They are
used in building temporary structures.

Fourth class bricks (D-Type)

Fourth class bricks are over burnt and badly distorted in shape, size and are brittle in nature.
Used in filling foundation and floors.

a) Concrete
The cement and water form a paste that hardens and bonds the aggregated together.
It composes of
• water
• Aggregate
• Chemical mixture
• Cement

209
Properties of concrete
• Concrete has a higher compressive strength.
• It is a corrosion-resistant material and atmospheric agent has no effect on it.
• It is more economical than steel.
• It forms hard surface cable for resisting abrasion.
• Concrete walls and floors slow the passage of heat moving through and reduce
temperature swing.
• Being naturally five resistant concrete forms a highly effective barrier to five
spread.

Reinforced cement concrete

Strong in compression as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. Weak in
tension as the cement holding aggregate in place can crack allowing the structure to fail.
Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either metal reinforcing bars, steel
fibres, glass fibre, or plastic fibre to carry tensile loads.

Use
RCC is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is required: Like in
footing, columns, beams, lintels, and stairs.

d) Cement
The crystalline compound of calcium silicate and other calcium compounds having
hydraulic properties.
Use.
• Main use in the fabrication of concrete and mortars.
• Building (floors, beams, columns, roofing, piles, brick, mortars, panels, plaster)
• Transport (roads, pathways, crossing bridges viaduct tunnels)
• Water (pipes, drains, canals, dams, banks, pools)
• Civil (piers, docks, retaining walls, silos, warehousing, poles, pylons, fencing)
• Agriculture (building, processing, house irrigation)

e) Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite
which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

Uses.
• It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime
• (Calcium oxide), slacked lime (calcium hydroxide) cement and mortar.
• It is crushed for use as aggregate- the solid base for many roads.

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Construction Equipment
This is a variety of heavy-duty vehicles, tools and machinery which are capable of
withstanding the harsh conditions experienced throughout the construction site.
Criteria to select construction equipment
The type, size and other particulars of equipment. Whether the equipment is to be
purchased, rented or to be procured hire-cum-purchase arrangement.

Advantages
• Increase the rate of output through work progress with the best effective and
efficient methods.
• Reduce overall construction cost especially for large contracts.
• Carry out activities which cannot be done manually or to do them more
economically and much faster.
• Eliminate the heavy manual work by human thus reducing fatigue and eliminates
various other hazards and health issues.
• Maintain the planned rate of production where there is a shortage of skilled or
unskilled labour.

Disadvantages
• If the machine breaks down, it can cause delay of construction work.
• Electric tools can cause a short circuit which may result to fire.
• Only skilled labour can operate the equipment.
• Special assistance is required to operate them as it may harm people on the site.
• Contractors in small projects create an issue over buying or rating of equipment
and may charge high charges.

Types of Equipment
• Electric hand tools
• Vibrators
• Pumps
• Compactors
• Rollers
• Concrete mixers
• Hand pumps for ready-mix- concrete
• Transport equipment

Electric Hand Tools

A power tool is an instrument that is actuated by an additional power source and
mechanism other than the solely manual labour uses with hand tools.

211
They include:
• Saws
• Drills
• Polishers
• Plate compactors
• Concrete vibrators
• Electric drivers
• Ceramic file cutter
• Jackhammer

5.1. Assembling construction materials, tools and equipment based on the

construction method.
Procedure
i. Site clearing
This is the removal of vegetation and topsoil from the site.
For this, you assemble equipment such as
Bulldozers, excavators and graders for a large project but for small projects normal digging
with jembes are recommended.

ii. Foundation
This is the structure in a building that transmits building load to the ground and holds the
building firmly into the soil.
For this, it requires the use of the following materials:
• Steel (for reinforcement)
• Cement(adhesive)
• Concrete (structural strength)
• Scaffolding (to hold the concrete in place)

Assembled equipment include:

• Concrete mixers
• Vibrator

iii. Superstructure
This includes partitions, beams and columns.
For this process the following materials are assembled:
• Stone (masonry) used as a partition.
• Cement (Adhesive) to bind stone together.
• Concrete (for the making of columns and beams)
• Steel (Reinforcement in the concrete)

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The beams and columns are laid out with the use of moulds. They are left to cure as water
is poured. Masonry stone is laid out to create partitions according to the drawings.

iv. Roofing.
This is the top covering of the structure. The following materials are assembled:
• Iron sheets or roofing tiles which are the topmost covering of a house.
• Wood- laid out as a skeleton to hold the iron sheets in place.
• Nails- to hold the wood to the iron sheets.

5.2. Construction materials are used based on the construction process

Construction process
a) Foundation
The building site is graded and excavated and the boundaries of the foundation are laid out
before the basic plumbing is installed the foundation is poured. The clearing of the site is
done with equipment such as excavator and Levelized by graders. The foundation to be
poured is majorly concrete on top of the stones used for pack filling of the foundation
trenches.
b) Framing
The interior and exterior walls are installed. The wall is made of masonry stone from the
quarry or machine cut stone, they are joined together using cement. In other places such as
the exterior wall back is used for aesthetic purposes.

c) Plumbing, mechanical and electrical configuration

A host of installation occurs during this phase as the water and wastewater piping is
installed along with the electrical wiring, ducting HVAC system and water heater.

d) Insulation and drywall installation

The walls are insulated and then the drywall is installed over the walls. At this stage, you’ll
be able to see your vision start taking form.

e) Exterior and interior

The final touches are made to the construction project. All remaining electrical mechanical
HVAC and plumbing system are installed and the ceiling, doors, window sills, cabinets,
tiles, countertops, mirrors, light and other fixtures are finalized. If a driveway is involved.
It’s at this stage that it is completed along with the sidewalk modification and landscaping
can begin for your garden and footpath.

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Conclusion
The learning outcome covered assembling construction materials, tools and equipment
based on construction methods and, using construction materials based on the construction
process.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What do you understand by the word construction material?
a) An instrument used in construction.
b) The powder used as an adhesive in building
c) Any manufactured product component or equipment that is used in the
construction process.
2. Which of the following is construction equipment?
a) Spade
b) Excavator
c) Spoon
3. The tool used to drive a nail in a piece of wood is called?
a) Hummer
b) Cement
c) Sand
4. Which material is most appropriate for the making of foundation?
a) Concrete
b) Reinforced concrete
c) Sand
5. Justify the advantages of reinforced concrete over ballast.
6. Analyse the properties of bricks that make it an appropriate construction material.
7. As an architect, evaluate the advantages of State one advantage of construction
equipment.
8. State one disadvantage of construction equipment.
9. Explain the construction process.

Oral Assessment
1. Define construction material
2. Outline construction materials are seen in any construction site you have visited

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Practical Assessment
With the help of trained personnel use the following materials to come up with a foundation
slab of measurements 1m×1m×0.5m
a) Cement
b) Ballast
c) Sand
d) Water
e) Steel reinforcement

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Hand tools
• Machine tools
• Chats with the picture and names of construction equipment.
• Drawing books.
• Rulers and T- square

[Link] References

Francis D.K. Ching (2008) Building construction illustrated (New Jersey) John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.
Frederick. S. Merrit (2000) Building Design and Construction Handbook (California)
McGraw Hill
Roy Chudley (2014) Building Construction Handbook (London) Routledge

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5.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Testing Construction Materials
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Testing Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1. Sample construction materials randomly • Trainer to conduct field

6.2. Identify test parameters trips
6.3. Test construction materials
• Conduct lab tests
• Trainer to conduct field
trips
• Trainer to carry
out demonstration

[Link] Information Sheet No5/LO6: Testing Construction Materials

Introduction
This learning outcome covers randomly sampling construction materials as per SOPs,
identifying test parameters (compression, weathering, durability, water absorption,
impurity test and tensile tests) as per the construction requirements and engineer’s
instructions and testing construction materials as per SOPs.

Definition of key terms

Impurity test: They are aimed at the identification and management of the presence of
foreign substances in a material.

Weathering: Refers to decaying and decomposition of materials caused by physical or

chemical agents

Test parameters: Refers to the various aspects of a material that can be subjected to tests

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1. Construction materials are sampled randomly as per SOPs
Construction materials basically refer to manufactured and naturally occurring substance
that may be used in the building of houses, bridges etc. The standard operating procedures
(SOP’s) govern matters such as quality of the construction materials and their compliance
to regulations as per the zones where construction will take place. Sampling is generally
conducted so as to allow for tests to be carried out on the construction materials.

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Construction materials are samples based on quality availed for construction, extraction of
material e.g. by manufacturing a natural occurrence and also by the construction process
that would be required for certain construction material. Ideally, the most reliable method
to ascertain the sample of the materials to be tested include the whole scope of a
construction process by incorporating a stratified random sampling procedure into the
sampling process to ensure a successful implementation of this divide the samples into a
recommended number of equal groups in accordance with the standard. In the event that
the groups are of an unequal size weighing the samples to ensure a reliable sampling
process is necessary. For example, sampling for wood or timber construction materials may
be conducted by selecting model trees in a test area and sticks specimen. The selection may
be based on their girth. The specimen selected shall be clear and straight, free from
decomposition and protection from moisture and weather is necessary.

6.2. Test parameters (compression, weathering, durability, water absorption,

impurity test and tensile tests) are identified as per the construction requirements and
engineer’s instructions.
Test parameters refer to the characteristics or qualities of a material to be used in
construction that can and should be subjected to tests since the various qualities would
affect the quality of a construction project if they go unchecked. The parameters may
include the strength of a material, climatic compliance of a material i.e. how the material
is affected by different climates for example rains or too much heat, maintenance demand,
water absorption capabilities of a material, impurity content etc. The need for identification
of these parameters is to ensure productivity and efficiency of building materials.
Identification of these parameters helps to keep within the originally approved budgets
since identified parameters are addressed during testing and budgeted, improve the quality
of building and infrastructure. The most desirable parameters to be considered for a choice
of a building material include:

• Ease of installation
The ease or complications of installing a material may, in the long run, affect the budget
thus consideration should be put on how easy it is to install the material.

• Durability
The construction materials should be weather compliant so as to reduce the cost incurred
in replacing a material that has been damaged by adverse weather conditions. Tests should
be conducted on the material to gain knowledge on the effects the weather will have on it.

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• Health safety
The effects a certain building material will have on health need to be identified through
tests. Different materials may have effects such as the release of pollutants by asbestos
materials and fire management.
Tests on fire hazards such as ignitability, the spread of flame and fire resistance need to be
carried out to ensure that the occupants can live safely from such hazards. Harmful effects
can be contained by limiting the use of substances that contain harmful solvents, provision
of good ventilation and following manufacturer’s recommendations (Daily monitor, 2007).

• Test for compression

This is where variables such as strain and deformation are measured in a material by
determining its response to compressive load. This helps to determine the materials elastic
limit, yield strength etc. therefore determining the suitability of the materials for a purpose.

• Test for weathering

This is a test to determine how the material is affected by different weather elements and
the rate to which elements can be exposed e.g. for roofing materials and which need to be
protected from weather elements.

• Test for water absorption

This test determines the coarse and fine aggregates water holding capacity. The purpose of
this test is to measure the strength and quality of the material.

• Impurity test
This is a test to enable realization and control of foreign substances in a material that would
compromise the materials structural integrity.

• Tensile tests
This test is usually done by measuring the force required to elongate the test material to its
breaking point. This helps professionals determine how materials will behave in their
intended applications.

6.3. Construction materials are tested as per the SOPs

Testing of construction materials basically refers to the procedures intended to establish
the quality and the reliability of structural materials that would be used to build projects
from foundations to roof. The tests to be carried may be physical, chemical, verification of
quantity and checking for damage.

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Construction materials are tested for the purpose of:
• Complying with regulatory requirements
The government of every particular state or regulatory bodies have a set standard to be met
by manufacturers of every material. This helps to restrict the manufacturing of substandard
or hazardous materials.

• Material and treatment selection

Testing of the materials enables one to understand and determine whether certain material
or treatment is suitable for a specified application

Product design and improvement

Testing quantifies the strength, hardness, elasticity etc. of a structure. Testing, therefore,
helps to determine the most appropriate design that will hold up at a particular site.
Materials tested may include soils and aggregates which are tested during excavation
activities, asphalt, concrete, masonry etc. are tested to ensure that the specified conditions
meet the acceptable criteria specified.

Destructive tests on construction materials are used to understand a specimen’s failure to

learn how it behaves under different loads. Destructive tests destroy the specimen such that
even if it passes the test it is no longer fit for service while non-destructive tests, the
specimen can be used for service (TWT, 2017)

For example, the concrete slump test is as follows:

a) Put the mould for the slump test in a frustum
b) Put the base on a smooth surface and concrete-filled in three layers
c) When the mould is filled, the top surface is struck off
d) Carefully lift the cone vertically let the unsupported concrete slump.
Precaution for slump test: Inside of the mould and its base should be moistened.

Conclusion
The learning outcome has covered randomly sampling construction materials as per SOPs,
identifying test parameters (compression, weathering, durability, water absorption,
impurity test and tensile tests) as per the construction requirements and engineer’s
instructions and testing construction materials as per SOPs.

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Further Reading

1. Read on other tests for concrete and soil

2. Read on ideal locations to carry out construction materials testing.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The resistance of the soil with depth is measured by a tool called?
a) Seismometer
b) Ammeter
c) Potentiometer
d) Penetrometer
2. What is the average depth of a test pit?
a) 10 M
b) 2 M
c) 1.5 M
d) 15 M
3. Shocks that travel within the soil are measured by an instrument called?
a) Microphone
b) Geophone
c) Receiver
d) Sensors
4. Which of the following has more fire-resisting characteristics?
a) Granite
b) Compact sandstone
c) Marble
d) Limestone
5. Due to the effects of dry rot, the timber?
a) Cracks
b) Shrinks
c) Reduces to powder
d) None of these

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6. For testing the compressive and tensile strength of cement, the cement mortar is made
up by mixing and standard sand in properties of:
a) 1: 2
b) 1: 3
c) 1: 4
d) 1: 6
7. Clay and silt content in good brick earth must be at least?
a) 50%
b) 40%
c) 30%
d) 25%
8. Evaluate the uses of a retarder in concrete?
9. Iron ore has different levels of purity, Summaries.
10. Justify the use of Stretcher bonds in masonry.
11. Summarise the different types of rocks.
12. Distinguish the different effects of excess alumna on bricks.

Oral Assessment
1. Which material is used in binding mortar?
2. What is the content of carbon in wrought iron?

Practical Assessment
Carry out stratified random sampling to be used to sample timber

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Labouratory testing equipment
• Labouratory apparatus
• Hand tools
• Machine tools

[Link] References

Foster (2007). Mechanical testing of metals and alloys. New York. Oxford university press
Heinemann (2006). Building construction handbook. Oxford Routledge publishers
Williams (2007). Increase in greenhouse emissions from projects. Washington. The
sightline institute

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5.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Handling Construction Materials Safely
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7: Handling Construction Materials Safely
Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1. Identify construction materials • Written tests

7.2. Identify Safety requirements • Oral
7.3. Safely handle construction materials
• Practical
tests/Project

[Link] Information Sheet No5/LO1: Handling Construction Materials Safely

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers identifying construction materials to be handled, identifying
safety requirements based on the construction materials and safely handling construction
materials based on the safety requirements. Construction materials are materials used for
construction purposes. Material handling is the movement, protection and storage of these
materials. Therefore, handling and storing of construction materials involves diverse
operations such as hoisting tons of steel with a crane, driving a truck loaded with concrete
blocks carrying bags of materials manually; and stacking palletized bricks or other
materials such as barrels and lumber.

Definition of key terms

Safety requirements: These requirements that are defined for purposes of risk reduction
e.g. all-new powered industrial trucks except vehicles intended primarily for earth moving
or the over the road hauling must meet the design and construction requirements for
powered industrial trucks established in the American National Standard for Powered
Industrial trucks, Part2, ANSI B56.1-1969

Safety measures: These are activities and precautions taken to improve safety on-site
mainly to reduce the number of accidents associated with workplace equipment; employees
in the proper use and limitations of the equipment they operate e.g. Proper use of cranes on
site.

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Material handling: This is the movement, protection and storage of construction materials
on-site in a safe manner. For example, never lift a load over an obstacle and perform lifts
in areas with adequate footing, space and lighting.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1. Construction materials
Construction materials refer to any materials used for construction purpose. They are
materials used for house building. These include wood, cement, aggregates, metals, bricks,
concrete, and clay. The choice of these materials is based on their cost-effectiveness for
building projects.

Types of building materials used in construction

Wood
It is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants used for construction purpose
when cutting or pressed into lumber and timber such as fiberboards and plants. It is a
generic building material and is used in building about any type of structure in most
climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending and is
incredibly strong when compressed vertically. Wood is also basically used and preferred
in interior design because it is timeless in nature and does not increase in value.

Historically, wood for building large structures was used in its unprocessed form as logs.
The trees were just cut to the needed length, sometimes stripped of bark and then notched
or lashed into place. Currently with the invention of mechanizing saws came the mass
production of dimensional lumber. This made buildings quicker to put up and more
uniform, thus the modern western styles home was made.

Advantages of Dimensional Lumber (Glulam)

i. Size- one can get the very huge size of wood depending on how you glue the wood
strips.
ii. Architectural freedom- the wood can span long distances past 6m and 8m e.g. In
open spaces such as Amphitheaters.
iii. Quality of wood is good since the control processes of drying and bonding of the
wood strips are done in the factory.
iv. There is the efficient use of lumber grades-there is minimum wastage of wood since
wood is placed where it is needed most.
v. It is environmentally friendly.

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Brick and Block
A brick is a block made of kiln-fired materials usually clay or shale but it also may be of
lower quality mud etc.
Clay bricks are formed in moulding (the soft mud mothered) or in commercial manufacture
more frequently by extruding clay through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper
size the stiff mud process). Bricks were widely used as a construction material in 1700,
1800 and 1900s. This was probably due to the fact that it was much more flame retardant
than wood in the ever-crowding countries and fairly cheap to produce. Another type of
block replaced clay bricks in the late 20th century. It was the Cinderblocks made mostly
from concrete. An important low-cost material in developing countries is the sand rete
block which is weaker but cheaper than the fired clay bricks.

Concrete
Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate
(composite) and a binder such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland
cement concrete which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand) Portland
cement and water. After mixing the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-
like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term
concrete. For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather tensile strength,
it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars known as robes. This strengthened
concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete. In order to minimize any bubbles that
would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained
when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the
predominant material in this modern age due to its longevity, formability and ease of
transport.

Metal
It is used as a structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers or as an external
surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel, for instance, is
a metal alloy whose major component is iron and is the usual choice for metal structural
construction. It is strong and flexible and if refined well and well treated last a long time.
Corrosion is metals, prime enemy, when it comes to longevity. The lower density and better
corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys and tin are sometimes overcome by their greater
cost. Brass was more common in the past but it is usually restricted to specific uses or
specialty items today. Other metals used include titanium, chrome, and gold, silver.
Titanium can be used for structural purposes but is much more expensive than steel.

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Glass
Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a
building. They provided human with the ability to both let light into the rooms while at the
same time keeping demand weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand
and silicates and is very brittle. Modern glass “curtain walls” can be used to cover the entire
façade of a building.
Glass can also be used to span over a wide roof structure in a space frame.

Ceramics
They are such things such as tiles, fixtures etc. They are mostly used as fixtures or
coverings in buildings. Ceramic floors, walls, countertops even ceilings. Many countries
use ceramic roofing tiles to cover many buildings. Ceramics used to be just specialized
form of clay pottery firing in kilns but it has evolved into more technical areas.
• Plastics
Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness and resiliency. Combined with this
adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastic ensures their
use in almost all industrial applications today.

• Brush
Are built entirely from plant parts and are generally found in the tropics. These are mostly
built with branches, twigs and leaves and bark similar to a beaver’s top.

7.2. Safety requirements are identified based on the construction materials

Safety requirements are requirements that are purposefully set for risk reduction on a
construction site. They include:
i. Scaffold must be sound, rigid and sufficient- to carry its own weight plus four times
the maximum intended load without settling or displacement. It must be erected on
solid footing.
ii. Employees should consider using aerial lifts or elevated platforms in a case where
there are unstable working surfaces so as to provide safer elevated working
surfaces.
iii. Provide or erect guardrail systems with tool boards and warning lines or install
control line systems to protect workers near the edges of floors and roofs so as to
prevent cases of fall.
iv. Ladders and stairways are other sources of injuries and fatalities among
construction workers. Make sure there is the use of the correct ladder for the task
and make sure the ladders are long enough to safely reach the work area.

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 v. Slips, trips and falls on stairways are a major source of injuries and fatalities among
construction workers. Ensure stairways treads cover the entire step and landing.
Ensure also that the stairways having four or more risers or rising more than 30
inches must have at least one hand drain.
vi. Sloping- maximum allowable slopes for excavations less than 20 feet (6.09M)
based on the soil type and angle to the horizontal.
vii. Failure to recognize the hazards associated with chemicals can cause chemical
burns, respiratory problems and fires and even explosions. Ensure that you maintain
an MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) for each chemical in the facility.
viii. Serious head injuries as a result from blows to the head- ensure that the workers
wear hard hats where there is potential for objects falling from above, bumps to
their heads from fixed objects, or accidental head contact with electrical hazards.
ix. Trench collapsing injuries to the employees- ensure no employee enters an
unprotected trench.
x. Existing energized (not) electrical circuits should be prohibited to avoid accidents.

7.3. Construction materials are handled safely based on the safety requirements
i. Do not place the construction materials within 6 feet of any hoistway or inside floor
openings or within 10 feet of an exterior wall that does not extend above the top of
the material sheet.
ii. Stack bagged materials by stepping back the layers and cross keying the bags at
least every ten bags high.
iii. Do not stack brick more than 7 feet in height. When stacks of bricks reach 4 feet
height, start tapering it back 2 inches for every foot of height above the 4-foot level.
iv. Masonry blocks typically stack easier than brick but when stacking masonry blocks
higher than 6 feet, taper the stack back one-half blocks per tier above the 6-foot
level.
v. For lumber stacked by machine, the piles cannot exceed 20 feet in height. Lumber
that is going to be handled manually can’t be stacked more than 16 feet high. For
lumber storage;
• Remove all used nails before stacking
• Stack lumber on level and solidly supported sills
• Stack lumber so it is stable and self- supporting
• Do not store excess materials on the scaffolds’ or runways. Keep only the
amount needed for immediate operations.

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 Figure 79: Dimensional Lumber (GLUELAM) being dried up in a kiln drier.

Conclusion
The learning outcome has covered identifying construction materials to be handled,
identifying safety requirements based on the construction materials and safely handling
construction materials based on the safety requirements.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Material handling consists of movement of material from
a) One machine to another.
b) One shop to another shop
c) Stores to shop
d) All of the above
2. Principle of “unit load” states that
a) Materials should be moved in lots
b) One unit should be moved at a time.
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above.
3. The economy in material handling can be achieved by
a) Employing gravity food movements
b) Minimizing the distance of travel
c) By carrying material to destination without using manual labour
d) All of the above.
4. The forklift truck is used for
a) Lifting and lowering
b) Vertical transportation
c) Both A and B
d) None of the above

227
5. Cranes are used for
a) Lifting and lowering
b) Vertical transportation
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
6. Wheelbarrows are used for
a) Lifting and lowering
b) Vertical transportation
c) Both A and B
d) None of the above.
7. Which one of the following is not a construction material?
a) Concrete
b) Ceramics
c) Wood.
d) Bill of quantities
8. Mention three types of building materials in construction
9. What is the difference between safety requirements and material handling and storage?
10. Classify different safety measure to be observed while handling lumber as a building
material.
11. Analyse safety requirements.
12. Develop a check list on the properties to consider while identifying materials.

Practical Assessment
Visit a potential construction site. Observe how the construction materials are being
handled safely on site. Mix cement and sand aggregates using the concrete mixer in a clean
and safe manner; using appropriate ratios of 1: 2

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Drawing books
• Reference books
• Set Squares
• T-squares

[Link] References

Code of Federal regulation. (2002) Concrete and Masonry [Link] OSHA

Code of Federal regulation. (2004) Control of Hazardous Energy. US. OSHA
Job Hazard Analysis. (2002) Personal Protective Equipment. The [Link]

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 CHAPTER 6: WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY PRACTICES

6.1 Introduction
This unit describes the competence in applying workshop technology practices. It entails
performing masonry, plumbing and carpentry tasks. It also involves performing electrical
and mechanical operations.

6.2 Performance Standard

Perform masonry tasks, plumbing tasks, carpentry tasks, electrical operations and
mechanical operations as per Manufacturer’s specifications and as per SOPs.

6.3 Learning Outcomes

6.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Perform masonry tasks
b) Perform plumbing tasks
c) Perform carpentry tasks
d) Perform electrical operations
e) Perform mechanical operations

229
6.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Perform Masonry Tasks
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Perform Masonry Tasks
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Identify the safety requirements in the workshop environment. • Video instruction
1.2 Use masonry hand tools appropriately to perform tasks in • Research
masonry workshop • Group discussion
1.3 Use masonry machine tools appropriately to perform tasks in • Drawings
masonry workshop • Direct
1.4 Maintain Masonry tools used in construction work Instructions

[Link] Information Sheet No6/LO1: Perform Masonry Tasks

Introduction
This learning outcome covers safety requirements in the learning environment, appropriate
use and performance of masonry hand tools, appropriate use of masonry machine tools and
maintenance of masonry tools as per manufacturer’s specifications.

Definition of key terms

Course: Refers to a horizontal continuous layer of masonry units

Wythe: Refers to the vertical section of masonry, one unit in thickness.

Mortar: Refers to the mixture of cement, aggregate and water used as a binding for
material such as blocks and bricks.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Safety Requirements in the Workshop Environment are identified
• Always check tools against defects before using
• Use the correct and appropriate tools, instruments or equipment as per the task
required.
• Always wear personal protective equipment (PPE) e.g. gloves, goggles, hard hat,
safety boots and others all the time.
• Follow instructions provided by the authority of the person in charge

230
 • Report any malfunction of tools, equipment or instrument of any incident to the
person in charge.
• Provide materials that show no-go zone such as fencing, these no-go zones may
include possible collapse zones.
• Provide designs and materials for temporary supports
• Building walls and cross walls at the same time to ensure they support each other
• Avoid stacking material against masonry walls
• Wait for masonry walls to attain the correct strength before backfilling.
• Establishing stop heights to allow the masonry walls to achieve or gain strength.
• Provide temporary supports for walls considering its characteristics
• Designing walls to provide additional stability during the construction phase i.e.
adding sequential core filling with reinforcing.

1.2 Masonry Hand Tools are Used Appropriately to Perform Tasks in Masonry
Workshop
A hand tool is a device or equipment that does not require electric power and instead relies
on human hand energy supply to operate and used to perform a particular intended purpose.
The commonly used hand tools include:

• Floats
Used for levelling, filling voids and smoothening surfaces before trowelling. Mainly made
of aluminium, wood, stainless steel or magnesium. There are two types of floats depending
on the scale of use.
• Bull float – used in large areas of concrete
• Hand float – used in small areas of concrete

• Trowel
Trowel comes in different sizes and shapes and is made using stainless steel for the purpose
of durability and quality. Handles are commonly made of wood or plastic. Larger towels
are used for spreading mortar and also random cutting of soft bricks. Smaller trowels are
used for repairing damaged mortar joint. Learning how to hold and load a trowel is a skill
to develop over time.

• Mason’s Hammer
This tool has two ends, square and flat end for hammering nails and the other sharp-chisel
like the end for breaking blocks and bricks. To break blocks and bricks, light blows are
subjected along and around the required point of split and then a sharp blow using a
hammered end will give the required cut. The cut is then cleaned off of burrs, surplus
material and straightening edges and surfaces to greater accuracy using the chisel-like side.

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 • Blocking Chisel
A blocking chisel is made of steel and comes in a variety of shapes and sizes/ they are
heavier and wider. They are required when more or several blocks or bricks are needed to
be split. They are operated by holding the narrow end while striking continuously using a
mashing hammer, sledgehammer or mullet against the bricks to give a clean cut.
Levels
Levels are used to ensure, keep and check horizontal surfaces and planes at 180 degrees
and vertical planes and surfaces at 90 degrees. To achieve the level surface or the right-
angle plane, the bubble inside the tube should line up between two lines at the centre of the
tube.

Mason’s Line
Mason line is a nylon or Dacron string stretches close to the masonry wall from one end or
corner to the other. It is required to make laying blocks or bricks easier and in a straight
line i.e. without bulges and hollows.

Steel Square
This tool is used for checking and verifying a 90-degree angle at the corners of a rectangular
or a square wall while it is being built.

Plumb Bob
This tool is used for laying blocks/bricks and checking a 90-degree angle on walls while
during construction. It consists of a string tied to a weight called bob and straight wood
board with uniform edges and a hole for the string at the centre. On a vertical wall, the
plumb bob must be in the groove line.

Masonry Hammer
Used to strike chisel while splitting a brick/block

Mixing tools
These are tools required for mixing mortar. They include:
The Shovel; used for scooping and measuring aggregate
Hoe; mixing the mortar sand, cement and water, with two holes for ease of use.

1.3 Masonry machine tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in masonry
workshop
Concrete mixer
This is a mechanical device that consists of a rotating drum powered by a mortar that mixes
cement, aggregate and water to form concrete at a slightly higher rate.

232
Masonry saws
This is a powered tool used to cut concrete block/bricks, tiles etc. into precise shapes and
sizes.

Process of Using a Mixer

i. Measure the required amount of material needed for the structure
ii. Connect the mixer to a power source and start the machine
iii. Pour the ingredients into the cement mixer starting with a measured amount of
water followed with cement and ballast if needed.
iv. Allow the machine to rotate until the ingredients are mixed evenly and ready for
use
v. Tilt the mixer and pour the mixture into a carrier (wheelbarrow)
vi. Repeat as needed

Stone Cutting machine

A tile cutter is used in the splitting of tiles to fit uneven flooring. The following are
operational principle;
i. Select the appropriate tile cutter, 2.5 cm longer than the dimensions of the tile
ii. An experienced professional should conduct the process to avoid wastage and loss
of valuable material
iii. Make a mark where you need to cut. Trace a line using a pencil and a ruler to mark
this point. The cuts will correspond with the dimensions of the floor or space.
iv. Double-check the dimensions to make sure that it’s the required size
v. Side the lever of the cutter towards you until the cutter stops
vi. Place a tile with the glazed side facing up. Centre the tile beneath the block rails
and push it forward until it fits snugly against the end stop.

1.4 Masonry tools used in construction works are maintained as per manufacturer’s
specifications
Maintenance of Masonry Tools
i. Use the appropriate and right tool for the tasks to prevent tool and user damage.
ii. Keep all tools in good condition and perform regular checks against defects. Only
qualified professionals should install or repair equipment to avoid mechanical
failure.
iii. Clean tools after use and store the dry tools in a dry place.
iv. Ensure that each tool is free from damage before use to avoid further damage.
v. Avoid altering tools in ways that reduce the performance and effectiveness of the
tool.

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 vi. Comply with manufacture’s manual guide and instructions most pieces of
equipment come with guidelines on procedures of using and maintaining them to
ensure machine effectiveness.
vii. Store all tools in dry places to avoid rust and mechanical damage caused by
dampness.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered safety requirements in the learning environment,
appropriate use and performance of masonry hand tools, appropriate use of masonry
machine tools and maintenance of masonry tools as per manufacturer’s specifications.

Further Reading

1. Study more on other masonry hand and machine tools and their appropriate use.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. How is mortar cleaned from tools?
a) Waiting for the mortar to dry up and then can be easily removed
b) Cleaning immediately using water
c) Cleaning immediately using linseed oil and kerosene
d) Soaking in water and leaving it
2. What is the best way of preventing tools from rusting?
a) Oiling the tools
b) Clean the tools and immediately store in air-conditioned room
c) Keep the tools clean and dry before storage
d) Store wet tools in airtight boxes
3. Which of the following tools is used for checking vertical walls?
a) Level
b) Plumb bob
c) Masons line
d) Steel square

234
4. Most moving parts of masonry machine tools are maintained by?
a) A cleaning agent provided by the manufacturer
b) Clean water
c) Oiling
d) None of the above
5. The following are safety requirements in the workshop environment except one. Which
one is not?
a) Provide signs and perimeters to no go zones
b) Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) while performing tasks
c) Follow instructions from the supervisor
d) Construct masonry walls beyond stop heights to finish construction time
6. Identify one way of maintaining masonry tools?
a) Storing tools in a dry place
b) Cleaning tools before storage
c) Oiling moving parts of tools
d) All of the above
7. Why are tools such as hammers frequently checked against signs of cracking, chipping
or defects?
a) To maintain their cost value
b) To ensure that they are in good condition
c) To ensure that the tools are well-classified
d) To ensure that the tools are not missing
8. Propose some of the tools to be used while constructing a brick wall.
9. Examine the components of mortar?
10. Give four personal protective equipment required during masonry instruction
11. Create a list of safety precautions to observe while handling masonry tools.
12. Distinguish hand tools and power tools

Oral Assessment
1. Classify different masonry tools.
2. Summarise the maintenance of the above tools

Practical Assessment
Construct one-meter high wall 3-meter long brick wall under the supervision of the
instructor

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[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Spade
• Shovel
• Vibrator
• Pneumatic hammer
• Bench shears
• Anvil
• Pipe wrench
• Pliers
• Bending machine
• Portable power drill
• Saws
• Hammer
• Marking gauges
• Hand drill
• Portable drill machine
• Screwdriver
• Pliers
• Leather gloves
• Hand vices
• Pliers
• Submersible
• Reciprocating pump
• Hand pumps

Materials and supplies

• Lumber
• PPR pipes
• PVC pipes
• GI pipes
• Pipe fittings
• Cement
• Sand
• Lime
• Sheet metal
• Steel plates
• Electrical materials
• Electrical appliances
• Plumbing appliances
236
 • Fuel
• Grease
• Oil
• Filters

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Helmets
• Gloves
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots
• Overalls
• Dust masks
• Gas masks
• Dust coats

[Link] References

Ainsld. (2003).Working with concrete (for pros by pros). Newton. Tanton press.
Gilbera. (2003). Roofing and Siding. [Link] books incorporated.
Wolan. (2010) Concrete construction Califonia craftsman Book Company

237
6.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Plumbing Tasks
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Plumbing Tasks
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment • Practical projects

are identified • Demonstration
2.2 Plumbing hand tools are used appropriately to • Oral assessment
perform tasks in plumbing workshop • Direct instruction
2.3 Plumbing machine tools are used appropriately to
perform tasks in plumbing workshop
2.4 Plumbing tools used in construction works are
maintained

[Link] Information Sheet No6/LO2: Perform Plumbing Tasks

Introduction
This learning outcome covers plumbing workshop safety requirements, plumbing hand
tools, and plumbing machine tools, maintenance of Plumbing tools and use of Plumbing
tools.

Definition of key terms

Workshop: It is a fully equipped space containing tools and equipment specific to a
particular task. E.g. a plumbing workshop containing plumbing machinery and equipment.

Plumbing hand tools: These any plumbing tools that function using mechanical means
only without the use of external power.

Plumbing machine tools: These are plumbing tools that use electric power to run their
mortars. They cannot function by mechanical means only.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustration
2.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are identified
The safety requirements are important to keep both the students and instructor safe and
should be observed at all times in workshops.

238
They include:
• Listening carefully to the instructor and following instructions
• No running in the workshop
• Know where the emergency stop buttons are positioned
• Know where the emergency exits are located.
• Always wear an apron to hold loose clothing
• Put all stools away when attempting practical work
• Do not bring bags to the workshop
• Not use machines that one has not been shown how to use properly.
• Keep hands away from moving machinery
• Use tools carefully
• Report any damaged equipment

The safety procedures are identified by observing the type of machinery in the workshop
and by reading instruction manuals of specific machines.

2.2 Plumbing hand tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in plumbing
workshop
Plumbing hand tools include pipe fitters, telescopic tube cuter, adjustable spanner,
adjustable pipe wrench, slip joint pliers, locking pliers, pipe bender, plunger etc.
Table 9: Plumbing tools
Tool Use
Pipe cuter • It is used to cut through most piping with ease. They are
quicker and produce a designer cut than hacksaws.
• They can be used in tight spaces
Telescopic tube cutter • It can cut pipes made of copper clearly and neatly
• It cuts pipes and tubing with a thickness of 6-35 mm
Adjustable spanner • Used to turn nuts and any type of fastening
• They are easily adjusted to fit multiple bolt sizes
Adjustable pipe wrench • It is one of the most basic and essential tools
• It is used to grip onto objects like bolts and surfaces and can
be used to remove stuck objects
Slip joint pliers • They are also known as water pump pliers
• They are used for gripping and holding tops

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How to use an adjustable pipe wrench
i. Select the proper pipe wrench and attach it to the pipe correctly. Adjust the wrench
to fit the appropriate size of the bolt.
ii. One should always make sure to leave some space (about 1.3 cm) between the
shank of the hook jaw on the pipe wrench and the pipe itself. This is because the
gripping action is better with the gap introduced.
iii. When the grip is secure make sure the pipe sits in the “V” of the hook and is in
contact with either side of the “V” to avoid slipping
iv. Proceed to turn the wrench in the desired direction over and over again until the
bold is either tightened or loosened depending on the need.

2.3 Plumbing machine tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in plumbing
workshop
Plumbing machine tools include a sink auger, drill and laser tape measure.

Table 10: Plumbing machine tools

Machine tool use
Sink auger • To break up and clear clogs in sinks and tub
drain

Drill • This is a machine used to drill holes pipes and

other materials
Laser tape measure • It is used to measure distances such as lengths
widths and heights accurately

How to use a sink auger to unclog a drain?

The auger has a corkscrew end attached to a flexible cable that is coiled within a drum
canister. It also has a thumbscrew in the collar for locking the cable when the clog is
reached.
• First, remove the stopper from the drain.
• Loosen the setscrew at the collar to pull out the cable and then insert it into the drain
opening.
• Proceed to push the cable into the opening and when you feel the clog pull out an
extra 30 cm and tighten the set screw.
• Press the button to turn the cable or turn the crank in a manual auger.
• Once the cable is pulled back clean the cable and remove the P-trap.
• Clean and maintain the auger.

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2.4 Plumbing tools used in construction works are maintained as per manufacturer’s
specifications
Plumbing tools are prone to contamination of bacteria due to exposure to sewers and other
contaminated matter.

How to clean and disinfect

Larger tools and equipment are cleaned using a spray disinfectant between regular
clearings.
• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment
• Removes debris
• Wipe or spray all the surfaces with the recommended disinfectant
• Wait for recommended contact time
• Discard all wipes
• As recommended in the instructions follow up with regular cleaning and oiling

Plumbing tools should be maintained by the users or professional maintenance crew for
complex machinery.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered plumbing workshop safety requirements, plumbing hand
tools, and plumbing machine tools, maintenance of Plumbing tools and use of Plumbing
tools.

Further Reading

1. More tools and equipment used for plumbing

2. Methods of using professional equipment

241
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following cannot be used to tighten a bolt?
a) Pipe cutter
b) Shovel
c) Adjustable pipe wrench
d) Masking tape
2. Which tool is the best among the following to be used to make clean fine cutting copper
tubes
a) Telescope tube cutter
b) Slip joint pliers
c) Sink auger
d) Drill
3. Which one of the following is a plumbing machine tool?
a) Hand saw
b) Auger
c) Telescope tube cutter
d) Adjustable spanner
4. Propose some of the safety requirement in a workshop
5. Distinguish between plumbing hand tools and plumbing machine tools.
6. Describe the use of a drill in plumbing.
7. Demonstrate the use of ae an adjustable pipe wrench.
8. On a given drawing material, illustrate the use of a sink auger.

Oral Assessment
1. Outline the safety measures to be observed while carrying out a plumbing exercise.
2. Compare and contrast the uses of a pipe cutter and a handsaw when cutting a 10 mm
pipe?

Project Assessment
Make a well-detailed drawing and analysis of a cold-water system in a simple maisonette.
The house is assumed to have 5 bedrooms, 2 of which are unsuited and one extra share
bathroom. The ground floor has 1 unsuited room and one toilet and the first floor has 1
unsuited room, 3 extra rooms, one bathroom and one toilet.
Use clear illustrations to support your answer.

242
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Spade
• Shovel
• Vibrator
• Pneumatic hammer
• Bench shears
• Anvil
• Pipe wrench
• Pliers
• Bending machine
• Portable power drill
• Saws
• Hammer
• Marking gauges
• Hand drill
• Portable drill machine
• Screwdriver
• Pliers
• Leather gloves
• Hand vices
• Pliers
• Submersible
• Reciprocating pump
• Hand pumps

Materials and supplies

• PPR pipes
• PVC pipes
• GI pipes
• Pipe fittings
• Cement
• Plumbing appliances
• Fuel
• Grease
• Oil
• Filters

243
Personal protective equipment (PPEs)
• Helmets
• Gloves
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots
• Overalls
• Dust masks
• Gas masks
• Dust coats

[Link] References

Miller, Rex, Mark Richard (2004). Audel Plumbers Pocket Manual (10th Ed), Wiley
Publishing
The Copper Development Association (2006). Copper Tube Handbook, New York, USA,
The Copper Development Association

244
6.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Perform Carpentry Tasks
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Perform Carpentry Tasks
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify safety requirements in the workshop environment • Demonstration

3.2 Use carpentry hand tools appropriately to perform tasks in • Group work
carpentry workshop • Practical assessment
3.3 Use carpentry machine tools appropriately to perform tasks
in carpentry workshop
3.4 Maintain carpentry tools used in construction works

[Link] Information Sheet No6/LO3: Perform Carpentry Tasks

Introduction
This learning outcome covers identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, appropriate use of carpentry machine tools in the carpentry workshop,
appropriate use of carpentry machine tools to perform tasks in the carpentry workshop and
maintenance of carpentry tools used in construction work as per the manufacturer’s
specifications.

Definition of key terms

Welding: This refers to the act of joining together metal or plastic parts by exposing the
surface to heat and pressure.

Carpentry: This is the act of shaping, cutting, joining and sculpting of wood or timber
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are identified
Safety requirements in a workshop
All persons using workshops should apply good housekeeping practices which are;
• Removal of rings and lose jewellery before operating machinery.
• Always keep a tidy workplace which makes it easier to spot and avoid hazards.
• Always wear appropriate footwear and clothing such as gloves, overalls and
safety glasses.
• Only use the workshop for its intended purpose.
• Do not operate electrical machinery using wet hands.

245
 • Long hair should be tied up and nails kept neat and short
• The workshop should be well lit.
• The workshop should have adequate sanitary and hygienic washing facilities.
• The workshop should be equipped with adequate fire-fighting equipment.

3.2 Carpentry hand tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in carpentry
workshop
Carpentry hand tools
All carpentry hand tools should be used and stored appropriately to perform tasks in a
carpentry workshop. Some of the carpentry hand tools used in the making of a quality end
product are listed below:
• Claw hammer
• Tape measure
• Utility knife and blades
• Moisture meter
• Chisel
• Level
• Screwdriver
• Nail set
• Sliding level
• Layout square
• Pliers
• Anvil

a) The claw hammer: This is a tool primarily used for driving nails or pulling them
out from an object
b) Tape measure: This is a tool primarily used to measure the distance from one point
to another. It consists of metal, ribbon, plastic or fibreglass with linear
measurements markings.
c) Utility knife and blades: This is a tool used for general cutting consisting of a
blade usually 4-7 inches.
d) Moisture meter: This is a digital instrument used to detect the level or amount of
moisture content in materials.
e) Chisel: This refers to a tool shaped cutting edge of a blade on its end used for
carving, sculpting or cutting materials such as wood.
f) Level: This is a tool consisting of a small glass tube containing alcohol or a similar
liquid and an air bubble used to indicate the horizontal plane of a material or a
surface.

246
How to use a level?
Place the level on a flat surface and mark at the end of the level. Make another mark along
the side of the level under the flacon in the Centre. Take the reading of the position of the
bubble.

3.3 Carpentry machine tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in carpentry
workshop
Carpentry machine tools
Carpentry machines are usually powered by electric motors intended ro process wood.
Some of these machines are listed below;

Table 11: List of Tools

Drill press Wood lathe
Bench grinder Panel saw
Mortiser Pin router
Band saw Nail gun
Combination machine Chain saw
Drum sander Electric drill
Jointer Thicknesses

• Drill press

Figure 80: Drill press

Source: Https: //[Link]

Also known as pedestal drill, pillar drill or bench drill is a machine mounted on a stand or
bolted on the floor used for producing holes in hard materials.

247
How to use a drill press?
Open the chuck, side in a bit snuck the chuck by hand around the bit’s shaft, then tighten
the chuck’s three jaws with the key. Make sure to remove the chuck. When drilling large
holes, drill a smaller pilot hole first. Set the table to the desired height for the operation you
have to perform. Secure the workpiece to be drilled. Make sure the drill is operational and
introduce it to the bit of the workpiece. Once you have finished drilling, release pressure
on the level and it would return to its original position.
• Bench grinder
This is a benchtop or worktop type of machine used to drive abrasive wheels for grinding
materials.
• Mortiser

Figure 81: Mortiser

Source: Https: //[Link]

This is a machine used to cut square or rectangular holes in a piece of timber. Some types
of mortises include; square chisel, horizontal or slot mortise and chain mortiser.

248
 • band saw

Figure 82: Band saw

Source: Https: //[Link]
This is a machine consisting of a long, sharp blade with a continuous band of toothed metal
stretched between two wheels used in cutting materials.

• Combination machine
This is a machine that combines the functionality of two or more separate machines into a
single unit used for woodworking and customized craftsmanship.

• Drum sander
This is a powerful machine with replaceable abrasive sheets which sand wooden surfaces
to a shiny smooth finish.

• Jointer
This is a machine used to merge two edges or surfaces in order to produce a wider board
by producing flat edges on boards.

3.4 Carpentry tools used in construction works are maintained as per manufacturer’s
specifications
Maintenance of carpentry tools
After performing woodworking activities and processes, the tools and equipment should
be properly cleaned and stored to prevent damage to the tools and promote their life cycle
through;
i. Proper storage of tools through hanging them on pegboards, putting them in boxes
or drawers or chests
ii. Clean, inspect and care for tools through wiping using a rag so as to be sure they
are free of residual debris.
iii. Inspect tools for wear and damage in order to prevent additional costs for the
purchase of new equipment.

249
 iv. Lubricate moving machine parts so as to prevent rusting, wear and tear.
v. Keep batteries, plugs and wipes in shape so as to prevent them from intertwining
causing breakages and acid leakage from batteries.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, appropriate use of carpentry machine tools in the carpentry workshop,
appropriate use of carpentry machine tools to perform tasks in the carpentry workshop and
maintenance of carpentry tools used in construction work as per the manufacturer’s
specifications.

Further Reading

From the internet, research more on the safety requirements in a workshop, examples and
use of carpentry hand tools and machinery.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following mortises is false?
a) Signature chisel mortiser
b) Circular chisel mortiser
c) Horizontal mortiser
d) Chain mortiser
2. Which one of the following is not an example of a carpentry hand tool?
a) Claw hammer
b) Mallet
c) Tape measure
d) Level
3. Which one of the following is a machine used to cut square or rectangular holes in a
piece of timber?
a) Square chisel
b) Horizontal mortise
c) Slot mortiser
d) Chain mortise

250
4. Among the following; which one is not a carpentry machine use in a workshop?
a) Jointer
b) Drum sander
c) All of the above
d) None of the above
5. In a level, a specific liquid is usually placed in the air bubble to identify the liquid
among the following choices
a) Alcohol
b) Spirit
c) Water
d) Oil
6. Which of the following is not an example of a carpentry hand tool?
a) Claw hammer
b) Level
c) Mortise
d) Combined machine
7. Which of the following materials is not used when marking the linear measurements in
a tape measure?
a) Ribbon
b) Metal
c) Wood
d) Plastic
8. Outline the uses and function of a mortise.
9. Compare and contrast the types of mortise.
10. Develop a plan to carry out machinery maintenance in a simple workshop.
11. Investigate the function of a combination machine
12. Develop a safety guide for a workshop.

Oral Assessment
1. Propose hand tools to use when building a wooden bench
2. Classify the different machine tools.

Practical Assessment
Among the methods and procedures of maintenance of hand tools, carry out one of the
methods of tool maintenance and take sufficient photographs showing how you carried out
the task in a systematic order.

251
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Spade
• Shovel
• Vibrator
• Pneumatic hammer
• Bench shears
• Anvil
• Pipe wrench
• Pliers
• Bending machine
• Portable power drill
• Saws
• Hammer
• Marking gauges
• Hand drill
• Portable drill machine
• Screwdriver
• Pliers
• Leather gloves
• Hand vices
• Pliers
• Submersible
• Reciprocating pump
• Hand pumps

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Helmets
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots
• Overalls
• Dust masks
• Gas masks
• Dust coats

252
[Link] References

Alban J. Lynch. (2005). The history of grinding. New York: Springer

Black & Decker. (2018). Carpentry made simple. Minneapolis: Cool springs.
Brian Porter. (2013). Carpentry and joinery, vol.2. London: Routledge.

253
6.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Perform Electrical Operations
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Perform electrical operations
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are • Demonstration

identified • Practical
4.2 Conventional tools used in the electrical workshop are assessment
identified • Oral assessments
4.3 Power supply sources are identified
4.4 Basic electrical circuits are installed and maintained

[Link] Information Sheet No6/LO4: Perform Electrical Operations

Introduction
This learning outcome covers identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, identification of conventional tools as per SOPs, identification of power
supply sources as per SOPs, installation and maintenance of basic electrical circuits as per
IEE regulations.

Definition of key terms

IEE wiring regulations.
Are based on the British standards (7671) which set the standards for all domestic and
industrial installations and wiring.

Side cutter
This is a tool used to cut the wire and the leads of components in electrical devices as well
as in stripping the insulation from wires.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are identified as per SOPs
When working in an electrical workshop, safety and caution must be observed to avoid
injury or in extreme cases death. Safety requirements can be identified and given form
verbal instructions from the supervisor, written instructions from the manuals obtained
from some equipment in the workshops, general and careful observations of students
and common knowledge.

254
 The basic safety requirements for an electrical workshop include;
a) Avoid working with both hands since it increases the likelihood of current passing
through the chest cavity.
b) Assume all electrical devices to be live to avoid ignorant accidents or incidents.
c) Disconnect devices from the power source before doing any repair works.
d) Do not use tools with conducting handles when working with electrical devices to
avoid cases of electrocution.
e) Wear nonconductive protective clothes to handle plugged in equipment and
devices.
f) In case of spillage, do not move live equipment or devices away from the source
but instead shut off power at the main switch or circuit breaker.
g) Ensure all conductors and contacts are properly enclosed to avoid injuries and
accidents.
h) Do not handle equipment with wet hands, feet or body when standing on a wet
floor to avoid electrocution.
i) Highly flammable fluids should not be stored near electrical equipment to avoid
any accidents arising.
j) Avoid equipment with damaged insulation or broken plugs.
k) Drain capacitors before removing them from a circuit to avoid electric shock.
l) Wear goggles and avoid fumes when soldering circuit boards.
m) Do not overload electric outlets.
n) Use non-metallic drawing equipment like pencils and rulers as well as non-
metallic watchbands and jewellery to avoid electrical shock.

4.2 Conventional tools used in the electrical workshop are identified as per SOPs
Electrical tools are essential for carrying out electrical operations effectively. These tools
have been proven over the years to meet the demands of the current generation but there
remain tools that every electrical personnel require. They can be further be classified into
hand tools and machine tools.
a) Hand tools
These are tools that are operated without the use of external power sources and can be
operated by hand and are usually portable.
Examples of hand tools
• Multimeter
It is a flexible instrument as it is able to measure voltage, current resistance and capacitance
among others. They can either be analogue or digital depending on preference.

255
Figure 83: Multimeter
Source: Https: //[Link]

How to use a digital multimeter

A multimeter has 3 main parts: Display, selection knob and ports.

On measuring voltage,
i. Plug the black test lead into the terminal labelled “COM” for voltage to measure
both AC and DC voltage.
ii. Move the dial to V- for AC voltage (voltage in a socket) or V- for DC voltage (
power sources directly i.e. batteries)
iii. Turn the dial to a higher voltage than the one expected or if unsure set it in a
generally high region before lowering it to get a better reading.
iv. Connect the black probe to the batteries ground/’-and the red probe to power or ‘+’
to measure the DC voltage.
v. Put probes in corresponding wall socket slots to measure AC voltage but avoid
probes from contacting each other. Additional caution is required when dealing with
AC current as it can be dangerous. Thus, a noncontact tester is preferred than a
digital multimeter.
vi. Observe the multimeter to acquire the reading needed to show whether the voltage
is appropriate.

NOTE: If you encounter a negative reading on the multimeter, it simply means the red and
black probes are switched.

256
Wire stripper
It is a handheld tool used to strip or cut off wire insulation and is designed with various
sized cutting teeth to accommodate different sizes of wires. It also includes cutting jaws
for trimming wire ends. There are some types that combine the use of crimping wires and
stripping the vinyl insulation from wires.

Figure 84: Wire Stripper

Source: Https://[Link]

Fish tape
This is a tool used to pull wires through electrical and PVC conduits by creating a new
route for wiring.
This is done by pulling the tape out of the wheel by pressing a button or pulling a lever
then feeding the tape into the conduit until it emerges from the other end where the wires
are attached to the fish tape in order to pull them through the conduit.

Figure 85: Fish tape

Source: Https: //[Link]

Pliers
There are various types of pliers required for electrical operations with the main ones
including side cutting pliers specially designed for trimming wires and cutting small wires.
Longnose pliers are used for cutting and holding of fine wires in tight spaces. Other types
of pliers include slip joint pliers, retainer ring pliers and snap ring pliers.

Screwdrivers
They are essential to most crafts and technical disciplines including electrical operations.
They are used to loosen or tighten screws with slotted heads.

257
The different types of screwdrivers include electronic screwdrivers, multi-tip screwdrivers,
precision screwdriver sets and many more.

b) Machine tools.
i. electric drill.
It is a motor-driven power drill with a replaceable drill bit used to make holes in wood,
metal, plastic. It is especially useful with larger products.

Figure 86: Electric drill

Source: Https: //[Link]
ii. Power saw
Power saw varies with the type and scope of the work being done with examples of saws
used for electrical work including hole saws, cut off saws and portable band saws. They
are especially useful to ensure clean cuts at optimum speed and high performance.

Figure 87 power saw; source [Link]

4.3 Power supply sources are identified as per SOPs

A power supply source is an electrical device used to provide electrical supply to electrical
and electronic equipment.

There are two main types of power supply;

a. AC power supply
An AC power source such as AC mains used to supply power to homes acquires voltage
from the mains supply and uses a step up or step down the voltage.

AC power supply is further classified into:

• Single-phase systems.
• Three phased systems

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Figure 88: AC Graph

c. DC power supply
These are power sources that produce DC currents as the output basic DC is built with 4
circuits each with a core function.

Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

Figure 89: Transformer.

Step-up/step down voltage.

Rectifier
Provides a pulsating DC signal.

Filter
Change/convert DC signal to non-pulsating DC signal.

Regulator
• Smooth DC signal.
• Provides constant voltage at the output.

There are other types of the power supply based on AC and DC current including linear
power supply, switched power supply, uninterrupted power supply, regulated power
supply, programmable power supply, computer power supply and linear power supply.

259
Figure 90: DC Graph

4.4 Basic electrical circuits are installed and maintained as per IEE regulations
An electrical circuit is a continuous path or loop that allows electrical current to flow
from the power source through the wiring to the electrical device and back to the power
source.
Electrical circuits essentially convert electrical energy to another source of energy at the
load (electrical device) such as a bulb.
There are generally two types of circuits; AC and DC-based on the power supply but
there are other types such as series circuit, short circuit, open circuit and closed circuit
based on the construction of the circuit.

Figure 91: Basic electric circuit

Installation of basic circuits

Installation procedure described as per IEE regulations of a switched socket which in this
case is a 15A switched socket outlet for 50Hz, 240V AC power supply.

Material requirement.
• PVC box for 15A switched socket outlet.
• 1 switched outlet.
• 1 MCB 16A from an already installed Distribution Board (DB).

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Preparation
i. Install socket outlet box at the required position.
ii. Lay 13mm PVC conduit from the Distribution Board to the receptacle position.
iii. Colour code wires correctly.

Procedure
i. Ensure power is isolated (shut down).
ii. Connect the phase (live wire) to the outgoing side of a 16A MCB from Distribution
Board.
iii. Connect the neutral wire to the neutral link provided in the DB and draw 15A
receptacle and connect to the terminal marked N.
iv. Connect the earth wire to the earth link provided in the DB.
v. It is advisable to number the phase and neutral wires at the DB for easy identification.

Maintenance of electrical circuits

Lubricate rollers and bearing surfaces in the operating mechanism to avoid drying out
which slows down the operating speed of the circuit breaker.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, identification of conventional tools as per SOPs, identification of power
supply sources as per SOPs, installation and maintenance of basic electrical circuits as per
IEE regulations.

Further Reading

1. Specifications required for power supply.

2. Features of AC and DC power supplies.
3. IEE wiring regulations.
4. Single-phase systems.
5. Three-phase systems.

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which measuring tool is used to measure more than one function?
a) Voltmeter.
b) Multimeter.
c) Fish tape.
d) Tape measure.
2. What is the function of a filter in a DC power supply?
a) Convert DC signal to AC signal.
b) Convert AC signal to DC signal.
c) Convert DC signal to non-pulsating DC signal.
d) Convert AC signal to non-pulsating DC signal.
3. Which tool is used to strip or cut off the insulation from wires?
a) Pliers.
b) Wire stripper.
c) Screwdriver.
d) Electric drill.
4. Which one is not an example of a hand tool?
a) Screws.
b) Power saw
c) Fish tape.
d) Pliers.
5. How many circuits are found within a basic DC supply?
a) 2.
b) 6.
c) 1
d) 4
6. Which one is not a type of electrical circuit?
a) Series circuit.
b) AC circuit.
c) Parallel circuit.
d) Conduct circuit.
7. What does SOPs stand for?
a) Standard operating procedure.
b) Standard occupational procedure.
c) Short operating procedure.
d) Specific operating procedure.

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8. Sketch a simple electric circuit using a cell and two bulbs
9. Outline safety requirements for an electric workshop.
10. Develop a safety requirement plan for a busy workshop.
11. Compare and contrast direct current and alternating current
12. Why is it important to avoid using both hands in the workshop? Explain

Oral Assessment
1. Demonstrate the use of a multimeter.
2. Given electrical drawings, derive the materials required to perform the electrical tasks.

Practical Assessment
Design an electric layout plan for a simple 2-bedroom bungalow and thereafter create a
simple electric circuit for wiring a fluorescent lamp using 1 36W 4ft fluorescent lamp, 1
starter and base, 2 fluorescent lamp holders, 1 MCB of 6A from an already installed
Distribution Board, 1, 2.5 microfarad correction capacitor.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Pliers
• Portable power drill
• Saws
• Hand drill
• Screwdrivers
• Close-cut saw
• Portable drill machine
• Long nose
• Side cutter
• Draw in wire
• Electrical knife
• Electrical hammer

Materials and supplies

• Electrical materials
• Electrical appliances

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Helmets
• Gloves
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots

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 • Overalls
• Dust masks
• Dust coats

[Link] References

Grant, Casey C. (2013) interoperable electronic safety equipment; performance

requirements for compatible and interoperable electronic equipment for emergency
first responders. New York: Springer science and business media.
Lenk, Ron. (2005). The practical design of power supplies. New York. Wiley/IEEE.
Mark, Raymond A. (2005) demystifying switching power supplies, Oxford: Newness

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6.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Perform Mechanical Operations
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Perform mechanical operations
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

5.1 Identify Safety requirements in the workshop • Practical tests

environment • Direct
5.2 Use Mechanical hand tools appropriately to perform tasks instruction
in the mechanical workshop • Oral
5.3 Identify diesel and petrol engine components assessment
5.4 Operate diesel and petrol engines
5.5 Perform simple engine maintenance
5.6 Identify water pumps based on the working principle
5.7 Perform basic maintenance on water pumps

[Link] Information Sheet No6/LO5: Perform Mechanical Operations

Introduction
This learning outcome covers identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, appropriate use of mechanical hand tools to perform tasks in the mechanical
workshop, identification of diesel and petrol engine components, operation of diesel and
petrol engines, maintenance of the simple engine, identification of water pumps and
performance of basic maintenance on water pumps.

Definition of key terms

Tinsnips: Also known as shears they are designed to cut and trim sheet metals and other
tough materials.

Centrifugal: This is moving or directed away from the axis or centre. A centrifuge is an
equipment that applies a centrifugal force that puts an object in rotation around a fixed
centre.

Reciprocating pump: This is a class of positive displacement pumps where a volume of

liquid is collected in an enclosed space and discharged using pressure.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Safety requirements in the workshop environment are identified as per sops
Before using any machine or equipment in the workshop all persons should read the
following carefully and understand the safety requirements which include;
• Always listen carefully and follow the teacher’s instructions
• No running in the workshop, it could cause an accident
• Locate the position of all the emergency exits and stop buttons in the workshop.
• Always wear overall, dust coat or apron to protect your clothes and the safety of
the eyeglasses to protect your eyes.
• Wear heavy-duty boots when coming to the workshop.
• Always wear reflective jackets and helmet when operating machinery.
• Put all stools away when working on practical.
• Do not operate a machine without supervision unless you have been shown how to
operate it safely.
• Report any damages to tools, machines or equipment immediately

Safety procedures in a workshop can be identified through;

i. Completely reading the instruction manuals for machinery and equipment.
ii. Observing the type of machinery and equipment in the workshop
iii. Careful listening to the instructions given by the teacher or instructor

5.2 Mechanical hand tools are used appropriately to perform tasks in mechanical
workshop
Mechanical hand tools are tools which are driven by hand and not powered by electricity
or a motor. These tools are categorized by;
a) Wrenches- it is used to loosen or tighten, bolts, screws, nuts, mechanical caps and
casing. They are classified into
• Key: They look like old fashioned keys without teeth and are specialized i.e.
bottle openers, window cranks and Allen wrenches
• Socket: It can either be a handle that is attached to a cylindrical socket or a
single piece
• Spanners: It has pins or hooks and is used to turn spanner handle i.e. adjustable
wrenches
b) Pliers: It is used to firmly hold objects, bend and compress materials. The different
types of pliers include;
• Hose clamp pliers; it compresses hose and spring clamps.
• Snap ring pliers; used for gears on mountain bikes and similar vehicles
• Battery pliers; maintain bolts on car batteries and jumper cables.

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c) Snips; used for cutting and trimming sheet metal and other tough materials. They are
categorized as:
• Tinnier snips: Straight pattern
• Compound action snips: Cut down aluminium in the construction of aircrafts
• Configuration snips: Snips that are different in configuration.

d) Screwdrivers: Used for removing or installing screws. It is classified by its tip i.e.
• Slotted drivers; it has a single slot on the head of the screw and is driven by a
flat-bladed screwdriver.
• Cruciform drivers; the head of the fastener has cross shape i.e. reason
screwdriver

Procedure on how to use a wrench

i. Identify the item to be tightened or loosened is it a bolt, nut, screw, mechanical cap
or casing
ii. Turn the screw mechanism to open the adjustable wrench to fit the size of the screw
iii. Slip the open jaw over the screw then turn the screw mechanism to clamp tightly
iv. Turn the wrench clockwise or anticlockwise to tighten or loosen respectively
v. Loosen the screw mechanism on the adjustable wrench to remove it

5.3 Diesel and petrol engine components are identified based on their functions and
engine system
A diesel engine is any internal combustion engine which air is compressed to a sufficiently
high temperature in the cylinder to ignite diesel fuel through mechanical compression.

Components of a diesel engine

• Cylinder block: Solid casting including cylinder and water jackets
• Cylinder holes: Found in the cylinder block and contain the piston
• Pistons: Movable plugs open at one end which transfer explosion force to the
connecting rod.
• Connecting rod; a link between the piston and crankshaft
• Crankshaft; changes the reciprocating motion of the piston to the rotary motion in
the power train.
• Crankshaft gear drivers- idle gear/camshaft
• Camshaft; have cam lobes which operate the values
• Timing gear; drives the camshaft
• Cam lobes; eccentrics on the camshaft which operate values
• Timing rods; rod links that transfer motion from the lifter to the rocket arm
• Rocket arm; transfer motion from pushrod to a valve
• Valve lifter; rides on the camshaft so that the cam lobe raises it to operate the valve.
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 • Cooling passageways; hollow spaces in the block through which coolant circulates.
• Wrist pin; floating connecting piece for piston and connecting rod.
• Oil pump; minimizes friction by providing pressure to circulate oil to rotate engine
parts
• Oil pan; a reservoir for engine or oil
• Intake valve; allows air to enter the cylinder.
• Exhaust valve; allows exhaust gases to be expelled from the engine
• Flywheel; attached to the end of the camshaft and provides inertia to carry the
crankshaft from one firing impulse to the other
• Pushrods; links that transfer motion from the lifter to the rocker arm.
• Valves; open and close the cylinder to allow air to enter or gases to leave.

These parts or components of an engine can be identified through instructions by a teacher

or instructor through illustrations from a model of an engine. The petrol engine is an
internal combustion engine with sparks, ignition or spark plugs and the air end fuel are
mixed after compression to ignite the air-fuel mixture. It comprises of
• Spark plugs; supply the plugs that ignite the air-fuel mixtures
• Valves; intake and exhaust valves open and close to let in air and fuel and expel
exhaust respectively
• Piston; a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder
• Piston rings; provides a sliding ring between the outer edge of the piston and the
inner edge of the cylinder to prevent air-fuel mixtures and exhaust from leaking
into the sump and prevent oil from the sump from leaking into the combustion area
• Connection rod; connects the piston from the crankshaft
• Crankshaft; turns pistons up and down in a circular motion
• Sumps; contains oil/ reservoir (oil pan)

5.4 Diesel and petrol engines are operated based on the manufacturer’s manual
Operating a diesel engine
i. When the piston begins to move down, the inlet valve opens and the air is sucked
in
ii. Then the inlet valve closes at the bottom of the stroke and the piston rises to
compress air
iii. At the top of the stroke fuel is squirted in which then ignites and forces the piston
down
iv. When the piston is travelling upwards the exhaust valve opens and the burnt gas/
exhaust is expelled.

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5.5 Simple engine maintenance is performed as per manufacturer’s specifications
• Perform regular oil changes to prevent the accumulation of black sludge
• Regular checking of the engine coolant and the cooling system to prevent the engine
from overheating
• Regular changing of oil filters to ensure that the air entering the engine is clean free
from debris.

Simple engine maintenance could be done through checking the engine oil, coolant and air
filters in an existing engine and determining if they are up to standard or functioning.

5.6 Water pumps are identified based on the working principle

A water pump is a machine that moves water from one point to another through mechanical
action. They are categorized as;
• Direct lift
• Displacements
• Gravity pumps

Types of water pumps

• Gravity pumps: Water is lifted by gravity and gravitational force.

• Impulse pumps: It uses the pressure created by gas where the gas trapped in the liquid
is released and accumulated in the pump which creates pressure which creates pressure
which pushes the liquid upwards.

• Centrifugal pumps: It uses centrifugal force to pump water and is mostly operated by
an electric motor. Water pumps can be identified by reading the instruction manual to
understand how it functions in order to determine the type.

5.7 Basic maintenance is performed on water pumps as per sops

• Double-check to ensure that speed of water pumps corresponds with the output of
horsepower
• Examine for any damages, leakages, or wear and tear
• Check and clean seals and oiling bearings

Performing basic maintenance could be done through checking of the:

• Functioning
• Output
• Sound

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered identification of safety requirements in the workshop
environment, appropriate use of mechanical hand tools to perform tasks in the mechanical
workshop, identification of diesel and petrol engine components, operation of diesel and
petrol engines, maintenance of simple engines, identification of water pumps and
performance of basic maintenance on water pumps as per sops.

Further Reading

From the internet, read more on:

1. Parts of pliers
2. Parts of screwdriver
3. Operating a petrol engine
4. Borewell compressor
5. Shallow good pumps
6. Pressure booster pumps

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. In a diesel engine, the fuel is injected by
a) Igniter
b) Heat resulting from compression
c) Spark
d) Injected fuel
2. A diesel engine has
a) One valve
b) Two valves
c) Three valves
d) Four valves
3. All are safety wears expect
a) Overall
b) Training boots
c) Helmet
d) Reflector jackets

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4. All the following are mechanical hand tools except
a) Allen wrench
b) Battery pliers
c) Tinsnips
d) Power saw
5. The moving part of a centrifugal pump is called a
a) Impeller
b) Volute
c) Diffuser
d) Suction nozzle
6. In a centrifugal pump, the liquid enters the pump
a) At the centre
b) At the bottom
c) At the top
d) From sides
7. To carry out engine maintenance you do the following except
a) Regular oil changes
b) Changing of oil filters check and mend seals
c) Checking engine coolant
8. Analyse five parts of a diesel engine
9. Evaluate on cooling passageways
10. Compare and contrast between the diesel engine and petrol engine.
11. Evaluate two basic maintenance of a water pump
12. Develop a safety plan to be carried out in a workshop in case of emergency

Oral Assessment
1. Simulate how a diesel engine work?
2. Analyse a cooling passage?

Case Study Assessment

Mr Karanja who is an architect was going for a site visit discovered that his car was
expelling black smoke from its exhaust. As a mechanical operations consultant explain to
Mr. Karanja what he should do to avoid polluting the environment

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Centrifugal
• Submersible
• Reciprocating pump
• Hand pumps
• Hand grinder

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Materials and supplies
• Fuel
• Grease
• Oil
• Filters

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Helmets
• Gloves
• Safety goggles
• Safety boots
• Overalls

[Link] References

Edgan T. West bury (2007) Model Petrol Engines Maharashtra; Knowledge publications
James Rishel (2001) Water pumps and Pumping Systems. New York; M.C. Grow Hill
Education
Klaus Mollenhaver, Helmut Tschoke (2010). Handbook of Diesel Engines. New York;
Springer Science and Business Media

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 CHAPTER 7: MEASUREMENT OF WORKS AND COST ESTIMATION

7.1 Introduction
This unit describes competencies required to perform measurement of works and cost
estimation. It involves preparing tender documents, taking off quantities, working up
dimensions and abstracting measured quantities

7 .2 Performance Standard
Prepare tender documents, take off quantities, work up dimensions and abstract measured
quantities as per the client’s requirements, SOPs, specifications and drawings, nature of the
project, conditions of the contract, and nature of the contract.

7.3.1 Summary of Learning Outcomes

a) Prepare tender documents
b) Take off quantities
c) Work up dimensions
d) Abstract measured quantities

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7.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Tender Documents
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Tender Documents
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Working drawings (Architectural, Structural, Electrical, • Direct instruction

Mechanical, Civil) are prepared • Project
1.2 Identify Specifications (Material, Workmanship) are • Case studies
prepared • Field trips
1.3 Bill of quantities is prepared
1.4 Schedule of rates are prepared
1.5 Condition of contract is prepared
1.6 Form of agreement is prepared
1.7 Form of tender is prepared

[Link] Information Sheet No7/LO1: Prepare Tender Documents

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers prepare tender documents, working drawing, specification
and bill of quantities.

Definition of key terms

Bill of quantities: These are documents that contains all measured quantities required for
the completion of the project.

Tender documents: This is a document containing specifications, BoQ, schedules as well

as working drawings that are to be used during the project.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Working drawings (Architectural, Structural, Electrical, Mechanical, Civil) are
prepared as per client requirements
Working drawings are a guide to how the final outcome should resemble. These drawings
should be followed closely and interpreted in the right way to ensure that the project being
undertaken meets the desires of the client.
Such drawings include:

274
 a. Architectural drawings
Architectural drawings form the back bone for all construction works. This is because, it
defines the site plan as well as the placing of objects and the required type of material
needed for the construction works.

b. Structural drawings
Structural drawings define the specific sizes of the structural members. These structural
members could be beams, columns, and load bearing walls as well as trusses.
The structural drawings are fully dependent on the architectural drawings.

c. Electrical drawings
These drawings normally show the position of electric switches as well as positions for
electronics installations.

d. Mechanical drawings
e. Civil drawings
These includes drawings for highway/ transport projects. They define the materials to be
used as well as the thickness of the transport system.
Apart from the transport system drawings, civil drawings also define the positions of water
and waste water pipes.

1.2 Identify Specifications (Material, Workmanship) are prepared as per SOPs

Specifications are such as designs, drawings, blueprints etc.
• They describe the work, material as well as the kind of work that need to be done
by the contractor.
• The type of material and its required quality should never be compromised for any
project.
• It is very important to ensure that as a contractor you have clearly understood the
specifications of your work and hire someone to interpret to you if need be.
• Also, the contractor is expected to involve only experts in the given field to work
with otherwise, he/she, might compromise the quality of the work done.

1.3 Bill of quantities is prepared based on specifications and working drawings

Bill of Quantities, (BOQ) is a document that contains all measured quantities required for
the completion of the project. The BoQ is prepared in such a way that it meets
specifications and drawings provided.
Below is a sample BoQ.

275
Table 12: A sample BoQ.
Item Quantity Unit price Total price
1 Cement 25bags 1000/= 25000/=
2 Ballast 20 lorries 800/= 16000/=
3 Sand 15 lorries 1500/= 22500/=
4 Steel, T16 250kg 100/= 25000/=
5 Steel, T12 400kg 200/= 80000/=
6 Masonry 20 lorries 300/= 6000/=

Note: The data above is only used for the purpose of demonstrating how a BoQ looks like.
The values are not correct.

1.4 Schedule of rates are prepared as per SOPs

These are provided by the contractor pertaining the rates of plants hire, man power costs
as well as rates of work completion. The schedule of rates is commonly developed by the
contractor who submits it to the client. This is important as it gives a clear indication on
what is expected on site and the client can easily supervise the kind of work done.
Due to the variation in contracts types, schedule of rates differs as well.

1.5 Condition of contract is prepared based on nature of the project

Contract is a legal agreement between two or more parties. For example, an agreement
between the client and the contracting company. Every contract is unique in its own way
depending on the nature of the project. The key elements in any contract are;
• Payment considerations
• Exists an offer and an acceptance
• Both parties have an intention to create a legal relationship
The different types of contracts are:
a. Lump sum contract
• This type of contract is also known as fixed contract.
• In this type of contract, the contractor agrees to do a specified amount of work
at a fixed amount of money.
b. Admeasurement contracts
• It is also known as measure and value contract.
• For this contract, the client provides the Bill of Quantities and the contractor
quotes against each of the listed items in the BoQ.
• The sum of the item costs forms the total project cost.
• Other types of contracts under admeasurement contracts include; -
 Cost plus contracts
 Unit price contracts

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c. Turnkey contract
• In this type of contract, the contractor is given the work and has to delivered the
project in a completion. The client doesn’t take part in any decisions in this type
of contract.
• Instead, he/she can hire a developer who makes such decision for them.
d. Design and build
• As the name states, the contractor agrees to do both design and construction
works.
• This method has become common these days as many engineers are turning
into contractors and do the entire design and construction works.

1.6 Form of agreement is prepared as per the conditions of the contract

These are standardized forms in which the agreement of the client and the contracting
company is put.
Standard forms (forms of agreement) differ based on;
• Type of the project
• Main contract or sub-contract
• Public or private works
• Local or international

Some of the standard forms include:

• Joint Building council Kenya (JBC)
• The FIDIC
• Public Procurement Oversight Authority (PPOA)
• The Orange book

1.7 Form of tender is prepared based on the nature of the contract

Also known as the tender document. As discussed above there are different contracts.
Different contracts contain different tender forms.
However, certain elements in the tender forms are common and they include: -
• Work Drawings
• Specifications
• Bill of quantities
• General conditions
• Construction schedule
Tender forms are normally issued before the contract can be awarded to a contractor.
Once the form is filled with the relevant information, it is submitted back to the client who
gives consideration to one contractor who meets the threshold of his specifications putting
budget into considerations.

277
Conclusion
This unit covers competencies required to perform measurement of works and cost
estimation. It involves preparing tender documents, taking off quantities, working up
dimensions and abstracting measured quantities

Further Reading

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The following are types of contracts which one is not?
a) Turn key
b) Lumpsum contract
c) Design and build contract
d) Public contracts
2. Which of the following is not included in the BoQ?
a) Quantity
b) Unit price
c) Specifications
d) Item
3. Working drawings are necessary for any engineering works. Which of the following is
not a working drawing?
a) Civil drawings
b) Mechanical drawings
c) Civil works
d) Electrical drawing
4. Which of the following is not a standard contract form?
a) JBC
b) PPOA
c) BoQ
d) FIDIC

278
5. Nature of the contract document depends on the following except?
a) Public/private works
b) Local/international works
c) Type of the project
d) Time of the year
6. Tender forms have the following except?
a) Specifications
b) Construction schedule
c) FIDIC
d) BoQ
7. What is not included in a contract document?
a) Payment considerations
b) Exists an offer and an acceptance
c) Both parties have an intention to create a legal relationship
d) Specifications
8. Define turnkey contracts
9. What is Bill of quantities
10. Why is it important to tender?
11. What are civil drawings?
12. Define civil drawings
13. Compare and contrast Turnkey contracts and design and build contracts
14. Describe the different types of working drawings

Oral Assessment
1. In your own understanding define tendering
2. Who is eligible for tendering?

Oral Assessment
1. Why do you think it’s important to tender?
2. How is the tendering system in Kenya today?

Practical Assessment
Obtain a Tender document and try to interpret it.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Scale rule

279
[Link] References

Ashworth, A. Contractual procedures in the construction industry.

Ashworth, A. Cost Studies of Buildings.
Brook, M. (2004). Estimating and tendering for construction work. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann.

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7.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Take Off Building Quantities
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Take Off Building Quantities
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Prepare dimension sheet/paper • Demonstrate using

2.2 Prepare List of quantities to be measured charts
2.3 Book Dimensions • Practical
2.4 Describe booked items assessment
• Group work

[Link] Information Sheet No.7/LO2: Take Off Building Quantities

Introduction
This learning outcome covers Acquiring and interpreting Building plans as per workplace
procedures, Preparing Dimension sheet/paper based on the standard format, Preparing List
of quantities to be measured based on SMM, calculating Quantities based on the unit of
measure Book Dimensions based on the principles of measurement and Describing Booked
items based on the standard method of measurement for building and associated civil works
(SMM) and civil engineering standard method of measurements (CESMM).

Definition of key terms

Dimension sheet/paper- a piece of paper divided into a series of columns concerning
multiplication factors, dimensions, squaring and work descriptions used in taking off

Building plans: A set of drawings prepared by the design consultant as a means of

communicating construction information in form of floor plans, elevations, cross sections,
site plans.

Civil engineering standard method of measurements (CESMM): This is an

interpretation format used by civil engineers to prepare bills of quantities for civil work.

281
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Dimension sheet/paper is prepared based on the standard format
A dimension sheet is an important part of taking off as it is a tool that assists in the
identification, measurement and pricing of elements for construction works.
A dimension paper is made up of a series of columns each concerned with informational
specific aspect. The most commonly used method of ruling of dimension paper conforms
to the requirements of B.S 3327: 1961-Stationery for Quantity Surveying

Procedure for preparation of dimension sheet

i. Split the sheet of paper into two identically ruled parts each consisting of four
columns.

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Column 1 is known as the “timesing column” in which multiplying figures are entered
when there is more than one of the particular item being measured.

Column 2 is known as the “dimension column” in which the actual scaled dimensions are
provided in the drawing are entered.

Column 3 is known as the “Squaring Column” in which the length, area or volume
obtained by multiplying together the figures in column 1 and 2 is recorded, ready for
transfer to the abstract or bill.

Column 4 is known as the “description column” in which a written description of each

item is entered.
ii. For each work item input the material information provided in the appropriate
column.
iii. Compute the qualities and generate the accompanying costs.

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1.2 List of quantities to be measured is prepared based on SMM
The items used in the taking off procedure may be determined through the following
procedure:
i. Analyzing the scope of work to be done based on the drawings given.
ii. Break down the work into construction tasks.
iii. Systematically arrange the tasks into a check list with work activities following
a chronological order.
iv. Generate the material requirements list with regard to the specific tasks being
covered.
v. Consider items with no given material but require a cost.

1.3 Quantities are calculated based on the unit of measure

Computation phase of the taking off process is usually done using the information
contained in the first three columns that is the time sing dimension and the squaring
column.

Procedure for computational of building process

i. In the time sing column, indicate the number of times an item with the
measurement appears; to avoid replicating calculations.
ii. In the dimension column, indicate the measurement value provided in the
drawings.
iii. In the squaring column, multiply the measurement value provided with the
factor indicated in the time sing column. The value obtained should be correct
to 2 d.p.
iv. Repeat these steps for all recurring items within a specific task.
v. Add the values obtained together in the squaring column and double underline
the total value of measurement.

Check list (work items)

• Site clearance
• Excavate vegetable soil
• Excavate for foundation
• Concrete blinding
• Concrete footing
• Foundation walling
• Backfilling
• Hardcore fill
• Blinding to hardcore above
• DPM
• BRC mesh

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 • Concrete in floor bed
• Apply plaster to walls
• Paint walls

Item 1 Site Clearance

A B C D

2/ 11.10 O.40
2/ 0.20 1.00
0.50

11.10
0.40
1.00 12.50

2/ 6.00
2 O.20 0.40
0.50

6.00
0.40
1.00
1.00
12.50
7.40
7.40

92.50

Clear the site of all bushes and burn/dispose the arising.

1.4 Dimensions are booked based on the principles of measurement

The dimensions are entered into the dimension sheet following the principles below:
• They are set down in order of horizontal length, horizontal width and finally
vertical depth.
• The units of measurements used include

LM- Linear meter i.e. 2M

SM- square meter i.e. 2M*2M
CM- cubic Meter i.e. 2M*2M*2M

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KG- Kilogram
Enumerated Items i.e. Nr 3
The dimensions are then put in the dimension column as illustrated in the table below.

1.5 Booked items are described based on the standard method of measurement for
building and associated civil works (SMM) and civil engineering standard
method of measurements (CESMM)
The items that are entered into the dimension sheet are usually described in the description
column. The description used is dependent on the format used; whether SMM or CESMM
for CESMM refer to the example below
CESMM Page 15, Class F: In Situ Concrete:
Item descriptions for components classed as other concrete forms shall include:
• The principal dimensions of the concrete component.
• The type or mark number of a concrete component whose principal
dimensions are given on the drawings.
• A statement identifying or locating a concrete component whore principal
dimensions are given on the drawings.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered Acquiring and interpreting Building plans as per
workplace procedures, Preparing Dimension sheet/paper based on the standard format,
Preparing List of quantities to be measured based on SMM, calculating Quantities based
on the unit of measure Book Dimensions based on the principles of measurement and
Describing Booked items based on the standard method of measurement for building and
associated civil works (SMM) and civil engineering standard method of measurements
(CESMM)

Further Reading

1. Read on the method of description of booked items from SMM 7th edition
2. Read further on the principles of taking off from Building Quantities Explained by I.H.
Sehley
3. Principles of Measurement from the principles of measurement for works of
construction by the RICS group.

285
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The measurements used in taking off should be rounded off to?
a) d.p
b) d.p
c) d.p
d) 1 d.p
2. Linear measurement are recorded in the
a) Dimension column
b) Squaring column
c) Description Column
d) Timensing Column
3. Which of the following is not a unit of measurement?
a) LM
b) CM
c) MM
d) KG
4. Which column of the dimension sheet is not used during computation of quantities?
a) Dimension
b) Squaring
c) Description
d) Timensing.
5. Who among the Following consultants is not involved in the preparation of bills of
quantities?
a) Architect
b) Engineer
c) Quantity Surveyor
d) Construction Manager
6. Which of the following is not considered when preparing a measurement list during a
pre-contact stage?
a) Scope of work
b) Chronology of tasks
c) Nonmaterial costs
d) Contractors estimate

286
7. How many classes of work are contained in the CESMM?
a) 26
b) 30
c) 15
d) 20
8. What is meant by the term dimension sheet?
9. Enumerate the uses of SMM
10. Compare and contrast SMM and the CESMM?
11. Describe how plans are acquired and interpreted.
12. The dimension sheet is based on which industry standard(s)?

Oral Assessment
1. Analyse the principle of measurements
2. Develop a presentation on the preparation of dimension sheet.

Practical Assessment
You have been provided with the building documents for A 4-bedroom bungalow. Using
this information;
a) Derive the building quantities.
b) Prepare a bill of Quantities (BOQ)

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Dimension sheets
• Abstract sheets
• Billing sheets
• Measuring tools
• Calculators
• CESSM/SMM

[Link] References

Harris, F., & McCaffer, R. (2013). Modern construction management. John Wiley & Sons.
Ashworth, A., & Perera, S. (2015). Cost studies of buildings. Routledge.
RICS. (1979) Principles of Measurement. London. RICS Business Services Limited
revised 2004

287
7.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Work Up Dimensions
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Work Up Dimensions
Learning Activities Special Instruction

3.1 Carry out Timesing of dimensions • Conduct group

3.2 Determine Quantities discussions
• Practical assessments
• Project demonstrations

[Link] Information Sheet No7/LO3 Work Up Dimensions

Introduction
This learning outcome covers Carrying out Timesing of dimensions as per SOPs and
Determining Quantities as per SOPs.

Definition of key terms

SOPs: (Standard Operating Procedures). These are the documented processes that a
company has in place to ensure services or products are delivered consistently overtime

Timesing: This is the multiplication of measurements taken from taking off of the
drawings in the dimension column during the preparation of Bill of Quantities.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Complex numbers are represented using Argand diagrams
Argand diagram
A diagram on which complex numbers are represented geometrically using Cartesian axes.
The horizontal coordinate representing the real part of the number and the vertical
coordinate the complex part.

The vertical axis represents imaginary numbers. The axes cross ta zero, again just like in a
Cartesian graph, eg a complex number like 𝑧 = 3 + 4𝑖 would have the co-ordinates
(3, 4) on an Argand diagram.

288
The horizontal axis is labeled Real (Z) and the vertical axis is labeled Imag (Z) where the
word imaginary has been shortened to Imag.

The Argand diagram is used in the calculation of dimensions during the casting up and
setting out during the construction.

3.2 Operations involving complex numbers are performed

A complex number is a number that can be put in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑎 + 𝑏 where a and b are
real numbers and i is called the imaginary unit, where 𝑖𝑧 = −1 𝑖2 = −1. Complex numbers
have applications in many scientific areas, including signal processing, control theory,
electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, quantum mechanics, and cartography and vibration
analysis. Complex operations involve addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc, defined on
ordered pairs of scalars according to conventions of complex algebra eg in the preparation
of the abstraction sheet and the transfer of booked quantities within the sheet and the
multiplication of the items to get the amount.

Example
Complex numbers in the running through dimensions in the Bill of Quantities in the taking
off of quantities.

289
Complex numbers evident in the symbols used in the construction of the Bill of Quantities.
Some of the operations of complex numbers are as follows:
3
1. Simplify 2𝑖

3 3 𝑖 3𝑖 3𝑖 −3𝑖 −3𝑖
= ∙ = 2= = =
2𝑖 2𝑖 𝑖 2𝑖 −2 2 2

Whereby, 𝑖 2 = −1

3
2. Simplify 2+𝑖

Differentiation of squares in Complex Numbers

(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)(𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖) = 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏𝑖 + 𝑎𝑏𝑖 − (𝑏𝑖 2 )

= 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 (𝑖 2 )
= 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 (−1)
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏2

The meanings of the symbols used in the running through dimensions is as follows:

𝑎2 → 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
(−) → 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3
→ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
2 + 𝑎2

3𝑖 ∙ 𝑎2 (∙) → 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

290
The symbols come in handy in the running through dimensions eg on site as follows.

𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 12 ∗ 8 = 96𝑐𝑚2

3.3 Calculations involving complex numbers are performed using De Moivre’s

theorem
De Moiré’s Theorem
De Moiré’s theorem gives a formula for computing powers of complex numbers. The
theorem is applied during the multiplication of complex numbers by squaring the complex
numbers.

The theorem states that:

(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛 𝜃) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑛𝜃) ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 − 1.

The examples
Given any complex number 𝑐o𝑠 𝜃+i𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and any integer n,
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃+i𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃
Whereby:
(1) [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃]𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 − i 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝜃
(2) [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃]−𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
(3) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)−𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
(4) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = i(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

Example One
If z= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃), show that 𝑍 𝑛 + 1⁄𝑍 𝑛 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 and
𝑍 𝑛 − [1⁄𝑍 𝑛 ] = 𝑍𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
By de Moivre’s solution;

𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃

𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃
1
= 𝑍 −𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑍𝑛

291
 1
Therefore, 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃) + (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃)
1
𝑍 𝑛 + 𝑍 𝑛 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃

1
Similarly, 𝑍 𝑛 − 𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃) − (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝜃)

The 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 are among the symbols used in casting up and running through e.g in
calculations of the angles of a site during design.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered Carrying out Timesing of dimensions as per SOPs and
Determining Quantities as per SOPs.

Further Reading

Research further on the applications of De Moivre’s theorem and applications of complex

numbers in construction industry.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What is timesing?
a) Division of measurements during taking off on site.
b) Multiplication of measurements during taking off.
c) Measurements of site dimensions.
d) Using a tape measure to determine dimensions of site.
2. What is the threshold requirement of the column numbers in an abstracting sheet
a) Four
b) Six
c) Three
d) Five
3. Which of the following best states the De Moivre’s theorem mathematically?
a) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜃)∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑅
b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ∗ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
c) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝑖
d) None of the above

292
4. What is the meaning of this symbol as used in work up dimensions? 𝑎2
a) Division of the number
b) Multiplication of the number
c) Square of the number
d) Subtraction of the number
5. Which of the following is not part of running through dimension
a) Dimension of the measured variables
b) Symbol of the measurement
c) The extended line
d) Arrowheads
6. On an abstracting sheet, the stroke symbol below an entry of the first column
represents?
a) Divide
b) Multiply
c) Add
d) Subtract
7. Which of the following procedures is often indicated on the third column of abstracting
sheet
a) Dimensioning
b) Multiplication
c) Squaring
d) Description
8. What is meant by timesing?
9. Outline the De Moivre’s theory and state its application
10. Explain the meanings of three symbols used in work up dimensions
11. Describe the applications of complex numbers in dimensioning.
12. Elabourate on the procedures performed during timesing

Oral Assessment
3
1. Simplify 2+𝑖
2. If z= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃), show that 𝑍 𝑛 + 1⁄𝑍 𝑛 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 and
𝑍 𝑛 − [1⁄𝑍 𝑛 ] = 𝑍𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Practical Assessment
1. Use De Moivre's formula to find z7 where z=1+i.
2. Perform the indicated operation and write your answer in standard form.
a) (4 − 5𝑖)(12 + 11𝑖)

b) (−3 − 𝑖) − (6 − 7𝑖)
c) (1 + 4𝑖) − (−16 + 9𝑖)

293
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Dimension sheets
• Abstract sheets
• Billing sheets
• Measuring tools
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• CESSM/SMM
• Stationer
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

[Link] References

Doebelin, E. O., & Manik, D. N. (2007). Measurement systems: Application and design.
Hirose, A. (2011). Nature of complex number and complex-valued neural networks.
Frontiers of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in China, 6(1), 171-180.
Hunter, R. (2007). Can you convince me: Learning to use mathematical argumentation?
Proceedings of PME 31, 3, 81-88.

294
7.3.4 Learning Outcome No 4: Abstract Take Off Data
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No. 4: Abstract Take Off Data
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Prepare Abstracting sheet • Classroom

4.2 Transfer Description of booked items to the abstracting instructions
sheet • Group work
4.3 Transfer Quantities (Cubic, Square, Linear, Numbers activities
(enumeration)) to the abstracting sheet • Practical work
4.4 Calculate Net quantities
4.5 Carry out Running through dimensions

[Link] Information Sheet No. 7/LO. 4 Abstract Take Off Data

Introduction
This learning outcome covers: Preparing abstracting sheet based on the standard format,
transferring description of booked items to the abstracting sheet as per sops, transferring
quantities (cubic, square, linear, numbers (enumeration)) to the abstracting sheet,
calculating net quantities as per sops and carrying out running through dimensions as per
SOPs.

Definition of key terms

Abstracting sheet – this is the tabulated summary of an in-depth building or any
construction analysis mainly done by the quantity surveyor for all the construction work.

Taking off – this refers to the detailed measurement of materials and labour to the required
specifications that are needed to ensure the successful completion of construction projects.
This entails the breakdown of the project into specific units that are easier to measure.

Booked quantities – these are quantities shown on a sale order which are not restricted by
any means and are not associated with any particular orders.

295
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Abstracting sheet is prepared based on the standard format

Figure 92: Sample Abstract sheet

An abstract sheet is normally prepared by a quantity surveyor and is mainly divided into
several sections depending on the complexity and size of the construction project. Within
those sections, there are specific requirements that need to be fulfilled in order to achieve
the accurate measurements for all quantities. On the abstracting sheet, there is usually the
name of the project e.g. KENCOM Towers. This project name is usually stated at every
stage and each stage is normally arranged in a chronological order as per the activities that
will be carried on the ground. In each section, there is a list of activities that will be carried
out and, on each activity, there is a list of building materials to be used.

Dimensions must be provided for each of the materials used and areas where necessary in
case one is accounting for materials such as poured concrete. An abstract sheet is normally
prepared during the design stage of a project after all the architectural designs are prepared
and before construction commences. It is normally done to measure the accurate
dimensions of the building materials to be used for proper costing.

4.2 Description of booked items are transferred to the abstracting sheet as per SOPs
The items to be transferred to an abstracting sheet are obtained from the working drawings
and specifications of the building materials by the architect. Once the quantity surveyor
has analysed the architect’s specifications, he/she writes them down in the abstracting sheet
in the required thickness e.g. Structural timber rafters of 100mm by 50 mm. (Insert picture,
specifications sample 1 and 2).

After writing down the required material thickness the quantity surveyor calculates the
required size of the building materials in accordance with the standards units of
measurements (Si units) whether in dimensions. (Length and Width) or in other areas.

296
These calculations are derived from the architectural plans and elevations provided by the
architect. During this stage, the booked items are normally transferred to a rough
abstracting sheet where all the calculations are done before transferring them to a clean
sheet.

4.3 Quantities are transferred to the abstracting sheet

When transferring the quantities to an abstracting sheet, the following procedure must be
followed.

Note: The abstraction sheet contains four columns

Table 13. Abstraction sheet columns
A B C D
This is the This is the This is the squaring This is the
multiplication dimension column. column. All description column
column All quantities in quantities in this
this column are column are added
added as per the as per the specific
specific section. section.
i. At the beginning of the abstract sheet, all sections are stated in a chronological order
as per the activities to be carried out during the construction process.
ii. Dimensions of each quantity are then recorded in the second column of the abstract
sheet.
iii. Write down the number of quantities of quantities required to be multiplied on the
first column in order to determine the total dimensions required for the specific
quantity. If there is only one quantity required, there is no need to fill the first
column. When indicating the number of multiplied, always use the stoke symbol
below the number e.g. 6/ to indicate that the quantity needs to be multiplied by six.
iv. After multiplying, fill in the new dimensions on the third column where all
quantities of the same nature are added up.
v. Provide a brief description of the specific quantity stating its thickness for instance
in wood, ratios in case of concrete or any other detail of a material that is specific
to it.

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4.4 Net quantities are calculated as per SOPs
Description of calculations on the fourth column
A B C D
5/ 5/ This represents an item that has been repeated 5
times
4/ 1/ 4/ This means the same item can be expressed as 4
multiplied by 1
5.00 5.00 This means that the length of the item is 5 meters.
NB: The difference between 5.00 and the 5 at the
first row is the decimal point. Once a decimal point
is introduced. The item ceases to be in quantity and
becomes a measurement.
8.00 12.00 This means that the lengths of 8 meters and 4 meters
4.00 are added together to get 12 meters
8.00 32.00 This means that the area if the item is 32 square
4.00 meters and it has sides measuring 8 meters and 4
meters.
3.00 6.00 This section shows two areas that add up to 48 square
2.00 meters. Whereas in the second column, lack of a line
7.00 42.00 below a measurement means multiplication with the
6.00 48.00 underlying measurement, in the third column, lack of
a line means addition.
5.40 This means that the item has been measured as a
3.60 volume of 972 cubic metres consisting of a length of
50.00 972.00 5.4 metres, width of 3.6 metres and a depth/height of
50 metres
5.00 The lines separating the dimensions indicate three
3.00 separate linear measurements that ass up to 15 meters
7.00 15.00 unlike the three measurements in the above row
which indicate a volume.

4.5 Running through dimensions is carried out as per SOPs

A running dimension is that which is taken from one end of the structure to another end
but has multiple points in between that increases consistently. Running dimensions are
usually used to mark out boundaries and other linear measurements of items which
constitute a perimeter whether on regular or irregular polygons when setting out. The
dimension itself has one extension line, one arrow head and a numerical value of the item
being dimensions.

298
Below is an example.

Running Dimension

When carrying out running through dimensions, one must first identify the number of
complete sides and partitions that a proposed project has. Using a tape measure, measure
the lengths of each sides and partitions of the proposed construction project. Draw and
extended line along the side of the partition with arrowheads at both ends. Write the
dimensions of the sides or partitions on top of the extended line. Repeat the above
procedure to all the other sides and partitions hence making up their running through
dimensions.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered: Preparing abstracting sheet based on the standard
format, transferring description of booked items to the abstracting sheet as per sops,
transferring quantities (cubic, square, linear, numbers (enumeration)) to the abstracting
sheet, calculating net quantities as per sops and carrying out running through dimensions
as per SOPs.

Further Reading

1. Find and research more on the various standards and formats of abstracting sheets.

299
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following procedures is normally indicate on the fourth column of an
abstracting sheet?
a) Dimensioning
b) Squaring
c) Description
d) Multiplication
2. On an abstracting sheet, the stroke symbol below on entry on the first column
represents?
a) Divide
b) Add
c) Multiply
d) Subtract
3. Which one of the following is not part of a running through dimension?
a) Arrowheads
b) Dimension unit of measurement
c) An extended line
d) Symbol of measurement
4. Which one of the following clearly shows the difference between 5 and 5.00 on an
abstracting sheet?
a) One is a measurement unit while the other shows the quantity of an item.
b) Both are the same
c) One has a decimal point and the other does not
d) None of the above
5. When is an abstracting sheet prepared?
a) During construction of a project
b) Before architectural drawings are prepared
c) During project commissioning
d) After preparation of architectural drawings but before construction
6. During transferring of booked quantities on an abstracting sheet, which of the following
is not included?
a) Number of booked quantities
b) Description of booked quantities
c) Price of the booked quantities
d) Dimensions of the booked quantities

300
7. What is the minimum number of columns that a standard format abstracting sheet have?
a) Four
b) Six
c) Three
d) Five
8. Enumerate procedures represented by each column on an abstracting sheet.
9. Elabourate the use of underlined quantity on an abstracting sheet.
10. Using a sketch illustration, draw and state the various parts of a running through
dimension.
11. Outline the basic standard units of measurement used in abstracting sheets.
12. Compare and contrast between booked items and net quantities in relevance to
abstracting take off data.

Oral Assessment
1. Outline the steps taken when ferrying quantities to an abstracting sheet.
2. Analyse the relevance of preparing an abstracting sheet in quantity surveying.

Practical Assessment
In groups of five members, prepare an abstracting sheet for an architectural drawing that
one of your members has done.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Dimension sheets
• Abstract sheets
• Billing sheets
• Measuring tools
• Computers
• Office equipment
• Calculators
• Computer software
• CESSM/SMM
• Stationer
• Dust coat
• First aid kit

301
[Link] References

Duncan P. Cartlidge. (2002). New Aspects of Quantity Surveying Practice. Oxford:

Elsevier Butterworth – Heinemann.
Lee, Sandra, Trench W. & Willis A. (2005). Willis’s Elements of Quantity Surveying.
United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishers.
Steve Pittard & Peter. Sell. (2016). BIM and Quantity Surveyors. London: Rutledge
Publishers.

302
 CHAPTER 8: WATER AND WASTEWATER TECHNOLOGY

8.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit describes the competence required to apply water & wastewater technology
practices. It involves applying basic water supply principles, principles of wastewater
collection & treatment and basic irrigation & drainage principles.

8.2 Performance Standard

Apply basic water supply principles, principles of wastewater collection and treatment, and
basic irrigation and drainage principles based on particular use, demand, water source,
water characteristics and quality, design, international standards, water system, and code
of practice.

8.3 Learning Outcomes

8.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Apply basic water supply principles
b) Apply principles of wastewater collection and treatment
c) Apply basic irrigation and drainage principles

303
8.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Basic Water Supply Principles
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Basic Water Supply Principles
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Calculate water demand • Direct instruction

1.2 Identify sources of water • Field trips
1.3 Identify water abstraction methods • Discussions
1.4 Identify water treatment processes • Demonstration by
1.5 Identify water pipes and appurtenances trainer
1.6 Identify water supply symbols • Practice by the
1.7 Identify water distribution systems trainee
1.8 Identify water storage structures • On-job training
1.9 Observe work safety

[Link] Information Sheet No8/lo1: Apply Basic Water Supply Principles

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers water demand, sources of water, water abstraction methods,
water treatment processes, water pipes and appurtenances, water supply symbols, water
distribution and water storage structures.

Definition of key terms

Appurtenances- Is a sub class of something belonging to a broader class.

Water abstraction- It’s obtaining water from its source to serve different purposes as
chosen by human beings like irrigation.

Water Appurtenances- distinct devices needed to regulate water movement during supply

304
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Calculate water demand based on particular use
Water demand also referred to as water use is the mean daily use per person (per capita).
Water demand include;
• Industrial:130-140 l/d
• Domestic: 48-52 l/d
• Institution and comercial: 18-24 l/d
• Public and civil use: 8-10 l/d
• Agriculture
• Recreation

Calculation of demand per capita

q=total yearly use of the city in litres/ (365*design population)
Design population will vary according to particular use for example industrial use design
population will be given by the industrial area or the capacity of blending beverage.

1.2 Identify Sources of water based on demand and particular use.

There are three major providers (sources) of water.
i. Surface water include lakes, rivers, oceans etc.
ii. Ground water include aquifers etc.
iii. Rainwater
For a long time, the surface water sources were used to satisfy water needs but due to
increased water demand and industrialisation man come up with other ways to obtain more
water to cater for the rising demand since ground water was also not readily available for
use.

1.3 Identify Water abstraction methods based on the water source

Water abstraction methods are ways through which water is taken away from its source
either permanently or temporarily mostly for agricultural purposes like irrigation or water
curing for drinking and they include;
• Surface water abstraction- which is acquiring water from a river by laying a
perforated drain pipe below the river bed to collect water.
• Ground water abstraction – involves acquiring water from a ground provider e.g.
aquifer.

305
1.4 Identify Water treatment processes based on water characteristics and water
quality.
Water treatment processes methods
Water treatment is the improvement of the physical, chemical and microbiological
properties of water (water quality) to make it acceptable for a particular use in the end or
for environmentally safe discharge back to the hydrological cycle.
Water characteristics include; polarity, cohesion, adhesion and high specific heat and also
have to reach the acceptable standards. Waste water has these characteristics distorted and
thus has to be restored for example it has a very unpleasant smell, increased temperature
due to bio-chemical activities, high turbidity due to suspended material among others.
Water treatment process include;

Waste, surface and storm water treatment process

• Collection- is water from different places is brought together via a system of
pipes which normally contains household water.
• Screening and staining-this is the removal of objects like plastic and metal that
can cause damage and cogging of downstream equipment
• Chemical addition-chemicals like sodium chloride and potassium chloride are
added and aid in the organic contaminant removal by exchange of ions.
• Coagulation and flocculation- removal of suspended solid from water.
• Sedimentation and clarification-is the removal of the suspended matter by
adding compounds and stirring. These suspended materials vary in property and
the added compounds cause them to collide and grow hence they seize to be
suspended and thus easily removed.
• Filtration- is the separation of the solid from the liquid using a filter
• Disinfection- is the killing of germs and can be done using UV chlorine among
others
• Storage- keeping the water before it is released to the public as different tests are
being run on it to confirm treatment
• Distribution- supply of water to users after treatment

Other treatment methods include reverse osmosis where excess ions are removed
depending on the end use of the water. There is also ocean water treatment that removes
the excess salts among others like bottled water treatment, containerised water treatment
etc.

306
1.5 Identify Water pipes and appurtenances based on the design
Water pipes –are hollow tubes designed to transport treated water to the final user
They include:

Figure 93: water pipes

Source; Lee Wallender, the Spruce

1. PEX Pipe
PEX, or cross-linked polyethylene, pipe is one of the newest and most popular pipes to hit
the plumbing market. PEX is used only to supply water. PEX is a pipe that is rigid enough
to withstand the pressures of water supply but flexible enough to weave throughout walls,
ceilings, basements, and crawlspaces. PEX has truly delivered water-supply plumbing into
the hands of do-it-yourself and professional plumbers.
Pros
• Color-coded red for hot water and blue for cold water
• Highly flexible, with 90-degree curves possible
• Attaches with push-fit plumbing fittings, among other types
• Inexpensive
• Able to join with copper pipe
• Cuts easily

Cons
• Long-term capabilities untested
• May leak with push-fit plumbing fittings
• Cannot be recycled

1. PVC Pipe
PVC, or polyvinyl chloride, pipe is a drain or vent line type of plumbing pipe. PVC initially
gained popularity because it was lighter and easier to work with than traditional galvanized
steel pipe. PVC pipe is moderately easy to install and requires little more than a hacksaw
and a meter box to cut. PVC glues together with solvents.

307
Pros
• Diameters clearly marked on the white surface of the pipe
• Inexpensive and can be used for long runs such as for irrigation
• Easier to work with than steel or copper

Cons
• The pipe cannot be unjointed and must be cut
• Glued pipes can be prone to leaking
• Degrades in sunlight

2. Rigid Copper Pipe

Rigid copper is often used for water supply lines within the home. Rigid copper is easily
cut with a hacksaw or with a special copper tube cutter. The connection is a different matter,
as it requires a practiced hand to solder copper pipe together. Rigid copper pipe is great for
water supply because it does not come with any health risks.
Pros
• Though it is called rigid, this pipe can be slightly bent
• Handles heat well
• Stands up against intense pressures
• Easy to recycle and waste copper pipe even has monetary value

Cons
• Difficult for do-it-yourselves to work with due to soldered connections
• Expensive
• Develops pinhole leaks
• Inside of pipe may eventually corrode and impede water flow

3. ABS Pipe
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) pipe is mainly used as a vent and drain line. ABS
pipe looks very much like PVC pipe, except that it is black and slightly softer.

Pros
• Stronger than PVC pipes
• Good for underground exterior use
• Works well in cold temperatures

308
Cons
• Often not permitted by building code
• Warps and deforms at certain temperatures

4. Flexible Copper Pipe

Flexible copper pipe or tubing is used for final runs to water heaters, refrigerators, and
some sinks. Flexible copper is used only for short runs and can be cut with ease with a
hacksaw. It can be bent to fit around corners.

Pros
• High heat Fits in tight, unusually shaped areas
• tolerance

Cons
• Expensive
• Thin and prone to breaking

5. Galvanized Steel Pipe and Cast Iron

Two additional types of pipe are sometimes found in older homes and are infrequently
installed, especially by do-it-yourself steel and cast-iron pipe. Galvanized steel pipe was
used for decades for drainage, water supply, gas supply, and any number of other purposes.
While galvanized steel pipe is still around (particularly for gas supply) it is far less used
and is never used for water supply in new construction or remodel projects. Each end of
the pipe is threaded, and individual pipes are screwed into each other with connecting
joints. Cast iron pipe was often used for sewer and other drainage purposes. Cast iron pipe
is still found in many homes. Cast iron pipe is viable until the point that it rusts completely
through. Cast iron is very heavy and difficult to cut. Retrofits tend to replace cast iron pipe
with rigid plastic pipes such as ABS.

Pros
• Galvanized steel pipe has the advantage of being extremely strong.

Cons
• Galvanized steel pipe eventually corrodes and blocks water flow.
• Some galvanized steel pipe may pass lead into the water supply.

Others include;
• Metallic (GI, Steel, ductile iron, cast iron)
• Plastic (PVC, uPVC, CPVC, PE, PPR, PEX)
• Cement (RC pipes)

309
Appurtenances – these are devices needed to control the flow water, cub leakages and
carry out other functions in water supply systems.
Reasons for using appurtenances include;
• For efficient and less hectic water supply
• To regulate opposite direction flow of water the pipe
• To reduce wastage and leakages in pipes
• To control the flow of water
• To ensure water is used for the intended function

Properties of these appurtenances includes:

• Strength- should be very strong
• Durability-highly durable
• Cost- should be economical
• Resistance- should have high resistance to corrosion
• Flexibility- should be easy to remove and maintained and repair

The appurtenances include;

1. Valves- devices that regulate the flow and pressure within a system
Types of valves ;( gate valve, sluice valves, ball valves, globe valves, butterfly valves,
check valves, PRV, pressure relive valves, float valves, air valves, washouts)

Functions of valves;
a) Release or allow in air
b) Regulate water flow
c) Regulate the pressure build up
d) Regulate direction of flow
e) Stop or start flow

2. Meters- device used to determine the amount of water being discharged through a pipe
Types of meters; (displacement meters, velocity meters, ultra-sonic, electromagnetic.)
a) Properties of a good meter;
b) Should have low resistance to water flow
c) Should be less reactive
d) Should have high accuracy to avoid error
e) Should be cost effective
3. Fittings (couplings, adapters)
4. Tanks and bib cocks (taps which are used to stop or allow outflow of water from a
system)

310
1.6 Identify Water supply symbols based on international standards
Water supply symbols- water supply is the providing of water by public service,
commercial organisation or individuals while the symbols are diagrammatic expressions
of the different parts in the supply system and they are shown below.

Figure 94: Water supply symbols

Source; Design Elements-Pipes (part 1) Plumbing and piping plans

1.7 Identify Water distribution systems based on design

Water distribution systems-ensures water supply using technically synced hydrological
and hydraulic components. The main function of a distribution system is to ensure
satisfactory quality and quantity of water.

Characteristics of a good distribution system

• Water quality should be maintained
• Pressure should be maintained at all intended places
• Pipes should be laid 1m apart
• It should be a watertight system to minimize losses

311
Below are the types of water distribution systems
• Grid iron system- in this system the main line lies at the centre and the branches
• Radial system- in this system the area is divided into subareas with a central water
storage at a higher elevation than the distribution pipe and is located radially from
the edge of the distribution sub area
• Dead end or tree system - the main pipe lines at the centre of the area then sub
branches branch from both sides in a manner demarcating the area and have further
sub branches.
• Circular or ring system- the main line forms a circle around the distribution area
and the branches cross the main and each other too

1.8 Identify Water storage structures based on water system

Water storage structures- these are manmade features that serve a purpose of storing
water
• Weirs and Dams- a dam is barrier across a river and form a reservoir upstream
while a weir is a small-scale dam and raises water level upstream
• Tanks (elevate, surface and sub-surface)- large container for water storage
• Water pans& ponds

1.9 Observe Work safety based on code of practice

Work safety refers to general precaution are important in every scope of life. Safe to
prevent injuries, loss of life and property damage. Work safety rules while operating tools
and machinery includes:
• Operate a machine when you are well conversant with it and you have the
necessary authority.
• Clean and arrange tools after use
• Take heed to any operating instruction
• Put on PPE’s and other protective gadgets
• No operation of unauthorised machinery
• Follow operating instructions
• Be aware of fire hazards

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered water demand, sources of water, water abstraction methods,
water treatment processes, water pipes and appurtenances, water supply symbols, water
distribution and water storage structures.

312
Further Reading

Read further on advantages and disadvantages of each water distribution system.

[Link]
systems-water-and-sanitation-1/network-design-and-dimensioning

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1 Explain and differentiate the following water sources.
a) Ground water
b) Runoff water
c) Surface water
d) Rainwater
2 Select which of the following is not an appurtenance and explain their function.
a) Gate
b) Sluice
c) Butterfly
d) Tap
3 Which one is not a characteristic of water?
a) Adhesion
b) Polarity
c) Flowrate
d) Specific heat
4 Summarize 5 functions of valves in the water distribution system
5 Classify 3 types of pipes used in the water supply system
6 Distinguish and name any 7 water supply symbols
7 Explain 6 characteristics of a good water distribution system
8 A dam is a structure built across a river while a weir is a small-scale dam. Distinguish
the two and summarize what each structure entails.

313
Oral Assessment
1. Evaluate the importance of adhering to work safety practices as per the code of
standards?
2. Explain the importance of water treatment in the water supply chain

Case Study Assessment

You have been given an area around Lake Victoria to come up with a water distribution
method. After a field survey select a distinguished system and explain its relevance.

Performance Based Evidence

Oral Assessment
Distinguish between flocculation and coagulation?
Explain the chemical treatment of water. What happens and which chemicals are used.

Practical Assessment
Class visit to Nairobi water and evaluate which distribution system is commonly used in
Nairobi and prepare a report on the field visit.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationery
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Projector

[Link] References

Clark, R. M., Sivaganesan, M., Selvakumar, A., & Sethi, V. (2002). Cost models for water
supply distribution systems. Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management, 128(5), 312-321.
Matilainen, A., Lindqvist, N., Korhonen, S., & Tuhkanen, T. (2002). Removal of NOM in
the different stages of the water treatment process. Environment international,
28(6), 457-465.

314
8.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Principles of Wastewater Collection and
Treatment
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Apply Principles of Wastewater Collection and
Treatment
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2 .1 Identify Need for wastewater collection and disposal • Direct

2 .2 Identify Sources of waste water instruction
2 .3 Illustrate Sewer system layout • Field trips
2 .4 Identify Sewerage systems • Discussions
2 .5 Illustrate Sewer appurtenances • Demonstration
2 .6 Characterize Wastewater by trainer
2 .7 Identify Wastewater treatment processes • Practice by the
2 .8 Describe Principles of Wastewater treatment trainee
2 .9 Identify Wastewater symbols • On-job training
2 .10 Identify Wastewater colour coding for pipes and
exhauster trucks
2 .11 Observe Work safety

[Link] Information Sheet NO8/L02: Apply Principles of Wastewater Collection and

Treatment

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Sources of waste water, Types of sewers, Sewerage systems,
Characteristics of wastewater, Sewer appurtenances, Wastewater Treatment processes and
disposal, Wastewater symbols and Wastewater colour coding for pipes and exhauster
trucks.

315
Definition of key terms
Sewer- is an underground tunnel for carrying sewage

Sewer appurtenances are devices along a sewerage system placed at reasonable

intervals to aid in the proper function of the system

Wastewater refers to contaminated water and not fit for human use

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2 .1 Identify Need for wastewater collection and disposal based on water quality
standards
Waste water is water that has been contaminated and therefore cannot be released in to the
environment without the removal of the contaminants themselves because of the factors
listed below;
i. To avoid ground water pollution- when the waste water is left uncollected and
disposed on land it seeps underground leading to ground water contamination
which supposed to be a source of water for future generations thus unsustainability
ii. To avoid killing marine life which may further lead to extinction of some species
as this waste water if not treated finds its way to the seas and oceans and due to its
distorted composition, it cannot support marine
iii. May lead to an imbalance in the ecosystem since every part of the ecosystem
depends on water and if this water is

2 .2 Identify Sources of waste water based on water quality standards

Sources of waste water-main supply of waste water. Waste water characteristics vary
depending on its source
• Industrial- waste produced by industrial processes
• Domestic waste- is waste generated from the house water that include grey water
and black water
• Storm waste-waste generated from runoff water
• Agricultural waste- waste generated mostly from the farm that include fertilizers

2 .3 Illustrate Sewer system layout based on sewerage design manual

Sewer system layout is a plan of system of conduits that carry waste from the point of
generation to where it is treated.
There are two types of sewer system layouts; domestic and industrial and storm system lay
out

316
 Requirements for system layout;
• The outlet for the system must be specified
• The area of coverage by the tributary should be estimated
• The site for the main sewer and tank should be identified
• Identify suitable location for a pump
• The system should adheres to the topography of the area and the main sewer
should be at a lower topography
• The mains should be designed to take in future loads as well
• Minimum distance of 3m between waste water pipes and clean water pipe
should be observed as per the code
• Manhole should be positioned at the layout junction
• During construction the area is first excavated after all considerations have
been put in place then the pipes are laid.

2 .4 Identify Sewerage systems based on the design

Sewerage systems is a combination of tunnels from the generation source to treatment them
release of waste water. There are 3 types
• Domestic and industrial system-normally involve treatment before release
into the environment
• Storm system- involves a temporary storage before its channelled and
disposed back to stream or river
• Combined system where storm is mixed with domestic and industrial waste
and treated the same way

2 .5 Illustrate Sewer appurtenances based on sewer code

Sewer appurtenances are devices along a sewerage system placed at reasonable
intervals to aid in the proper function of the system and they include
• Manholes (Shallow, Deep, Drop), -is an opening to a confinement
underground and is used to access the sewer system
• Inlet- pathway from the manhole top
• Catch basins- infrastructure engineered to drain of excess water from
surfaces or pavements
• Clean out –used to remove unwanted material
• Flushing tank- this is the collection point
• Flushing units,
• Lamp holes

317
2 .6 Characterize Wastewater based on effluent discharge regulations (NEMA).
Wastewater is water which has lost its water determining characteristics through human
use contamination
There are physical characteristics;
• Odour-bad smell due to contamination
• High temperature due to increased reaction
• High turbidity due to dissolved substances

2.7 Identify Wastewater treatment processes based on wastewater characteristics

Wastewater treatment processes- deals with the process that take place during waste
water treatment
i. Collection- is water from different places are brought together via a system of
pipes which normally containing household water majorly.
ii. Screening and staining-this is the removal of objects like plastic and metal that
can cause damage and cogging of downstream equipment
iii. Chemical addition-chemicals like sodium chloride and potassium chloride are
added and aid in the organic contaminant removal by exchange of ions.
iv. Coagulation and flocculation
v. Sedimentation and clarification-is the removal of the suspended mater by
adding compounds and stirring. These suspended materials vary in property and
the added compounds cause them to collide and grow hence they seize to be
suspended and thus easily removed.
vi. Filtration- is the separation of the solid from the liquid using a filter Sludge
digestion,
vii. Sludge drying
viii. Waste stabilization ponds (Anaerobic, Facultative, and Maturation)
ix. Disinfection- is the killing of germs and can be done using UV chlorine among
others
x. Storage- keeping the water before it is released to the public as different tests
are being run on it to confirm treatment
xi. Distribution- supply of water to users after treatment

2.8 Describe Principles of Wastewater treatment based on treatment unit.

Principles of Wastewater treatment- deals with the process that take place during waste
water treatment
• Collection- is water from different places are brought together via a system of pipes
which normally containing household water majorly.
• Screening and staining-this is the removal of objects like plastic and metal that can
cause damage and cogging of downstream equipment

318
 • Chemical addition-chemicals like sodium chloride and potassium chloride are
added and aid in the organic contaminant removal by exchange of ions.
• Coagulation and flocculation
• Sedimentation and clarification-is the removal of the suspended mater by adding
compounds and stirring. These suspended materials vary in property and the added
compounds cause them to collide and grow hence they seize to be suspended and
thus easily removed.
• Filtration- is the separation of the solid from the liquid using a filter Sludge
digestion,
• Sludge drying
• Waste stabilization ponds (Anaerobic, Facultative, and Maturation)
• Disinfection- is the killing of germs and can be done using UV chlorine among
others
• Storage- keeping the water before it is released to the public as different tests are
being run on it to confirm treatment
• Distribution- supply of water to users after treatment

2.9 Identify Wastewater symbols based on international standards

Wastewater symbols

319
 Figure 95: International Standards Wastewater Symbols
Source; [Link]

2.10 Identify Wastewater colour coding for pipes and exhauster trucks based on
international standards.
Wastewater colour coding-help in content identification
Table 14 : Wastewater colour coding
Waste line Pipe content colour
Backwash waste Light brown
Sludge Dark brown
Sanitary sewage Dark grey

320
2.11Observe Work safety based on code of practice Operate a machine when you are well
conversant with it and you have the necessary authority.
• Clean and arrange tools after use
• Take heed to any operating instruction
• Put on PPE’s and other protective gadgets
• No operation of unauthorised machinery
• Follow operating instructions
• Be aware of fire hazards

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered sources of waste water, types of sewers, sewerage systems,
characteristics of wastewater, sewer appurtenances, wastewater treatment processes and
disposal, wastewater symbols and wastewater colour coding for pipes and exhauster trucks

Further Reading

Read further on sewer systems layouts

Read further on the chemical and biological characteristics of waste water

[Link] Self-Assessment

Knowledge Based Evidence

Written Assessment
1. The following are sewer appurtenances select which one is not.
a) Hide out
b) Manhole
c) Clean out
d) Catch basin
2. Distinguish and explain waste water systems except one
a) Sanitary system
b) Storm system
c) Ground system
d) Industrial system
3. Summarize the requirements for a sewer system layout
4. Explain the reasons for waste water treatment
5. Explain clearly what happens in each of the water treatment ponds

321
Essay questions
Describe the waste water treatment process

Oral Assessment
1. Explain the factors to be considered when laying out a sewer system
2. Explain what happens in the chemical treatment of waste water

Case Study Assessment

The sewer system in your area is not meeting the demands of the government. You have
been assigned the duty to realize and solve the problem. Predict the possible reasons for
failure and how to deal with each one.

Practical Assessment
You class is to carry out a field visit to a nearby water treatment plant and asses the
immediate sewer system. Prepare and compile a report of the two visits

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationery
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Projector

[Link] References

Hsu, M. H., Chen, S. H., & Chang, T. J. (2000). Inundation simulation for urban drainage
basin with storm sewer system. Journal of Hydrology, 234(1-2), 21-37.
Wirahadikusumah, R., Abraham, D. M., Iseley, T., & Prasanth, R. K. (1998). Assessment
technologies for sewer system rehabilitation. Automation in Construction, 7(4),
259-270.

322
8.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Apply Basic Irrigation and Drainage Principles
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Apply Basic Irrigation and Drainage Principles
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Determine the Crop water requirement • Direct instruction

3.2 Prepare Land • Group work
3.3 Identify Irrigation farm layout • Demonstration by
3.4 Identify Quality of irrigation water trainer
3.5 Identify Irrigation methods • Practice by the
3.6 Identify Methods of drainage trainee
3.7 Observe Work safety • Field trips
• On-job-training

[Link] Information Sheet No8/LO3 Apply Basic Irrigation and Drainage Principles

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Soil, plant-water relationship, Land preparation, Sources of
water for irrigation, Irrigation farm layout, Quality of irrigation water, Irrigation methods
and Methods of drainage.

Definition of key terms

Drainage: Drainage is the removal of excess surface or subsurface water by the use of
artificial mechanisms.

Farm layout: It is the location of fields concerning the function for which the land area

Land preparation: It is the process of harrowing land

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Determine the Crop water requirement based on agronomic requirements
All the water that gets to the root zone is not utilized by the crop but escapes to the
atmosphere in the form of water vapour through a process of transpiration. Soil surfaces
experience water loss through evaporation. The water demand for a crop will thus consist
of transpiration plus evaporation, also called evapo-transpiration expressed in mm/day.

323
3.2 Prepare Land based on the crop, type of irrigation method, size of the land,
topography and available technology
Considering furrow irrigation, it is important to ensure sufficient wetting of the root zone,
while maintaining minimum percolation losses at the top of the field and minimum runoff
at the end of the field. The stream size must be of the right size to reach the end of the
furrow in approximately one-quarter of the contact time.

Figure 8

Determining the head (Source: FAO, 1988)

Figure 96: Irrigation method

Source: Irrigation Manual Vol II, (2002)

3.3 Identify Irrigation farm layout based on design principles

Factors to consider when determining scheme layout include topography, farm size and
degree of mechanization, and the possible length of furrows.

324
Surface irrigation layout

Figure 97: Surface irrigation layout

Source Irrigation Manual Vol II, (2002)

3.4 Identify Quality of irrigation water based on the standards (Physical, Chemical,
biological)
The quality of water for irrigation is determined as the composition of soluble salts in the
water. The water quality is key in terms of sustainability in using the water for various
purposes. The criteria for irrigation water quality concerning purpose is as follows;

Irrigation Water quality standards

325
Table 15: Irrigation Water quality standards

Source Irrigation Manual Vol IV, (2002)

3.5 Identify Irrigation methods based on the type of crop, type of soil, resources
available, quantity, and quality of water.
Irrigation methods are the various ways by which water is applied on land and the method
to be used is chosen based on economy topographical factors, crop type, and source of
water.

1. Surface irrigation
The water application is either a controlled or uncontrolled manner. Water is distributed to
the field by the use of small channels, which inundate the area to be irrigated up to the
desired depth. The controlled method employs the use of corrugations, furrows, or ridges
with water being guided from the head ditch.

2. Subsurface irrigation
Irrigation water is applied to the root zone utilizing buried pipes forming an underground
network. The network comprises of mains, sub-mains, and laterals. The perforations allow
the water to drip out at very slow rates allowing the soil around the root zone to absorb
water continuously.

3. Overhead irrigation
This method employs sprinkler systems to distribute water in form of spray rain droplets
The system consists of a network of interconnected mains sub mains, and lateral. The
laterals are fitted with a series of nozzles through which water emanates as a fountain

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3.6 Identify Methods of drainage based on crop water requirement, type of soil,
quantity, and quality of water, (surface, and sub-surface).
Drainage is the removal of excess surface or subsurface water by the use of artificial
mechanisms. A drainage system is the composition of the appurtenances used to remove
water from the soil. Agricultural drainage criteria specify the highest levels allowable for
the water table in or on the soil so that benefits are not hampered by waterlogging.

Methods of Drainage
They can be classified into two:
• Surface drainage system: Used when water logging is experienced on the soil
surface
• Subsurface drainage system: Used when water logging extends in the soil

Checked drainage systems are allowed to function temporarily especially during crop
seasons that are critical in crop development. Regular drainage systems also called relief
drainage are supposed to be operational regularly as possible. Interceptor drainage
employed to intercept surface water by installing catch canals

3.7 Observe Work safety based on the code of practice

• Work safety revolves around training of farmers on occupational safety and health
to ensure that they can reduce mitigate and avoid certain risk on the firm and avoid
unsafe work practices.
• Adequate allocation of resources to the enforcing bodies
• Risk assessment: to improve on safety and health in an irrigation scheme, the first
thing is to assess the capacity to reduce, mitigate and avoid risks
• Provision of personal protective equipment

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered soil, plant-water relationship, land preparation, sources of
water for irrigation, irrigation farm layout and quality of irrigation water, irrigation
methods and methods of drainage

Further Reading

Read on pipeline design for an irrigation system

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Select what is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity?
a) Manning’s constant
b) Runoff coefficient
c) Ernest’s formula
d) Reynolds number
2. In a farm layout surface system the following are commonly used in irrigation, which
one is the odd one out?
a) Furrows
b) Basins
c) Nozzles
d) Siphon
3. Examine which one is not a factor to consider in irrigation system design?
a) Topography
b) Surface tension
c) Soil texture
d) Water source
4. Select which one is not a specification for sprinkler system?
a) Laterals
b) Main
c) Piston
d) Gate valves
5. Explain why pumps are used in sprinkler irrigation by selecting on of the following.
a) To raise the pump head
b) To avoid cavitation
c) To worm the irrigation water
d) To raise alarm in case of an invasion
6. Differentiate types of the localized irrigation
7. Distinguish the components of a localized irrigation system

Essay question
Explain how to determine optimal furrow length in a furrow irrigation system

Oral Assessment
Summarize water quality parameters significant in irrigation water

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Practical Assessment
Investigate the soil properties in your locality and evaluate the type of irrigation system
suitable for application.

Project Assessment
Design a sprinkler irrigation system providing for the sizes for all components and then
provide for the pipeline to convey water from intake works to the farm.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationery
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Projector

[Link] References

Mehla, M. K., Singh, Y. P., Ramesh, J. B., & Sharma, V. (2020). Farm Irrigations Systems
Design Manual. Publish Book Online, 2(1), 1-62.

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 Chapter 9: WATER RESOURCES, WATER SERVICES AND SANITATION
MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES

9.1 Introduction
This unit describes the competencies required to apply water resource management
principles. It involves determination of hydrological processes, quantification of surface
water, mapping of rock types and aquifers, establishment of suitable site for wells. It also
involves conservation of environment and development of water harvesting structures. It
also involves application of water and environmental law in water resource management
and application of integrated water resources management (IWRM) principles.

9.2 Performance Standard

Determine hydrological processes, quantify surface water, map rocks and aquifers,
establish well sites, conserve the environment, develop water harvesting structures, apply
water and environmental law in water resource management, apply integrated water
resources management principles based on WMO guidelines and OSH.

9.3 Learning Outcomes

9.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Determine hydrological processes
b) Quantify surface water
c) Map rocks and aquifers
d) Establish well sites
e) Conserve the environment
f) Develop water harvesting structures

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9.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Determine Hydrological Processes
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Determine Hydrological Processes
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Identify concepts of Hydrological cycle • Project

1.2 Identify precipitation types and forms • Case studies
1.3 Determine precipitation • Field trips
1.4 Determine evaporation rate • Discussions
1.5 Determine stream flow • Demonstration by
1.6 Observe safety in hydrometry trainer
• Practice by the
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No9/LO1 Determine Hydrological Processes

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers concepts of hydrology, hydrological cycle and hydrological
processes, principles and application. The different areas of hydrology include drainage
management, surface hydrology, hydrometeorology, hydro-informatics, isotope
hydrology, eco-hydrology among others

Definition of key terms

Hydrology: - This is a branch of science that deals with the properties of the earth’s water
in relation to its movement, occurrence, and distribution near the earth’s surface.

Hydrological cycle: It is the water recycling system which includes the sum of processes
in which water moves around the earth. It’s also called the water cycle. The elements of
the cycle are evaporation, condensation, transportation, precipitation, groundwater,
inflow and surface runoff.

Infiltration: It is the process of flow of water from the ground surface as it enters the
subsurface layers.

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Percolation: After water has entered the soil them it has to flow through it. The
movement of water through the soil layers by forces of gravity, and capillarity.

Condensation: It is the transformation of a substance physical states of matter from

gaseous phase into the liquid phase.

Content/procedures/methods/illustrations
1.1 Identify concepts of Hydrological cycle based on WMO guidelines Concepts of
Hydrological cycle
Hydrological cycle is the water cycle that describes the movement of water from
atmospheric surfaces to subsurface levels. The main benefit is the temperature regulation,
soil formation, creates rainfall, mineral circulation and the presence geological features
Stages involved include:
1. Evaporation: The hydrological cycle starts with evaporation which occurs when water
is changed from liquid to gaseous state factors that contribute to evaporation include,
vapour pressure, solar radiation, atmospheric pressure and wind currents. Water
absorbs energy from the turning into vapour. The transformation normally occurs larger
scales in oceans, seas, lakes and storage reservoirs.
2. Condensation: Condensation is the process by which physical states of water vapour
changes to liquid state at points which vapour in the air is at saturation point, in the
form of particles in the form of clouds, fog, and dew. It’s an exothermic process that
releases heat which was initially utilized in forming water vapour to the environment
3. Precipitation: When water particles fall from the atmosphere to the ground surface.
Frictional drag forces and gravitational forces influence the particle decent till it hits
the ground.
4. Runoff: The flow from the drainage basin that appears in surface streams. It consists
of flaw that is unaffected by human or natural activities of diversion.
5. Infiltration: Infiltration involves water transfer as it seeps across the boundary layer
of soil and is normally associated with soil profile, soil permeability and soil porosity.
6. Percolation: The movement of water that through the soil by virtue of capillary and
gravitational forces is called percolation. Water contained in the aeration zone is called
vadose water. In the saturation zone the water stored here becomes groundwater.

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1.2 Identify precipitation types and forms based on WMO guidelines Precipitation
types (Orographic, Convective, and Cyclonic)
The phase in which precipitation falls to the ground characterize the type of precipitation.
The phase be either liquid or solid and sometimes transient which occurs in between the
two. The forms of precipitation include, ice crystal, hail, snow, and graupel. Occurrences
of precipitation commences when air saturated with water vapours, is no longer able to
sustain the levels of water vapor in gaseous form. The process starts when dense moist air
cools when an air mass rises through the atmosphere. The types of precipitation include:

1. Cyclonic
When a boundary of two air masses with different densities meet, the air which wormer
and less dense rises above the colder air which is denser creating an effect of precipitation.
Also called frontal precipitation which is as a result of frontal systems surrounding extra
tropical cyclones. When worm air forces out an already existing cold air mass, it creates a
worm front which is characterized with long periods of light rain. Cold fronts occur when
denser cold air pushes worm air mass. The process occurs sharply causing intense
precipitation with shorter durations.

2. Convection
When the earth’s surface surrounded by an unstable moist atmosphere, is heated more than
its surrounding, significant evaporation occurs. This type of precipitation is caused by
convective clouds (cumulonimbus).

3. Orographic
Is also called relief rainfall which occurs when air masses are forced up the side of land
formations as a result of adiabatic cooling normally referred to as an upslope effect. Relief
features like mountains are subjected to consistent winds leading to a moist climate on the
windward side which is the upwind side of a mountain than on the leeward side which is
the downwind side. Rain shadow occurs when orographic lift removes moisture leaving
drier air.

1.3 Determine precipitation based on the WMO guidelines Precipitation

Precipitation is determined in terms of the amount that reaches the ground over a certain
duration and is expressed as the depth it would cover a given horizontal projection of the
earth’s surface.
The form of measurement adopted is by taking representative samples of the fall over the
area to which measurement is required.
Rain gauge is used to measure rainfall by taking the catch of the instrument as the
representation of precipitation within an area of perfect exposure.

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The rain gauges can be classified as recording and non-recording. In a non-recording gauge
precipitation is measured by a graduated cylinder and a graduated dip rod.
Error correction is necessary since they arise due measuring the catch or due to uncertainty
effects arising instrument exposure. Daily gauges are read to the nearest 0.2 mm, weekly
readings to nearest 1mm. recording gauges include the weighing type, float type, tipping-
bucket type, rainfall intensity recorder. Snow consisting of ice crystals in flaky form is
measured directly with graduated dip stick or scale

1.4 Determine evaporation rate based on WMO guidelines

The methods applicable in determination of evaporation include pan evaporation,
evaporation models, and the water balance equation. The penman equation is applied in
data analysis.
Penman Equation

700𝑇𝑚/((100−𝐴)+15(𝑇−𝑇𝑑))
Eo = 𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
(80−𝑇)

Where:
Tm = T +0.006h, h = Elevation (meters), T = Mean temperature, A = latitude (degrees)
Td = dew point value, (T-Td) = monthly means (obtained from tables)

1.5 Determine stream flow based on the WMO guidelines

Stream flow measurements can be either be direct methods or by the use of hydraulic
formulas. Direct methods will be highlighted in this case since they present results of
higher quality data.

Main methods
a) Volumetric Method: Discharge is calculated based on the time that has elapsed
and volume of water run into graduated reservoir. This method is suitable for low
discharge conditions. Water runways or flood gates can be used in case of specific
measurements.

b) Velocity Area Method: This method is conducted by measuring the fluid flow
speed at different points of a section and then the surface area of the wetted section.

c) Hydraulic Methods: This is determined by employing a correlation of forces

which include Viscosity, Inertia, and weight of fluid

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 d) Physical methods: Physical properties of the fluid like concentration of dissolved
elements and their variations during water flow are taken in to consideration

1.6 Observe safety in hydrometry based on OSH

Hydrological measurements are usually made over a wide range of conditions, some of
which are hazardous. Appropriate training is necessary in order to create awareness of the
hazards and the ways to avoid or minimize them. The use of Personal Protective Equipment
should be encouraged at all times
Some of the hazards are shown in the following table and how they occur.

Table 16: Hazard consideration

Hazard Considerations
Safety at recording station Access (steps, ladders, footpaths)
Platforms (slippery surfaces, handrails)
Wells (falling)
Safety on bridges Traffic hazard
Suspended equipment
Safety while wading Wadding techniques
Safety lines and taglines
Lifejackets
Mishap technique
While working on boats Lifejackets
Use of tag lines
Use of dinghies

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered Concepts of hydrology, Hydrological cycle and
Hydrological processes, principles and application

Further Reading

1. Meteorological data collection instruments

2. Applications of hydrology in engineering

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written assessment
1. In determining evaporation, the penman equation is used. Distinguish which of the
following is not a variable in the equation?
a) Net radiation
b) Heat capacity
c) Atmospheric pressure
d) Density
2. In the water cycle the mass balance equation is used to quantify precipitation, select one
variable that is not applicable in computing precipitation
a) Evaporation
b) Outflow
c) Evapotranspiration
d) Inflow
3. Hydrological services should aid in achieving sustainable development goals. Select
which one is not provided under the services rendered?
a) IWRM
b) WRA
c) Water quality assessment
d) Land conflict resolution
4. While collecting hydrometric data, select which of the following will be a safety
precaution to observe
a) Measure the length and width of land below
b) Use of tag line while reading a rain gauge
c) Use of life jacket while processing hydrometric data
d) Peer education on risk factors
5. Distinguish which one is not a variable in the rational formula?
a) Discharge (Q)
b) Area (A)
c) Rainfall intensity
d) Gravitational force

Practical Assessment
Measure and predict the amount of evaporation around your local area.

Oral Assessment
Explain the cyclone formation process

336
Practical Assessment
Assemble a non-recording rain gauge network and use it to obtain daily precipitation for
one month. Use the data to determine average annual precipitation

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Evaporation pan (Class A)
• Rain gauge
• Current meter
• Wading suit
• Tape measure
• Staff gauge
• Hand lens
• Clinometer
• GPS receiver
• Maps
• Steel file
• Steel knife
• Rock samples
• Minerals
• PPE

[Link] References

Barry, R. G. (2019). The world hydrological cycle. In Introduction to Physical

Hydrology (pp. 8-26). Routledge.
Carrier, O., Shahidzadeh-Bonn, N., Zargar, R., Aytouna, M., Habibi, M., Eggers, J., &
Bonn, D. (2016). Evaporation of water: evaporation rate and collective
effects. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 798, 774-786.
Sun, Q., Miao, C., Duan, Q., Ashouri, H., Sorooshian, S., & Hsu, K. L. (2018). A review
of global precipitation data sets: Data sources, estimation, and
intercomparisons. Reviews of Geophysics, 56(1), 79-107.

337
9.3.3Learning Outcome No 2: Quantify Surface Water
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Quantify Surface Water

Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Identify sites for installation of hydrological instruments ● Project

2.2 Identify and installed hydrological Instruments ● Case studies
2.3 Collect hydrological data ● Field trips
2.4 Analyze and quantify hydrological data ● Discussions
● Demonstration by
trainer
● Practice by the trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No9/LO2 Quantify Surface Water

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers WMO guidelines on identifying site for irrigation of
hydrological instruments as well as the identification and installation of some. It also
covers collection and analysis of parameters to be measured.

Definition of key terms

Precipitation: This Consists of all forms of moisture that reach the earth from the
atmosphere.

Stream flow: A stream can be defined as a flow channel into which the surface runoff from
a specified basin drain

Hydrometry: It is the process of monitoring the occurrence of water, its properties and
distribution on, beneath the earth's surface and also in the atmosphere.

338
Content/procedures/methods/illustrations
2.1 Identify sites for installation of hydrological instruments based on WMO guidelines
Hydrological instruments
• Rain gauges
A rain gauge is a meteorological instrument used for measuring rainfall. There are two
main categories of rain gauges
a. Recording rain gauge
b. Non-recording rain gauge which includes: Tipping bucket rain gauge, Float
type rain gauge, Weighing type rain gauge, Automatic-radio-reporting rain
gauge

Below are the criteria for selecting a suitable site;

i. A rain gauge should be placed near the stream gauge if the observations will
represent the entire general area
ii. It can be placed at a distance from the stream gauge depending on the topography
of the location.
iii. It should be placed in a location such that the basin precipitation can be determined
easily for each stream-gauging station
iv. Open place, away from obstruction at least four times the height of the tallest
obstructing object.
v. Level ground to ensure gage mouth is horizontally exposed
vi. Site should be shielded from direct strong winds

• Evaporation pans
Evaporation pans are used to determine the rate of evaporation for a given catchment area.
The site for placing an evaporation pan is selected according to the climatic region, size
and shape of the lake/water body.

• Current meters
Current meters are devices used to record the velocity of water in a stream. The current
meter stations should always be placed in stretches that are straight and uniform to ensure
consistency in recording data. The stream channel should have smooth beds and banks and
have minimal flow disturbances.

2 .2 Identify and install hydrological Instruments based on WMO guidelines

Hydrologic instruments include water level gauge, thermometer, soil penetrometer, water
level gauge, thermistor, radiometer, pressure transducer, conductivity probe, encoder etc.

339
2 .3 Collect hydrological data based on parameters to be measured
Hydrological data
• Rainfall data is measured as the vertical depth of water (or water equivalent in
case of solid forms) that would accumulate on a flat level surface if all the
precipitation remained where it had fallen.

• Evaporation data -This is collected using Direct methods evaporation pan,

atmometers or Indirect methods e.g. water budget, energy budget, aerodynamics or
mass transfer, other empirical equations. Evaporation is measured in mm.

• Evaporation Pan: Measurement of evaporation is done by US Weather Bureau

Class A pan (USWB class A pan) which may be installed as land pan, sunken or
floating pan. Details of USWB class A pan installed as land pan is as sketched
below.

Figure 98: Evaporation Pan

Source:[Link]
Evaporation-Pan_fig24_321299610
• Stream flow data - Streamflow is measured as discharge measurement (m3/s) can
be measured using the following methods:
i. Direct determination of stream discharge:
(1) Area-Velocity method
(2) Dilution techniques
(3) Electromagnetic method and
(4) Ultrasonic method (Mohit Mayoor, 2018).

340
 ii. Indirect methods:
(1) Artificial controls e.g. weirs, flumes, slope-area formula as Manning’s and
Chezy’s
(2) Ffloat gauging
(3) Indirect stage –rating

2 .4 Analyse and quantify hydrological data based on the collected parameters

Rainfall collected in the rain gauge is measured in mm and recorded
Evaporation- the amount of evaporated water is measured in millimetres. Evaporation is
determined from the records of water level changes in the pan, corrected for the amount of
water added to it by rainfall and artificially. When water level variation is measured by
means of adding water to or removing water from the pan up to the constant water mark
on its wall, the evaporation value is determined by using the following equation:

E=P±∆H where E= evaporation in mm, P= rainfall depth in mm and ∆H= the depth of
water added (+) or the amount removed (-) from the pan, the value of ∆H is computed
using a standard cup equivalent to 0.5mm of rainfall.
∆H = No. of cups added or removed x 0.5 mm. Note that if P=0, then E = ±∆H or E=0
when there is no change of level.

Streamflow is measured in m3/s

Figure 99: Streamflow

Source: Bartram,Et Al, 1996

341
 Procedure: The horizontal distance b1 and b2 is measured from the reference point.
The vertical distance d2 is measured.

Mathematical techniques like mid-section method or mean section method are used
to derive area and mean velocity and the process is repeated on the other sections.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered Precipitation measurement- types of rain gauges,
Evaporation measurement from US class A pan, Stream flow measurement- selection of a
regular gauging station site, River gauging, Computation of stream discharge (mean section
method, mid-section method; Stage discharge relationship and Personal safety in
hydrometry.

Further Reading

Read more on mid-section and mean section methods of determining stream flow

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written assessment
1. Select which units are used in rainfall measurement.
a) m
b) cm
c) mm
d) km
2. Explain how evaporation is measured.
3. Select which is not a hydrological instrument?
a) Rain gauge
b) Current meter
c) Multimeter
d) Thermometer
4. Distinguish which of the following statement is false?
a) A rain gauge site should be open without obstruction
b) Accessibility of a rain gauge is not mandatory
6. Current meters should be placed in bends and corners of a stream, justify

342
7. Evaluate the following terms
a) Precipitation
b) Evaporation
c) Streamflow
d) Hydrology
8. Categorize the types of rain gauges

Oral Assessment
1. Explain the meaning of hygrometry in quantifying surface area

Practical Assessment
Visit your nearest meteorological station and identify the available hydrological
instruments. Prepare a report on instruments available and explain their functions.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

● Computers
● Stationery
● Evaporation pan (Class A)
● Rain gauge
● Current meter
● Tape measure
● Staff gauge
● Hand lens
● Clinometer
● GPS receiver
● Maps
● Steel file
● Steel knife
● Rock samples
● Minerals

[Link] References

Gupta, R. S. (2016). Hydrology and hydraulic systems. Waveland Press.

Mayoor, M., Kumari, A., Mahapatra, S., Parhi, P. K., & Singh, H. P. (2018). Comparison
of Four Precipitation Based Drought Indices in Marathwada Region of Maharashtra
India. International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research, Indian
Academicians and Researchers Association, 5(4).

343
9.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Map Rocks and Aquifers
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Map Rocks and Aquifers
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3 .1Identify Tools and equipment for mapping ● Project

3 .2Identify Rock types ● Case studies
3 .3Identify Aquifer types ● Field trips
3 .4Map rock types and aquifers ● Discussions
3 .5Map aquifers ● Demonstration by
trainer
● Practice by the
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No9/LO3 Map Rocks and Aquifers

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Geologic time scale (Eons, Eras, Periods, Series), Earth
origin theories, Internal structure of the earth (crust, mantle, core), Earth processes
(weathering, volcanism, isostasy, magmatism), Rock types and their characteristics:
(sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous,), Rock structures, Minerology: Physical properties
of minerals, rock forming minerals, mineral groups and Aquifer types and characteristics :
confined, non-confined, leaky, perched.

Definition of key terms

Rock this is a naturally occurring material which contains minerals

Minerology this is the study of the physical and chemical properties of a mineral

Aquifer a rock under the earth's surface which can hold or transfer groundwater.

Content/procedures/methods/illustrations
3 .1 Identify Tools and equipment for mapping based on physical properties and user
preference
• Rock Hammer.
• Hand Lens.
• Handheld GPS.

344
 • Mineral Hardness Kit.
• Acid Bottle

3 .2 Identify Rock types based on their origin

An eon is defined as the geologic time scale that relates the stratigraphy of the earth to
time. An era subdivides Eons to smaller periods the table below shows the time frame of
eons and eras

Table 17: Time frame of eons and eras

Eon Era Time

Phanerozoic Cenozoic 66m years ago to date

Mesozoic 252m to 66m years ago
Paleozoic 541 to 252 years ago

Proterozoic Neoproterozoic 1000 to 541 years ago

Mesoproterozoic 1600 to 1000m years ago
Paleoproterozoic 2500 to 1600m years ago

Archean Neoarchean 2800 to 2500m years ago

Mesoarchean 3200 to 2800m years ago
Paleoarchean 3600 to 3200m years ago
Eoarchean 4000 to 3600 m years ago

Hadean formation of the earth to

4000m years ago

The earth is divided into four main parts

• The outer crust which consists of the continental plate i.e. Main land and ocean
surface
• The mantle (liquid form)
• The liquid outer core containing iron and nickel
• The solid inner core containing iron and nickel in liquid state

Rock types
• Igneous rocks are formed when magma from a volcano is rapidly cooled
• Metamorphic: this is either igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rock that
changes its nature due to exposure to high temperature or pressure
• Sedimentary-These rocks are formed by the piling up of dead animals and plants
and which cement over a long period of time

345
3 .3 Identify Aquifer types based International Association of Hydro-geologists (IAH)
guidelines
Aquifer types
● Confined -they are water bodies that accumulate in rock layers
● Unconfined- water bodies located near land surface and aren’t enclosed with a
layer of clay
● Perched- these are unconfined aquifers that occur when groundwater water body
is separated from main groundwater. The amount of water is minimal.

3 .4 Map rock types and aquifers based on their formation

Figure 100: Map rock types and aquifers

Source: [Link]

Figure 101: Map rock types

Source: The G360 Institute for Groundwater Research, 2017

346
3 .5 Map aquifers based on rock units
Aquifers are able to store groundwater due to the nature of the surrounding rocks’ texture.
The source of the groundwater is mainly from surface runoff and infiltration which is then
the primary supplier of seas and streams. Rocks with fine and compact texture are less
porous (excellent aquifer) hence have a higher water retaining capability while those with
high porosity (poor aquifers) supply wells and springs. Poor aquifers contain granites and
schist while excellent aquifers contain fractured volcanic rocks.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered Geologic time scale (Eons, Eras, Periods, Series), Earth
origin theories, Internal structure of the earth ( crust, mantle, core), Earth processes
(weathering, volcanism, isostasy, magmatism), Rock types and their characteristics: (
sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous,), Rock structures, Minerology: Physical properties of
minerals, rock forming minerals, mineral groups and Aquifer types and characteristics .

Further Reading

Read more on a Leakey aquifer

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written assessment
1. Select the state of the outer core of the earth?
a) Liquid
b) Solid
c) Gas
2. Distinguish and elabourate the tools and equipment used in mapping.
3. Summarize the process in which igneous rocks are formed
4. Select which rock are contained in poor aquifers and justify why they are
a) Schist
b) Sedimentary rocks
c) Granite
d) Volcanic rocks

347
5. Compare the categories of eons and their respective eons.
a) Phanerozoic
b) Hadean
c) Archean
d) Neoarchean
6. Briefly discuss what is contained in the inner core of the earth
a) steel
b) magnesium
c) nickel
d) iron
7. Justify the duration of the Hadean Eon and specify the exact timing.
a) formation of the earth to 4000m years ago
b) 2800 to 2500m years ago
c) 3200 to 2800m years ago
d) 3600 to 3200m years ago
8. Explain the following terms
a) Rock
b) Mineral
c) Aquifer
9. Categorize the types of aquifers and explain each category
10. Distinguish and explain the three types of rock.
11. Explain how are sedimentary rocks formed?
12. State 5 hydrological tools

Oral Assessment
What water body feeds streams and seas?

Practical Assessment
Identify 3 different types of rock in your neighbourhood

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

● Computers
● Stationery
● Evaporation pan (Class A)
● Rain gauge
● Current meter
● Wading suit
● Tape measure
● Staff gauge
● Hand lens

348
 ● Clinometer
● GPS receiver
● Maps
● Steel file
● Steel knife
● Rock samples
● Minerals
● PPE

[Link] References

Adams, A. E., Mackenzie, W. S., & Guilford, C. (2017). Atlas of sedimentary rocks under
the microscope. Routledge.
Mohamed, M. S. E., Saeed, M. A., & Radwan, A. A. (2019). Prediction of Unconfined
Compressive Strength of Rocks By Point Load Strength Index. Journal of Al-Azhar
University Engineering Sector, 14(51), 453-459.
Schilling, K. E., Jacobson, P. J., Libra, R. D., Gannon, J. M., Langel, R. J., & Peate, D. W.
(2017). Estimating groundwater age in the Cambrian–Ordovician aquifer in Iowa:
implications for biofuel production and other water uses. Environmental Earth
Sciences, 76(1), 2.

349
9.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Establish Well Sites
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Establish Well Sites
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4 .1Identify Suitable sites for wells • Project

4 .2Identify Suitable methods for well site establishment • Case studies
4 .3Establish Suitable well sites • Field trips
4 .4Prepare well site establishment report • Discussions
• Demonstration by
trainer
• Practice by the
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No9/LO4: Establish Well Sites

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers identification of suitable sites for wells, methods of well site
establishment, establishment of suitable well sites based on groundwater potential and well
site establishment report writing.

Definition of key terms

Groundwater potential: Groundwater potential is the unrealized water found
underground in the cracks and areas of soil, sand and rock according to
[Link].

Well siting: Well siting is the location of possible well sites to provide ample water to
satisfy current and future water needs, according to [Link].

Content/procedures/methods/illustrations
4 .1 Identify Suitable sites for wells-based groundwater potential
Suitable sites: are those sites which have characteristics that meet the minimum
requirements for the design, construction and operation of a sediment processing/ transfer
facility in accordance with the standards established by the project (EPA, 2004)

350
Methods
Digital elevation mode (DEM) with a higher distance resolution is used to derive slope and
drainage density map using the ArcGIS tool. The development of drainage density involves
filling sinks, flow direction, flow accumulation and stream network (Tolche, 2020).
• Machine drilling
• Manual drilling
• Concrete lined dug well

4 .2 Identify Suitable methods for well site establishment based on user preference
Suitable methods for well site establishment
• Metallic rod pegs
• Hard wood pegs
• Concrete pegs
• Protected dug holes

4 .3 Establish Suitable well sites based on groundwater potential

Groundwater potential is the unrealized water found underground in the cracks and areas
of soil, sand and rock according to [Link]

Factors to be considered include;

• Land formations in the area
• Distance of location from the latrine
• Ground water motion direction
• Distance between the water table and the base of the pit latrine

Table 18: Minimum Safe Separation Distance in Deep Water Table

351
Table 19: Minimum Safe Separation Distance in Shallow Water Table

Source; [Link]

4 .4 Prepare well site establishment report based on Water Resource Management

rules (WRM) 2007*
In writing a well establishment report the following must be taken into account;
• The main reason for the construction
• Method of construction
• The cost of construction
• The specific location of the well
• The area description; topology, geology, drainage etc.
• Ground water occurrence; discharge and recharge.
• Water quality
• Policy, legal and regulatory frame work

Conclusion
This learning outcome has prepared the student to be able to classify wells: dug, driven,
drilled, identify a suitable well site, establish a suitable well site, know the factors affecting
well siting, state the methods of well site establishment and Well site establishment report
writing.

Further Reading

Read more on ground water potentials

352
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written assessment
1. Then following are classification of wells. Which one is not?
a) Dug
b) Borehole
c) Drilled
d) Dam
2. Analyze the steps one can use to identify sustainable well site
3. The following processes falls under hydrological cycle. Which one does not?
a) Evaporation
b) Infiltration
c) Irrigation
d) Surface run-off
4. Which of the following statement is false?
a) 97% of the earth’s water occurs in oceans.
b) 2% occurs in the polar ice caps and frozen glaciers
c) Only 3% is available as fresh water.
5. Explain the term groundwater
6. State the suitable methods for well site establishment
7. Explain the factors affecting well siting
8. Analyze the importance of establishing a well site

Oral Assessment
1. Explain the need of establishing a well site
2. Summarize the methods of well site establishment

Case Study Assessment

The reduction in the water table is known in groundwater terms as a drawdown. Why do
you think drawdown occurs?

Practical Assessment
1. Plan the steps undertaken in identifying a suitable well site
2. Given the rain gauge observations during a storm. Construct the mass curve of
precipitation.
3. Estimate rainfall using the Thiessen polygon method

353
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computers
• Stationery
• Evaporation pan (Class A)
• Rain gauge
• Current meter
• Wading suit
• Tape measure
• Staff gauge
• Hand lens
• Clinometer
• GPS receiver
• Maps
• Steel file
• Steel knife
• Rock samples
• Minerals
• PPE

[Link] References

Facts, G. (2010). Water resources. Irrigation, Sanitation, and Supply.

Sioutas, C., Pandis, S. N., Allen, D. T., & Solomon, P. A. (2004). Special issue of
Atmospheric Environment on findings from EPA’s Particulate Matter Supersites
Program.
Tolche, A. D. (2020). Groundwater potential mapping using geospatial techniques: a case
study of Dhungeta-Ramis sub-basin, Ethiopia. Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes,
1-16.

354
9.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Conserve the Environment
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Conserve the Environment
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5 .1 Identify Factors affecting water and soil conservation • Project

5 .2 Identify water and soil conservation measures • Case studies
5 .3 Identify types of land degradation • Field trips
5 .4 Identify causes of land degradation • Discussions
5 .5 Identify effects of land degradation • Demonstration by
5 .6 Identify control measures trainer
• Practice by the
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No9/LO5: Conserve the Environment

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Water conservation, Soil conservation, Water and soil
conservation measures, Types of land degradation, Causes of land degradation, Effects of
land degradation and Control measures of land degradation.

Definition of key terms

Soil conservation: Soil conservation is the preservation of soil from erosion and other
forms of degradation in order to maintain soil fertility and productivity

Land degradation: Land degradation is a decline or loss of the productive potential of the
biophysical environment

Water conservation: Water conservation is the method of using water effectively to

reduce excessive water usage.

355
 Content/procedures/methods/illustrations
5.1 Identify Factors affecting water and soil conservation based on natural and
artificial activities.
Water conservation: is the method of using water effectively to reduce excessive water
usage.
Soil conservation: Soil conservation is the preservation of soil from erosion and other
forms of degradation in order to maintain soil fertility and productivity.

Factors affecting water conservation

• Climate change
• Deforestation
• Pollution
• Sedimentation
• Landscape changes
• Urban growth (Sprl, 2004)

Factors affecting soil conservation

• Practices on land use in agriculture: use of some fertilizers affects
microorganisms in the soil to produce nutrients naturally.
• Mining: some methods of mining cause soil loss.
• Construction and development: some soils at construction sites washes or blow
away because its protective plant cover has been removed according to
[Link] .com.

5 .2 Identify water and soil conservation measures based on the identified factors
Water conservation measures consist of measures aimed at reducing the quantity of drainage
effluent and measures aimed at reducing the mass pollution of the constituents into the
receiving water (Christen and Skehan, 2000).
Soil conservation measures reduces soil erosion and provides solutions on farms

Soil conservation measures

Practices on land use in agriculture: conserved through crop rotation, contour ploughing,
wind breaks, conservation tillage and terracing.
Mining: by use of best methods of mining.
Construction and development: proper measures should be put in place during site clearance
and all construction activities.

356
Water conservation measures
Sedimentation: there should be proper land use practices
Landscape changes: conserved through minimum use of conversion of natural landscape to
farming and human activities.
Urban growth: proper measures should be put into place when cities grow to preserve water.
Deforestation: it is conserved through minimum clearing of forests and planting of more
trees.

Figure 102: Fanya juu terraces

Source: Fanya juu terraces in a semi-arid area which have developed over time into
benches: note well established grass strips along the bunds (Kenya). (c) Hanspeter Liniger,
WOCA

5 .3 Identify types of land degradation based on environment

Land degradation: is a temporary or irreversible decrease in the productive ability of land
(UNEP, 1992b).

Types of land degradation

Water erosion: includes all aspects of soil erosion by water, including soil erosion.
Human-induced intensification of landslides triggered by forest clearing, road
construction.

Wind erosion: refers to the loss of soil by wind, which occurs mainly in dry regions.

Soil fertility decline: is used in the short term to refer to what is more precisely described
as deterioration of soil physical, chemical and biological properties.

Waterlogging: is a decrease in land productivity due to an increase in precipitation

below the soil surface.

357
Salinization: is used in its broad sense to refer to all forms of soil deterioration caused by
the increase of salts in the soil.

Lowering the water table: occurs as a consequence of excessive groundwater pumping

bellow the water table.

5 .4 Identify causes of land degradation based on degradation types identified

Deforestation- cutting of forest will affect soil adversely since forest are helpful in
binding up of soil particles with the help of roots if vegetation.

Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides - excess use of fertilizers causes an imbalance in
the quality of certain nutrients in the soil which affects vegetation.

Overgrazing- over exploitation of pasture by livestock makes grass and other

vegetation’s unable to survive and grow. This lack of vegetation cover leads to soil
erosion.

Desertification- this is the destruction of the biological potential of land due to

mismanagement of forest, overgrazing, mining and quarries can lead to desert like
condition.

Soil erosion- this is the loss of top fertile soil along with nutrient through run off water,
strong wind may also blow the loose and coarse soil particle across long distance.

5 .5 Identify effects of land degradation based on degradation types identified

Water erosion: Once the soil enters the water supply, the concentration of phosphorous
and nitrogen in the water increases, resulting in decreased water oxygen levels and
reduced water quality.

Wind erosion: Wind erosion reduces the soil's ability to retain nutrients and water,
rendering the atmosphere drier.

Soil fertility decline: Decrease in soil fertility causes a lack of the necessary soil
nutrients for crops.

Waterlogging: Waterlogging prevents aeration and gas exchange and thus causes the soil
to shut down in many habitats.

358
Salinization: Salinization causes plant dehydration leading to a decrease in yield

Lowering water table: Lowering the water table causes wells to be unable to access
groundwater

5 .6 Identify control measures based on the identified factors

Water erosion degradation is managed by mulching which is covering the soil surface
with a crop residue or growing plant cover.

Wind erosion degradation is controlled by the reduction of cultivated fallow, the

maintenance of the vegetable cavity, the reduction of the tillage and the prevention of
overgrazing,

Soil fertility decline is regulated by the retention of crop residues on site, the use of a
reduced tillage method and the application of soil modifications or fertilizers.

Salinization is controlled by the monitoring of the groundwater levels and the quantity of
salts and water in the land and encouraging preventative measures to stop the salts
moving towards the surface.

Waterlogging is controlled by removal of excess water and minimizing compaction

according to [Link]. The lowering of water table is
managed by controlling sub-irrigation and drainage.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered Water conservation, Soil conservation, Types of land
degradation, Causes of land degradation, Effects of land degradation and Control measures
of land degradation.

Further Reading

Read more on land degradation and its control measures

359
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written assessment
1. Which is of the following is not a type of land degradation?
a) Wind erosion
b) Waterlogging
c) Groundwater
d) Salinization
2. Evaluate the importance of environmental conservation
3. The following are factors affecting water conservation. Which one is not?
a) Sedimentation
b) Mining
c) Deforestation
d) Overgrazing
4. Which of the following is a factor affecting soil conservation?
a) Water logging
b) Mining
c) Sedimentation
d) Salinization
5. Explain factors affecting water conservation
6. Evaluate the effects of land degradation
7. Distinguish the types of land degradation
8. Discuss the control measures based on land degradation

Oral Assessment
1. Explain land degradation
2. Summarize the causes of land degradation

Case Study Assessment

Investigate the causes and effects of land degradation in your area

Practical Assessment
Conduct a site visit to a mining location and come up with a strategy on how to conserve
the soil.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Evaporation pan (Class A)
360
 • Rain gauge
• Current meter
• Wading suit
• Tape measure
• Staff gauge
• Hand lens
• Clinometer
• GPS receiver
• Maps
• Steel file
• Steel knife
• Rock samples
• Minerals
• PPE

[Link] References

Facts, G. (2010). Water resources. Irrigation, Sanitation, and Supply.

Sioutas, C., Pandis, S. N., Allen, D. T., & Solomon, P. A. (2004). Special issue of
Atmospheric Environment on findings from EPA’s Particulate Matter Supersites
Program.
Tolche, A. D. (2020). Groundwater potential mapping using geospatial techniques: a case
study of Dhungeta-Ramis sub-basin, Ethiopia. Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes,
1-16.

361
9.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Develop Water Harvesting Structures Situations
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Develop water harvesting structures
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6 .1 Identify water harvesting techniques • Project

6 .2 Identify suitable sites for water harvesting reservoirs • Case studies
6 .3 Design simple water harvesting structures • Field trips
6 .4 Operate and maintain simple water harvesting • Discussions
structures • Demonstration by
trainer
• Practice by the
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No9/LO6 Adapt First Aid Procedures for Remote

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Water harvesting techniques Types of water harvesting
reservoirs), Site selection for water harvesting structures factors considered: Hydraulic
properties of rock units (porosity, Permeability, compressibility), Topography and
Proximity, Design of simple water harvesting structures and Operation and maintenance of
water harvesting structures.

Definition of key terms

Water pans: this is depression on the ground that collect and stores surface runoff from
uncultivated grounds, road.

Water dams: Are structures constructed along a water course to store water on its upstream
besides controlling its flow.

Porosity: it is a measure of the void space in a material and can be further explained as
fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume.

Permeability; It is the measure of the rate of flow of a fluid through a porous medium.

362
Content/procedures/methods/illustrations
6 .1 Identify water harvesting techniques based on site conditions
Water harvesting techniques are ways in which water is collected either on the surface or
below the ground lever to store water during wet season to be used during dry period.

They include:
1. Roof catchments: a technique used for collecting rainwater with suitable roof cover
conditions over buildings.
2. Rock catchment: they collect rain water from rock outcrops to concentrate the
runoff water into a storage structure.
3. Surface water catchment; water is collected on land and channeled to a single point.

6 .2 Identify suitable sites for water harvesting reservoirs based on geological

structures
Water harvesting reservoirs: Dams (Earth, sand, concrete), Water pans, Ponds, Man-
made lakes
Suitable sites of the water harvesting reservoirs should be where:
a. Hydraulic properties involving the layers beneath should have low permeability
and less porous earth material.
b. Topography involves mapping and detecting shallow depths to ensure a depth
equal to the proposed height of reservoir.
c. Proximity entails the site being at a location where it is close to infrastructure
for accessibility purposes.

6 .3 Design simple water harvesting structures based on the need

Designing a water dam will involve the following process
i. Description of the need and the location of dam
ii. A hydrological assessment of the dam in relation to catchment features and
climatic conditions
iii. An assessment of environmental and social impacts of the dam
iv. Description and analysis of reservoir, embankment, spillway, draw-off system,
scour and ancillary structures details
v. Preparation of the design drawings
vi. Description of catchment protection works
vii. Estimation of construction cost
viii. Preparation of construction works and schedule
ix. Preparation of operation rules and schedule of inspection and maintenance

363
6.4 Operate and maintain simple water harvesting structures based on standard
operating procedures
Operation and maintenance are done by:
• Refilling erosion rills on the embankment slopes with compacted material
• Keeping and noting records of spillway flows
• Removing silt from reservoir area
• Frequent operation of valves during inspections to ensure they are working
• Regular inspections of the structure
• Addressing safety concerns by maintenance of fencing the structure and
repainting of warning sign

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered Water harvesting techniques Types of water harvesting
reservoirs), Site selection for water harvesting structures factors considered: Hydraulic
properties of rock units (porosity, Permeability, compressibility), Topography and
Proximity, Design of simple water harvesting structures and Operation and maintenance of
water harvesting structures.

Further Reading

Learners should do further reading on Environmental Impact Assessment of water

harvesting reservoirs and be able to do computations on design of reservoir structures

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Distinguish the different water harvesting techniques used to collect and store water
2. Which one of the following is not a water harvesting technique based on site
conditions?
a) Roof catchments
b) Micro-catchment
c) Rock catchments
d) Surface water catchment

364
3. The following are hydraulic properties of rock units except one which one?
a) Compression strength
b) Permeability
c) Porosity
d) Compressibility
4. Classify the various subsurface water harvesting used in Kenya.
5. Categorize the types of water harvesting reservoir?
a) Dams
b) Water pans
c) Ponds
d) Plant pits
6. Explain the term porosity
7. Differentiate between porosity and permeability
8. Summarize the ways of maintaining water harvesting structures
9. Evaluate the reliability of rain water harvesting as a technique for water harvesting.
10. Over the years Masinga dam has been serving its purpose as a water harvesting
reservoir. Discuss its purposes and uses in Kenya

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Evaporation pan (Class A)
• Rain gauge
• Current meter
• Wading suit
• Tape measure
• Staff gauge
• Hand lens
• Clinometer
• GPS receiver
• Maps
• Steel file
• Steel knife
• Rock samples
• Minerals
• PPE

365
[Link] References

Ministry of water and irrigation. (2015) practice manual for small dams, pans and other
water conservation structures in kenya. Nairobi: state department of water and
irrigation
Saeid eslamian. (2020). Handbook of water harvesting and conservation. John wiley &
sons

366
 CHAPTER 10: MATERIAL TESTING

10.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to Conduct Material Testing. It involves
preparing for material testing, sampling construction materials, and performing tests on
alignment soils, concrete, structural steel, bitumen materials and timber. It also includes
documenting test results.

10.2 Performance Standard

Prepare for material testing, sample road construction materials, undertake tests on the
alignment soils, perform concrete tests, carry out structural steel tests, perform bitumen
tests, and perform timber tests as per the contract documents, project requirements, material
testing manual, expertise and qualifications, standard tests and procedures, test procedures
and requirements, and SOPs.

10.3 Learning Outcomes

10.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Prepare for material testing
b) Sample road construction materials
c) Undertake tests on the alignment soils
d) Perform concrete tests
e) Carry out structural steel tests
f) Perform bitumen tests
g) Perform timber tests

367
10.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare for Material Testing
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare for Material Testing
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

1.1 Conduct preliminary site investigations • Direct

1.2 Provide and maintain material laboratory instruction
1.3 Obtain material testing manuals and contract documents • Field trips
1.4 Acquire Material testing equipment • Discussions
1.5 Identify material laboratory personnel • Demonstration
1.6 Develop sampling procedures by trainer
1.7 Determine types of material tests • Practice by the
1.8 Operate and maintain testing equipment trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No10/1: Prepare for material testing

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers site investigations, construction material laboratory, material
testing, construction material and development of sampling procedures.

Definition of key terms

Construction material – in civil engineering, construction materials are any materials
used for construction purposes. These may include; sand, rocks, cement etc.

Material testing- this is the act of determining the properties of raw materials using
standard techniques. These properties include physical, mechanical and chemical
properties.

Testing tools – in civil engineering, testing tools are items or objects used in determining
the properties of raw materials.

368
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Conduct preliminary site investigations as per contract document
Site Investigation
This is an inspection of the proposed site for construction to obtain information about its
subsurface conditions thus determining the suitability of the proposed site. The steps for
conducting a site investigation include:
• Conduct a site pre-visit to the proposed site of the construction.
This is the first stage of site investigation and involves a field visit to the proposed
site to obtain information on the topographical and geological features of the site.
The pre-visit reveals information on the behaviour and type of adjacent structures
noticeable slags, cracks and sticking doors and windows.
• Perform a preliminary site investigation to the area.
This is the second stage of site investigation and is also known as general site
investigation. Its main objective is to obtain an approximate assessment of the
suitability of the site. Experimental borings and shallow tests are dug to collect
soil samples and perform simple tests such as unconfined compressive test and
moisture content.
• Conduct a detailed site investigation
This is the third stage of site investigation and is preferred for complex projects
such as the construction of dams, bridges and high-rise buildings. It involves a
detail assessment of the proposed site by performing more complex detailed field
tests such as plate load test, in-situ vane shear test.
• Prepare a detailed soil investigation report
This is the fourth stage of site investigation whereby a detailed report of the site
investigation findings is recorded and documented.

1.2 Provide and maintain material laboratory according to contract document

Materials laboratory- This is a laboratory specifically dedicated for assessing the physical
and mechanical properties of construction materials. Maintaining a materials laboratory
involves maintain the laboratory equipment present in the laboratory.

Five ways of maintaining a materials laboratory

• Repairing laboratory equipment
• Refurbishing laboratory equipment at regular intervals thus increasing their
efficiency and functionality.
• Regular calibration services of the materials laboratory equipment.
• Performing in-house maintenance of equipment or at times outsourcing
maintenance services.
• Regular cleaning of laboratory equipment.

369
1.3 Obtain material testing manuals and contract documents based on project
requirements
Approved Material Testing manuals used in Kenya include the following;
• BS 1377-2-1990: For soil classification tests.
• BS1377-4-1990: For soil compaction tests.
• Road Design Manual Part III: For pavement material tests
• Road Design Manual Part III Section 17: For concrete works tests.
(BS – British Standard Codes)

1.4 Acquire Material testing equipment according to contact document and material
testing manual
Material testing equipment- these are tools and objects used in determining the physical
and mechanical properties of construction materials.

Material Testing Equipment and their uses

• Penetrometer – used in testing the plasticity of soils
• Weighing Machine – used in measuring the weight of material samples.
• Oven – used in drying material samples thus determining the moisture content of
sample materials.
• Measuring cylinder – used in measuring liquid material samples.
• Crushing machine – used in determining the compressive strength of concrete
sample.
• Moisture bags – used for preserving the moisture content in soil samples obtained
from the field or from borrow pits.
• Standard sieves – used in the sieve analysis test, to determine the particle size of
material samples.
Given the material tests to be conducted as per the contract, one should ensure that the
necessary material testing equipment is available.

1.5 Identify material laboratory personnel according expertise and qualifications.

A material’s laboratory personnel performs field or laboratory tests of construction and
geological materials according to prescribed test procedures.

370
Identification of Material Laboratory Personnel is as follows;
Table 20: Identification of Material Laboratory Personnel
Material Expertise Qualifications
Labouratory
Personnel
Foreman Is an intermediary between workers Maintains
and management to organize, assign cooperative work
and directly supervise the work of a relationships with
manual labourer? project engineers,
contractors, vendors
and employees
Specialist/ Lead Assigns work, sets schedules, Effective scheduling
Technician determine methods, provides training and operation of the
and instruction, evaluates and labouratory
approves completed tasks.
Lead Technologist Is more independent as compared to Accuracy in test
the trainees and uses standard measuring,
techniques and methods to perform documentation and
more complex material testing, verification
including bituminous and concrete
design mixes.
Sub-trainee Assists in both field and labouratory Increased
material testing. Performs a number consistency and
of standard tests on concrete, proficiency in
aggregates and soils. performed tests.
Trainee Works under close supervision and Application of test
review of those ahead of him/her. procedures to a
number of
construction
materials and
documenting test
results.

371
1.6 Develop sampling procedures according to standard tests procedures
Considerations to me made while developing sampling procedures;
• Care should be used in the selection of a representative rather than an extreme
sample.
• The sampling procedures should focus on specifying how many samples should
be tested from each lot. A great error may occur if very few samples are chosen
resulting in the contactor having to carter for the extra payments due to erroneous
calculations. On the other hand, if too many samples are considered, this many
end up consuming time and money without necessarily improving accuracy.
• Procedure for developing sampling procedures should be according the standard
tests procedures.

1.7 Determine types of material tests according to test procedures and requirements
Types of Material Tests include but are not limited to;
• Soil classification tests: Liquid Limit test, shrinkage test, plasticity index test,
sieve analysis, determination of moisture content etc.
• Soil compaction tests: Proctor test, CBR test, Sand replacement method(MDD,
Maximum dry density test)
• Bituminous material tests: Marshall test
• Concrete works tests: Slump test, Concrete strength test.
• Aggregate tests: ACV (Aggregate crushing value), FI (flakiness Index), Sodium
Soundness Test (SSS).

1.8 Operate and maintain testing equipment as per the SOPs

Maintenance of testing equipment is one of the most important aspects of quality
assurance as it contributes to the accuracy or labouratory reports.

A maintenance program for testing equipment should include the following concepts;
• Recording all breakdowns of testing equipment.
• Regular calibration of equipment to ensure accurate records of results.
• Registration of all equipment indicating their serial numbers, identification
numbers and specific location in the labouratory.
• Mechanism for validating testing equipment
• Ensuring all new equipment are checked before installation thus ensuring safety
of equipment.
• Performing periodic performance checks as recommended by the manufacturer.

Daily duties of maintaining material testing equipment are:

• Ensuring the testing equipment is cleaned after every use.
• Oiling the Shrinkage limit, CBR and Proctor molds before use.
372
 • Ensuring the materials testing labouratory’s surfaces are cleaned after every use.
• Cleaning the sieves with a hard brush to remove stuck material particles on the
sieves.
• Regular calibration of equipment to ensure accurate records of results and
availability of equipment for the required testing (Jennings [Link] 2017)

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered site investigations, construction material labouratory,
material testing, construction material and development of sampling procedures.

Further Reading

Read further in Site Investigation from the book Engineering Geology by F.G Bell 2nd ed.
Go through the Road Design Manual Part III to see detailed procedures on material testing.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. A civil engineer has won his first tender for constructing additional classes in a high
school. Which of the following will he not do in the preliminary site visit?
a) Explore the ground conditions at the surface of the proposed construction site
b) Explore the ground conditions below the surface of the proposed construction
site
c) Come up with detailed design drawings of the proposed classrooms
d) Dig test pits
2. In a certain road project, the new trainee was asked to record test results from certain
soil classification tests. Which of the following was not one of them?
a) Sieve Analysis
b) CBR (California Bearing Ratio)
c) Shrinkage test
d) Plasticity Index

373
3. The County Government of Kakamega was performing a maintenance check on its
material testing labouratories. Which of the following material equipment was
calibrated?
a) Measuring cylinder
b) Moisture bags
c) CBR Crushing machine
d) Mechanical Standard sieves
4. Evaluate the steps taken when conducting a preliminary site investigation.
5. Explain three types of aggregate tests outlining their testing tools and equipment.
6. Summarize five ways of maintaining material testing equipment
7. Using a sketch explain the slump test method of testing concrete works.
8. Discuss the Marshall test method of testing for bituminous mixes

Oral Assessment
Explain the main objective of conducting a preliminary site investigation

Oral Assessment
During the early stages of a pavement construction project, the level of compaction of the
earth-works was tested using the sand-replacement method. Why was the soil obtained
from the test pit, not carried back to the labouratory in an open container?

Practical Assessment
With guidance from your materials labouratory technician, obtain a soil sample from a
suitable borrow pit and perform soil classification and compaction tests to determine the
following;
i. Moisture content
ii. Liquid limit, Plastic limit, Plasticity index- cone penetrometer method
iii. Linear shrinkage
iv. CBR value

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data

374
 • Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Jennings [Link]. (2017). Capacity Building and Knowledge Management Study of MTRD
Kenya. Nairobi: Government Printers

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10.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Sample Road Construction Materials
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Sample Road Construction Materials
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Identify sources of road construction materials • Direct instruction

2.2 Obtain sample procedures and manuals • Field trips
2.3 Identify sampling tools and equipment and assembled • Discussions
2.4 Carry out sampling • Demonstration by
2.5 Store samples awaiting analysis trainer
2.6 Operate and maintain testing equipment maintained • Practice by the trainee

[Link] Information Sheet NO10/L02: Sample Road Construction Materials

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers sources of road construction materials, sampling procedures,
sampling tools and equipment, material sample analysis and storage of samples.

Definition of key terms

Sources of road construction materials – These are the places of origin of the materials
that are used in road construction. The materials are either naturally occurring or man-made
and the selection of sources of road construction materials mainly depend on the purpose
of the road, the availability of that particular material, the location where the construction
will take place and the climatic conditions of that region.

Sampling procedures and standard manuals - sampling procedures is term used to refer
to how the selection of a representative portion of a material to be used in road construction
is done and the standard manuals are small conveniently handled books with instructions
on the standard procedures for carrying out tests on construction materials.

Sampling tools and equipment - These are devices or technical apparatus that are used to
collect a representative sample of a material in order to test, monitor and analyse it.

Material sample analysis - This is a detailed study of a sample of a material used in road
construction so as to understand it better.

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Storage of samples- This is the proper keeping of collected sample materials in the lab
from the time they are acquired till disposal.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Sources of road construction materials (Borrow pits, Quarries, River beds,
Timber yard, Manufacturers) based on contract document
Sources of Construction Materials include:
Borrow pits- refers to an area where construction material have been dug for use at a
different location.

Quarries- refers to a large deep pit from which stone and other constructions materials
such as quarry dust, ballast etc. have been extracted.

River beds- refers to the ground at the bottom of the river from which sand and gravel as
construction materials are obtain.

Timber yard- this is a specific location whereby products used in construction or for
projects of home improvements, specifically wood-related products, are processed or
stored.

Manufactures- aggregates required in road construction can also be made in factories as

a result from the modification of materials, which may involve both physical and chemical
changes. These types of materials are sometimes called synthetic or artificial aggregates.

2.2 Obtain sample procedures and manuals as per standard sampling procedures.
These sample procedures and manuals tend to derive sampling plans that may enable one
to carry out the standard tests required for road construction materials.

Manuals and procedures used for sampling road construction materials include:
• ASTM-D1452
• ASTM: C 183-86 (a)
• SABS 471
• SABS 620
• SABS 626
• SABS 831
• SABS 824
• SABS Method 861

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2.3 Identify sampling tools and equipment and assembled according to standard
procedures
Sampling by Auger
Tools and equipment
• Hand augers with diameter of about 50 to 300 mm
• A riffler with openings of 25mm and pans.
• Shovels.
• Power augers of about 600 mm diameter.
• A prospecting pick.
• Tape measure to determine the sampling depth in millimeters.
• Suitable canvas or plastic sampling bags.
• Suitable canvas sheets of about 2 x 2m.
• Containers of about 500 mm diameter.
• Picks.

Natural rock mass sampling

Tools and equipment
For acquiring samples obtained from test pits that have been blasted with explosives
• A spade
• Containers suitable for rock samples e. g canvas bags (strong) prospecting pick.
• A pick
• A sledge-hammer with about 5 kg mass.
• Canvas sheets of about 2 x 2 m.
• A crowbar.

Tools used for obtaining core samples with the aid of a core drill
• Suitable enough containers to pack the cores such that they can be firmly packed to
prevent sliding or mixing up in the process of transportation and handling.
• A suitable enough tape measure.

Sampling of stock piles

Tools and equipment
• Basin with a diameter of about 500mm diameter
• Shovels.
• Suitable canvas sheets.
• Picks.
• Suitable container or sample bags
• A mechanical loader-digger (if present).
• 25mm openings riffler and six matching pans.

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Sampling of samples obtained from sampling pit in natural soil, gravel and sand
Tools and equipment
• A pick
• 19 mm sieve with 450mm diameter.
• A prospecting pick.
• Appropriate sampling containers.
• Tape measure.
• A spade
• Strong canvas or plastic bags as containers.
• Canvas sheets of about 2 x 2m
• A riffler with oenongs of about 25mm wide, with six matching pans.
• A basin of about 500mm diameter.

Sampling of cement and lime

Tools and apparatus
• Clean and appropriate containers such as tins that have tightly-fitting lids and have
the capacity to hold be hold 5 kg of cement or lime.
• Suitable apparatus for taking samples e. g a grooved sampling device that can take
samples from large containers, and a tube type sampling device that can take
samples from small containers like bags

2.4 Carry out sampling as per standard sampling procedure

Procedure for sampling by auger
Drilling should be done by drilling the auger into the ground to the required depth, then
withdrawing it, and the soil should then be removed so as to carry out sampling and
examination.
The auger should then be reinserted in the hole then the process repeated where the
various types of soil horizon occurs once enough material has been obtained for testing,
e. g when adequate material has been removed by drilling, a labouratory sample is
acquired by quartering and riffling.
In the situation of harder rock, in an instance where the power auger may end up causing
pulverization, it is more advisable to:
• Drill a hole with diameter of about 600 mm, to the full required depth.
• Drill a second hole about 0.5 to `1.0 m away from the first hole, on the quantity of
material required for the particular sample, to the depth of the first horizon that
needs to be sampled.
• All the material between the two holes up to this depth should be removed and
placed it on a hard, clean soil surface or on a canvas sheet.

379
 • The second hole to the depth of the second horizon which is to be sampled is then
drilled and all the material between the two holes removed and placed on a separate
canvas sheet. The process is then to be repeated to the full depth of the first hole.
Still, samples may be obtained from a single hole by cutting down a groove in the
material starting from the side that has the hole.

Procedure for Natural rock mass sampling

For Test pits that have been blasted with explosives which have then been manually
opened;
Inspection should be carried out of the sides of the test pit to their full depth and results
recorded with any observable changes in the rock and also the depths recorded between
which such changes occur. Properties which should be considered are color, texture, rock
type, hardness etc.

A crowbar should be used or the loosen pieces of each type of rock from each wall of the
test pit should be picked and placed in a separate container. In a situation where the
pieces are too large for the containers, they may be broken up by use of a sledgehammer.
Some of the loose material taken from the test pit can be selected outside of the pit if
there are no large types of rocks then each type can then be placed in a separate/different
container. Loose earth or gravel layers of any kind appearing on top of the rock mass or
which occurring in seams between the layers of rock must be sampled separately if by
any chance it is to be used for some or other purpose later on.
The containers with samples must all be clearly marked so as to enable easy identification
of the samples once they arrive in the labouratory.

Procedure for sampling of stock piles

Doing Sampling while the stockpile is being formed by the off-loading of material
i. Randomly selecting one or two positions on the consolidated surface of each
layer of that stockpile while the pile is being formed.
ii. Vertical test hole should be made as deep as possible through the layer with
the pick and shovel.
iii. A canvas sheet should then be placed in the bottom of the hole and a groove
cut in the side of the hole from top to bottom that can let this material fall onto
the canvas sheet.
iv. Gathering of enough quantity of material by cutting successive grooves, and
frequently raising the canvas sheet from the hole then tipping its contents onto
a different canvas sheet on the surface.
v. Mixing of the material on the canvas sheet and dividing it using the riffler and
a method known as quartering method into the required size such that each
sample bag has a representative sample of the material taken from the test hole.

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Sampling from an already completed stockpile
• At least twelve sampling positions should be selected in a random manner. About
half the positions may be on the stockpile if by chance, its surface is fairly large

Procedure for sampling of samples obtained from sampling pit in natural soil, gravel
and sand
i. Begin by Inspecting the sides of the test pit to their full upper edge of the test pit then
sample every distinguishable sand, gravel or soil layer by holding to the lower level of
the layer a spade or canvas sheet against the side of the pit then cutting with a spade or
pick a sheer groove to the full depth of the layer.
ii. The material is then obtained in this way in enough bags. The sheet of canvas may also
be spread out on the floor of that test pit with at least twice the amount of material
required for the final sample must be loosened from the layers.
iii. The material from each layer must be combined on either a clean, hard, even surface
or on a canvas sheet as soon as all the layers have been sampled and properly mixed
with the use of a spade.
iv. It is required to fill one small sample bag which can carry about 10kg, and two or three
other larger bags with each of them holding about 30 to 40 kg.
v. When several test pits are made in a deposit and the materials have a slight difference,
it is only necessary to fill large bags of each material type at each second or third test
pit. At this point, the sampler must be guided by his /her discretion and experience. The
sample containers must all be clearly labeled so that the samples can be easily identified
in the labouratory with the identifying reference agreeing with that given in the
covering report or form.

2.5 Store samples awaiting analysis based on test requirements

Particulars to consider when storing construction materials sample;
a) As the analysis is being done, the samples need to be stored in a position such that
they will not be interfered with at any point.
b) Full particulars of each of those samples being stored must be given with full details
including:
• The sample size,
• The size of containers used to put the samples,
• The method of collection sample marked number,
• The locations and
• Depths at which the samples were taken.

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered sources of road construction materials, sampling
procedures, sampling tools and equipment, material sample analysis and storage of samples

Further Reading

Read more on:

1. The determination of sample size and density based on the various road design
manuals.
2. Building materials; third edition by S.K Duggal

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. When carrying out sampling, what is the diameter of the 19mm sieve
a) 40mm
b) 450mm
c) 950mm
d) 5mm
2. Summarize the procedure for carrying out sampling by auger requires drilling.
3. Compare sampling procedures during the formation of a stockpile as opposed to
sampling from an already completed stock pile.
4. Distinguish between test pit and quarries.
5. Which of the following is not a source of road construction materials?
a) Quarries
b) Trees
c) Test Pits
d) Manufacturers
6. Explain the use of a tape measure in sampling of construction materials.
7. Evaluate the testing tools and equipment used in natural rock mass testing
a) Crowbar
b) Pick
c) Spade
d) Stone
8. Differentiate between sampling manuals and sampling procedures.

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9. Measure the scopes of the following sampling methods?
i. Sampling by auger
ii. Natural rock mass sampling
iii. Sampling of stock piles
10. Summarize the ways of operating and maintaining testing equipment as per the SOPs
11. Explain precautions should be taken when collecting samples obtained from a sampling
pit in natural soil, gravel and sand
12. Explain the selection of aggregators as road construction materials.
13. Classify the methods used for sampling stockpile.

Oral Assessment
1. Summarize the procedure for sampling by auger
2. Explain the importance of following the standard test procedures

Project Assessment
Conduct a practical assessment to find out the possible reasons as to why a section of John
Momanyi Road in Nakuru County sunk to the ground in May 2020. You can use relevant
data presentation techniques if necessary

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

383
[Link] References

David Doran, Bob Cather (2013) Construction Materials Reference Book, Edition2
revised: Routledge
Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel (2014) Traffic and Highway Engineering, SI Edition
S. K Duggal (2008). Building Materials. Allahabad: New Age International Publishers.

384
10.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Undertake Tests on the Alignment Soils
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Undertake Tests on the Alignment Soils
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify Soil tests • Direct instruction

3.2 Obtained standard manuals and procedures • Field trips
3.3 Identify and gather soil testing tools and apparatus • Discussions
3.4 Obtain alignment soil samples according to test • Demonstration by
requirement trainer
3.5 Conduct Soil tests • Practice by the
3.6 Record and analyse results trainee
3.7 Prepare and present report
3.8 Operate and maintain testing equipment

[Link] Information Sheet No10/LO3 Undertake Tests on the Alignment Soils

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers soil tests, standard manuals, gathering of tools and
equipment, alignment of soil samples, conduct soil samples, recording and analysing
results, prepare and present report and operate and maintain testing equipment.

Definition of key terms

Shear test- This is a labouratory or field test that is used to measure the shear the strength
properties of rock or soil materials.

Triaxial- This is a test used to measure the mechanical properties of deformed solids such
as soil and rocks.

Plastic limit- This refers to the water moisture content at which 3.2mm diameter strand of
clay soil stops behaving like a plastic material and begins to crumble.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Identify Soil tests according to contract document
CBR- this is a penetration soil test used to evaluate the subgrade strength of road and
pavements.

385
Atterberg Limit- This is the water level at which the state of soil changes from one form
to the other. In this test, there is measuring of the critical water content of fine-grained
soils. They are the Plastic Limits (PL), Shrinkage Limits (SL) and Liquid Limits (LL).

Liquid Limit (LL) - This is an atterberg test that determines the water content at which
clayey soil tends to change it’s from plastic to liquid form. It measures the moisture content
at which the soil sample will flow until it closes the one-half inch groove within it after
dropping the standard LL equipment 25 times.

Plastic Limit - This refers to the water moisture content at which 3.2mm diameter strand
of clay soil stops behaving like a plastic material and begins to crumble.

Proctor/compaction - This is a way of determining the optimum moisture content at which

a particular soil type will become the densest enabling it to achieve maximum dry density
when experimented on in the labouratory.

Field density- This is a common test which is used to find the field density of a particular
pavement or soil sample. The test works on the principle that sand with a known density is
used to replace soil excavated materials hence we can calculate the volume of the sand that
is required to fill the hole.

Particle size distribution Analysis – this is a test that determines and reports information
on the size and range of particles representative of a given material.

3.2 Obtain standard manuals and procedures in accordance with test requirement
The standard manuals and procedures used to carry out these soil tests are;
• ASTM D 422 - Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
• ASTM Standard: D653 Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols Related
to Soil and Rock Mechanics.
• NYSDOT Geotechnical Engineering Bureau method of determining the
moisture content of soils etc.
• BS 1377 – 2 – 1990: for soil classification tests
• BS 1377 – 4 – 1990: for soil compaction tests

3.3 Identify and gather soil testing tools and apparatus based on test requirements
Soil testing instruments include;
• C.B.R. Test tools are C.B.R molds, soaking basin, C.B.R testing machine, hammer.
• Atterberg limit test tools are penetro meter, casagrade. Brass dish and shrinkage
troughs

386
 • Proctor test tools are proctor molds, hammer of mass 2.5 kg large mixing pan,
weighing balance and detachable base plate.
• Field density testing tools are sand cone density plate, sand cone density apparatus
test, and calcium carbonate chamber and moisture bag.
• Particle size distributions testing tools are testing sieves from 5 inches to 20 inches,
sieve shakers and hard hand brush

3.4 Obtain alignment soil samples according to test requirement

The soil test sample testing is carried out in the alignments as outlined below:
• Standard test method for the unconsolidated - undrained strength testing of soils.
This is a procedure that outlines the method which is used by the NYSDOT,
geotechnical
• Engineering bureau in the unconsolidated - undrained strength testing of Soils. Its
applicable documents are ASTM standard: D653 standard definitions of terms and
symbols relating to soil and rock mechanics.
• Standard test for the consolidated - undrained Strength of soils. This procedure
tends to outline the method used by the NYSDOT, geotechnical.
• Engineering bureau for determining the consolidated - undrained strength
parameters of soils with applicable documents as ASTM standards: D653 standard
definitions of terms and symbols relating to soil and rock mechanics.
• Standard test for the consolidated - undrained Strength with pore pressure of soils.
This is a procedure outlines the method used by the NYSDOT geotechnical
• Engineering bureau for determining the effective consolidated - undrained strength
parameters of soils with applicable documents as ASTM standards: D653 standard
definitions of terms and symbols relating to soil and rock mechanics. Standard tests
for the labouratory determination of moisture content of soils.
• Is a procedure that outlines the NYSDOT geotechnical engineering bureau method
of determining the moisture content of soil?
• Standard tests for the one - dimensional consolidation testing of soils. In this
section, the procedures described are those used by the soil mechanics labouratory.
To determine the one-dimensional consolidation properties of the soils tested with
applicable documents as ASTM standards: D653 standard definitions of terms and
symbols relating to soil and rock mechanics. D2435 standard method for one-
dimensional consolidation of soils.

3.5 Conduct Soil tests as per standard procedures

The specific soil tests are then supposed to be conducted as per the standard test procedures
while following the steps provided to the later so as to ensure that the results acquired are
as accurate as possible

387
Approved standard manuals for soil tests include;
• BS 1377-2-1990: For soil classification tests.
• BS1377-4-1990: For soil compaction tests.
• Road Design Manual Part III: For pavement material tests

3.6 Record and analyse results according to standard procedures

Recording results is basically the act of putting down obtained results from the practical.
Analysis of results is comparing the obtained results to the expected appropriate results
by putting the results into a meaningful and well understood form that one can easily
interpret.
Recording and analyzing of data is done to ensure that correct conclusions are made
concerning the tested sample.
The obtained data calculation and/or analysis is presented in the following ways;
• charts,
• graphs,
• Tables etc.

3.7 Prepare and present report based on contract document requirement

After carrying out of the tests while following the required procedures then collecting and
analysing the acquired data, the student will be required to prepare a detailed report on the
relevant steps that were followed. This report follows the following structure;
i. Title of the given test – this is basically the heading for the given test.
ii. Introductions –this comprises of short theoretical explanation of the test
undertaken.
iii. Objective of the test – this basically explains the purpose for taking the given
test.
iv. A list of tools and equipment used for the test.
v. Procedure followed during the test – the procedure should be in reported speech
since by the time the student is writing the report, he/she has already done the
test.
vi. Results obtained- this is a record of values obtained from taking the results.
vii. Analysis of obtained results – this can be done by the help of mathematical
calculations, tables, graphs etc.
viii. Conclusion – this is an explanation for the analysis.

388
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered soil tests, standard manuals, gathering of tools and
equipment, alignment of soil samples, conduct soil samples, recording and analyzing
results, prepare and present report and operate and maintain testing equipment.

Further Reading

Read more on: Soil tests, for both soil classification tests and soil compaction tests.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Distinguish the following Atterberg limit test.
a) Plastic limit
b) Shrinkage limit
c) Condensation limit
d) Liquid limit
2. Outline the steps undertaken in testing for shrinking limits.
3. Compare and contrast the CBR test and proctor test.
4. The water level at which the state of soil changes from one form to the other is known
as?
a) Field density
b) Atterberg limit
c) Plasticity Index
d) Proctor
5. Categories soil testing apparatus according to the following test.
a) Field density
b) CBR test
c) Proctor test
d) Atterberg test
6. Classify soil testing methods according to soil classification tests and soil compaction
test
7. Summarize the content of a detailed soil report.
8. Explain the triaxial test.
9. Compare the different types of Atterberg limits?
10. Contrast soil testing equipment used for soil classification test and soil compaction test.

389
11. Classify the difference standard manuals used in soil test.
12. Distinguish between plastic limit and liquid limit?
13. Clearly outline the contents of a detailed labouratory report on soil tests.
14. Summarize the various ways of analyzing and presenting data acquired from soil tests?

Oral Assessment
1. Explain the procedure of carrying out particle size distribution.
2. Evluate the benefits of preparing a final labouratory report.

Case Study Assessment

Perform an assessment on the effect of that drastic rise in environmental temperature has
on soils used in construction.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

American Society for Testing and Materials. (2002). The Unified Soil Classification
System. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.08, West Conshohocken, PA.
Jamal, Haseeb. (Retrieved 23rd Sept.2019) "CBR Test". [Link].
Nicholas J. Garber Lester A. Hoel (2009). Traffic and Highway Engineering fourth edition:
University of Virginia
Soil Mechanics Test procedures. (Aug 2015). Geotechnical Testing procedures revision#6.

390
10.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Perform Concrete Tests
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Perform Concrete Tests
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Identify concrete tests • Direct instruction

4.2 Obtain standard manuals and procedures • Field trips
4.3 Concrete testing tools and apparatus are identified and • Discussions
gathered • Demonstration by
4.4 Obtain samples trainer
4.5 Prepare samples • Practice by the
4.6 Cast cubes trainee
4.7 Cure cubes
4.8 Test, obtain and record cubes, and results
4.9 Carry out and report analysis of test result

[Link] Information Sheet No10/LO4 Perform Concrete Tests

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers concrete tests, concrete testing tools, preparation of samples,
cast cubes, cure cubes and testing and recording of test results and report analysis

Definition of key terms

Casting cubes: This is a process of placing concrete in cube molds and socking them in
water for 7 to 28 days to allow them to gain strength before performing compression test.

Curing cubes: This is a process of socking concrete cubes in water for about 7 to 28
days before testing for compression using the compression testing machine at day 7,14
and 28 consecutively.

Compressive strength: It is the ability of a material to resist breaking when subjected to

compression forces.

Slump test: It is the measure of consistence of fresh concrete.

391
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1. Identify concrete tests (Compressive strength, Slump, Cleanliness, Particle size
distribution) according to contract document
As discussed in other outcomes, concrete is a mixture of cement, fine aggregates, coarse
aggregates and water. Different tests need to be performed on these elements before they
can be used to make concrete. This ensures that the produced concrete is of high quality.
These tests include:
• Compression test
Compression test is performed to determine the compressive strength of concrete, which is
defined as load per unit area.
• Slump test
Slump test is used to measure the wetness of concrete. It is mainly done to confirm
workability of concrete. A slump can be true slump, collapse and shear slump as shown
below.

Figure 103: Slump test

Source: [Link]
• Cleanliness
Aggregates which make part of concrete can affect the properties of concrete if they have
any organic matter such as clay. It is therefore important to test the cleanliness of aggregate
to ensure it is safe for use.
• Particle size distribution
This is also referred to us gradation. It is a test that determines and report information on
the size a range of aggregates representative of a larger sample of aggregates.

4.2 Obtain standard manuals and procedures in accordance with test requirement
Standard manuals and procedures are meant to guide the student on how to perform a
specific test and attain desired results without a lot of struggles.

392
These Standard manuals include;
• Road Design Manual Part III Section 17: For concrete works tests.
• BS1881: Part 102:1983 – Slump test
• BS1881: Part 108:1983 - Making of Concrete Test Cubes
• BS1881: Part 116:1983 - Concrete Cube Strength

4.3 Identify and gather concrete testing tools and apparatus based on test
requirements
Tools and apparatus are often used to conduct the test. They are parts that make up for the
success of any practical.
Testing tools and apparatus for Slump concrete test include;
• A 300mm rule graduated on 5mm intervals
• spatula
• Slump mold of galvanized iron or steel
• tamping rod
• Sampling tray

Testing tools and apparatus for concrete cubes test include;

• Spatula
• Sampling tray
• Tamping rod or vibrating table
• Cube or spherical mold of galvanized iron or steel.
• Plasterer’s steel float.

Testing tools and apparatus for concrete cube strength test include;
• Compression testing machine
• A weighing balance

4.4 Obtain samples as per test requirement and contract document

A sample is a presentation of a whole.
For different tests, samples are tested and the results represent a whole of the same make.
For example;
• Compression test and Slump test
Samples of cement and aggregates are used

• Cleanliness and particle size distribution

Samples of aggregates are used

393
4.5 Prepare samples according to standard test procedures
Methods for taking samples in concrete tests include;
i. When performing the slump test, the concrete sample should be taken from the
labouratory mix 2 minutes after mixing and the slump determined instantly.
ii. In the event that the concrete is delivered to the site by a mixing truck, the
concrete slump test sample should be collected from the initial discharge.
iii. In obtaining samples for the concrete cube test, a sample should be collected
directly from the construction site and thoroughly mixed before it is placed in
the mold
iv. Two test cube specimens should be prepared from each sample of fresh
concrete.

4.6 Cast cubes as per standard test procedures

Standard test procedures vary. Below is a common procedure for casting cubes.

Procedure for cube casting;

• Take the concrete mortar and place it in a 150*150*150mm mould in 3 layers,
ensuring that you compact using a tamping rod after every layer using 35 Nos of
strokes
• Leave the cube for 24 hours and then remove it from the metal mould
• Do the above to make 2 more moulds and for each mould, test for compressive
strength after 7 days and 28 days of soaking in water.
Once this procedure is completed, an analysis of the collected data is done.

4.7 Cure cubes as per standard test procedures

Curing is done when determining the compressive strength of concrete. It occurs when the
cube is left in water for a number of days.

Curing of cubes can be attained in the following different ways;

• Ponding
• Sprinkling
• Wet coverings
• Membrane curing compounds
• Formwork
Depending on the test and specifications of the procedure manual, one of the above curing
methods is adopted.

394
4.8 Test, obtain and record cubes, and results according to standard procedures
For every labouratory test, you will be needed to do the test in at least 3 samples. Once you
get your sample and you have obtained the required cubes, you will need to record and
label the samples such as Sample A, B… This will help you not to confuse your analysis.
Remember that 1 or 2 sample tests are not adequate and could both be faulty at the same
time, hence the need for a third test. Below is an example of a recording chart for most lab
works.
Table 21: Recording Chart
SAMPLE RESULTS
A1 3.2
A2 3.1

4.9 Carry out and report analysis of test result according to standard procedure and
contract document
• Once the practical is concluded, you will be required to do your analysis. Analysis
can be either graphical, calculations etc.
• A well-done analysis results to an accurate conclusion.
• For example, assuming the results gained above are true values, then, the average
of the results is taken as the actual result. That is, (3.2+3.1)/2 hence 3.15 is the
actual result for the sample

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered concrete tests, concrete testing tools, preparation of
samples, cast cubes, cure cubes and testing and recording of test results and report analysis

Further Reading

Read further on concrete tests in the mentioned standard manuals.

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Concrete is made up of each of the following except?
a) Cement
b) Aggregates
c) Lime
d) Water
2. Which of the following is not an organic material?
a) Clay
b) Silt
c) Aggregate
d) Manure
3. Which of the following is true?
Table 22: Concrete Curing Duration
CONCRETE CURING DURATION STRENGTH
Day 1 99%
Day 14 50%
Day 28 14%
4. Which of the following is the odd one out?
a) Gap graded
b) Open graded
c) Wide graded
d) Uniformly graded
5. The following are ways of analyzing data. Which one is not?
a) Graphically
b) Mathematically
c) Using calculations
d) Observation
6. There are different types of concrete tests. Which one is not?
a) Aggregate Crushing test
b) Compression test
c) Slump test
d) Cleanliness test
7. Classify concrete and explain its preparation process.
8. Explain the curing process.
9. Summarize the slump test.
10. Differentiate casting and curing

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11. Differentiate the different types of slump test

Essay questions
1. Explain the compression test.
2. Evaluate the preparation of concrete cubes.

Oral Assessment
1. Estimate the performance of concrete test
2. Distinguish the factors considered when conducting concrete test.

Oral Assessment
1. Classify the reasons why test are necessary.
2. Who is responsible for conducting tests in Kenya for actual projects?

Practical Assessment
What was your take on the results you got from the laboratory practical’s?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Duggal, S. (2008). Building materials. New Delhi: New Age International.

Rajput, R. (2000). Engineering materials. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company.

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10.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry out Structural Steel Tests
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Carry out Structural Steel Tests
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Obtain structural steel sample • Direct

5.2 Identify, obtain and calibrate tensile testing instruction
5.3 Conduct test according to standard test procedures • Field trips
5.4 Record and analyze results • Discussions
5.5 Prepare and present report • Demonstration
5.6 Operate and maintain testing equipment by trainer
• Practice by the
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No10/LO5 Carry out Structural Steel Tests

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers structural designs, calibration tensile testing, recording and
analysing results, preparation and presenting of report and operation and maintenance of
testing equipment.

Definition of key terms

Tensile strength: It is the ability of a material to resist tension stresses/forces.

Structural designs: This is an investigation of structures rigidity and strength and

subsequently giving provisions to the material standard to be used.

Calibrate tensile testing: This is the verification of the accuracy of the tensile testing
machine to ensure that measurements are within the outlined tolerance and if not, they are
adjusted.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Obtain structural steel sample based on structural designs
Procedure for Sampling Structural Steel
i. Ideally, requests for sampling structural steel normally come from the Design
division. Therefore, the first step is to obtain copies of the plan of site, plan of the
structure and structural steel details.
ii. Determine the location of the structure (I.e. Bridge) and its site limitations.
iii. Prepare proposed sample locations having in mind possible challenges that may
arise with these locations such as water below the structure, heavy traffic, railway
tracks etc.
iv. Obtain the structural steel samples from the proposed location or from locations
advised by the Ministry of Transport. Ensure a sufficient number of samples are
obtained to provide a good average for testing.
v. Samples are commonly taken from compression areas since steel has a good tensile
strength compared to its compression ability.

Steel members include but are not limited to:

• H - sections
• I - sections
• T - sections

5.2 Identify, obtain and calibrate tensile testing as per test requirement and
manufacturers manual
The following are reasons why Calibration is done for testing equipment;
• Statutory as provided for in relevant legislation
• Driven by event such as; damage of the equipment, new equipment, rental
equipment.
• Driven by time events such as; heavily used equipment, un-used equipment for an
extensive period of time, prescribed calibration schedules.

Factors to be considered when performing calibration for testing equipment;

• The person performing the calibration should be conversant with the calibration
procedure for that particular piece of equipment.
• Equipment owner’s manual should be reviewed with the respect to the procedure.
• The company policy should be reviewed and understood if available.
• All proper forms should be in hand and kept where easily available.

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When to calibrate;
• In case of equipment damage.
• When equipment is subjected to shock.
• Equipment has been repaired.
• New equipment.
• Expiry of the stated time limit

5.3 Conduct test according to standard test procedures

Tests conducted for structural steel are as follows;
Charpy Impact Test – This is used to determine fracture toughness for structural steel.
Steel samples are tested by immersing them in an oil bath at temperature above 400F for
24 hours. The steel samples are then placed into the Charpy machine to test for their
fracture toughness.

Tensile Test – This is used to determine yield, ultimate load strengths, percentage
elongation and percentage reduction of area.
The procedure for conducting the tensile test is as follows:
i. Prepare the steel sample and record it initial dimension.
ii. The tensile test machine is prepared.
iii. The prepared sample is gripped in an apparatus (tensile machine) and subjected
to tensional force
iv. Record the time until the sample fractures.
v. The increase in length for the material is converted to strain while the pulling
force (load) is converted to stress.
vi. The process is repeated for other samples with results being recorded.

Chemical Analysis: This is used to determine the presence of chemical elements and their
percentages in steel. Chemical elements that are generally tested for include;
• Carbon
• Silicon
• Sulphur
• Phosphorous
• Manganese
The test results are then compared to the recommended ASTM standards.

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5.4 Record and analyze results as per standard procedures
Recording results is basically the act of putting down obtained results from the practical
while analysis is comparing the obtained results to the expected appropriate results by
putting the results into a meaningful and well understood form that one can easily interpret.
Recording and analyzing of data is done to ensure that correct conclusions are made
concerning the tested sample. During testing activity, the one conducting the test is required
to ensure that they have put down in writing all observations. It is necessary to note that
different procedures require different recording and analysis techniques depending on the
type of apparatus used. The analysis could be in terms of tables, charts, graphs or equations.

Below is an example of recorded data from the tensile test;-

Table 23: Data recording table
Sample A Sample B Sample C
Maximum load 20kN 18kN 21kN
Initial length 30mm 30mm 30mm
Final length 42mm 41mm 43mm
Initial diameter 5mm 5mm 5mm
Final diaeter 3.8mm 3.6mm 4mm
Testing duration 100seconds 94seconds 102seconds

Analysis of tensile tests is normally done by the use of a graph as shown below:

Figure 104: Analysis of tensile tests

Source: Strength of materials, 2010

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5.5 Prepare and present report according to the contract document
At the end of the test, you will be required to prepare a report normally called a labouratory
report. The format for preparing a report is as outlined below;
• Introduction: The introduction contains a brief description of the test that have
already been done.
• Literature review: This section is meant to explain a small background
regarding the tests being done.
• Methodology: Methodology is a section where one explains the procedures used.
Note that in this case, procedures are in past tense.
• Data collection and analysis: This section contains data collection sheets as well
as graphs and equations used into the analysis.
• Conclusion and recommendations: After completion of analysis, you will be
required to draw a conclusion of the obtained data.
• References: This is a list of books that one referred to.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered structural designs, calibration tensile testing, recording and
analyzing results, preparation and presenting of report and operation and maintenance of
testing equipment

Further Reading

Read further on structural steel tests from the recommended standard manuals

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Tensile testing is used to measure the following except?
a) Yield strength
b) Elongation
c) Compressive strength
d) Elastic modulus

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2. Which metal is commonly used for construction?
a) Aluminum
b) Steel
c) Iron
d) Copper
3. A report should contain each of the following except?
a) Body
b) Introduction
c) Conclusion
d) Data collection and analysis
4. Poor maintenance could lead an equipment into?
a) Crushing
b) Underperforming and failure
c) Cracking
d) Over-performing
5. Where do we get procedures for practical’s?
a) Internet
b) Labouratory technician
c) Text books
d) Our lecturer
6. Steel is strong in?
a) Compression
b) Tension
7. Classify structural design?
8. Distinguish tensile strengths.
9. Describe in your own words the following
a) Elastic modulus
b) Elongation
c) Tensile strength
10. Design literature review of the report.
11. Analyze the maintenance procedures of the equipment.
12. Prepare a tensile test.
13. Summarize what is structural steel.

Oral Assessment
1. What is a structure?
2. Categorize the instances in which steel is not used in constructions.

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Oral Assessment
1. Which companies are responsible for manufacturing steel?
2. Are there instances when steel is not used in construction? Elabourate.

Practical Assessment
What was your take home after conducting the tensile test practical? What are your
recommendations and what should be improved?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Rajput, R. (2000). Engineering materials. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company.

Duggal, S. (2008). Building materials. New Delhi: New Age International.
Rajput, R. (2000). Engineering materials. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company.
.

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10.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Bitumen Tests
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Bitumen Tests
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Identify Bitumen tests • Direct instruction

6.2 Obtain standard manuals and procedures • Field trips
6.3 Identify and gather testing tools and apparatus • Discussions
6.4 Obtain samples • Demonstration by
6.5 Prepare samples trainer
6.6 Conduct test • Practice by the
6.7 Record and analyze test results trainee
6.8 Prepare and present report
6.9 Operate and maintain testing equipment

[Link] Information Sheet No10/LO6 Perform Bitumen Tests

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers bitumen tests, gathering of testing tools and equipment,
obtaining of samples, conducting of test, recording and analyzing test results, preparation
and presenting report and operation and maintenance testing of equipment.

Definition of key terms

Bitumen: It used as the surface layer during road construction.

Bitumen tests: These are the various tests used to determine the quality of bitumen.

Samples: These are small pieces taken from bitumen that are used for analysis.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Identify Bitumen tests according to contract document
The bitumen tests are used to test the various properties of bitumen and whether it is
suitable for use during road construction. The following are the tests:
Penetration test: It calculates the hardness or softness of bitumen. It is done by
determining the distance in which the penetration needle pierces through the bitumen
sample at standard conditions.

405
Cleanliness: This is the removal of bitumen. It can be done using solvents that are able to
dissolve it.

Viscosity test: This test measures the resistance to flow of bitumen. It helps in identifying
the consistency of bitumen in different grades of bitumen and how they should be mixed
to bring out the best.

Ductility test: Ductility is the ability of a material to straighten. In this case, this property
is tested in bitumen. It is necessary to make sure that bitumen does not crack upon force
being applied by traffic load.

Flash test: Hot bitumen emits hydrocarbon compounds that are flammable. This test
determines the lowest temperatures at which this vapour catches fire temporary then puts
itself out.

Fire test: This determines the lowest temperatures in which the hot bitumen catches fire
and burns. It helps in coming up with suitable precautionary measures to avoid danger
during heating of bitumen.

Float test: This test is used to determine steadiness of bitumen that other tests are unable
to.

Loss on heating test: This test is carried out after bitumen has cooled off. A sample is
weighed first then heated for some time. The sample specimen is weighed again and the
loss is expressed as a percentage.

Specific gravity: The specific gravity of bitumen is the ratio of its weight to the weight of
equal volume of water at 27 C. The specific gravity is measured using either pycnometer.
The specific gravity of bitumen ranges from 0.97 to 1.02.

Softening point test: This tests the temperatures in which bitumen attains softening.

Spread rate test: This determines the rate at which bitumen spreads.

Importance of Bitumen Tests

• To determine the consistency of bitumen.
• To check its appropriate usage under different climatic conditions and various
constructions
• To determine its elongation properties.

406
 • To determine its ability to withstand extreme temperatures that is, very low and
very high temperatures.
• To determine the mixing ratio of different bitumen grades.
• To determine its resistance to flow hence determine where to use it.

6.2 Obtain standard manuals and procedures in accordance with test requirement
The manual includes:
• Road design manual Part III: Materials and Pavement Design for new roads. It
clearly states how the procedures should be followed for the testing of any material.

6.3 Identify and gather testing tools and apparatus based on test requirements
The testing apparatus for bitumen include:
• Asphalt Ignition Oven – for heating the bitumen
• Cleveland Flash and Fire Point Apparatus – conducts Flash and Fire test on
bitumen
• Ductility Testing Machine- for conducting Ductility test
• Float Test Apparatus – for conducting Float test
• Penetrometer – for conducting Penetration test
• Ring and Ball Apparatus – for conducting softening point test on bitumen.
• Viscometer – for conducting viscosity test

6.4 Obtain samples as per test requirement and contract document

Process of obtaining the samples
i. Determine the location in which the samples are going to be collected.
ii. There are various places as to where bitumen can be found;
iii. Asphalt Mix plant where bitumen is processed.
iv. An ongoing road construction site.
v. Determine the sample size.
vi. Prepare the equipment you are going to use for collecting the sample such as scoop,
shovel, sampling containers, dish containers etc
vii. Collect the samples and take them for testing. The process of collecting includes
the following:
• A shovel is used to collect the sample from the site and placed in sampling
containers.
• A scoop is used to collect a portion from the sampling containers until the
right size is acquired.
• The sample is placed in a dish container and then taken for testing
preparations.

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6.5 Prepare samples in accordance with test procedures
Process of preparing bitumen samples
(i) The sample is then heated in an oven until it is fluid-like.
(ii) It is then poured into a container.
(iii)The sample is then stirred to remove the air that is trapped within it.
(iv) The sample is allowed to cool under room temperature
(v) The sample is now ready to be conducted for other tests.
NB: Some tests may require water bath

6.6 Conduct test according to standard procedures and contract document

Process of conducting test
i. Obtain the right machinery for testing.
ii. Obtain the right conditions before commencement of any test eg. the temperature,
air pressure, humidity etc. In case the conditions cannot be met, modify or use
alternative ones.
iii. The machines should be examined for damage and should be dried and clean. A
suitable bitumen solvent is used for cleaning the equipment.
iv. Connect the parts that need to be attached.
v. The sample is then placed for testing.
vi. Results are obtained and recorded.

6.7 Record and analyse test results according to standard procedures

The results should contain the following:
• The form and grade of bitumen tested
• The properties tested
• The testing procedures used according to the standard manual
• The results of the tests
• The SI units of the values.
• The range in which the values should lie that is, the minimum and maximum values

6.8 Prepare and present report as per contract document

The report should have:
• Name of the Labouratory that conducted the test
• The date, time, form, grade and quantity tested.
• The testing procedures used
• Test results
• Approval
• Signatory

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered bitumen tests, gathering of testing tools and equipment,
obtaining of samples, conducting of test, recording and analyzing test results, preparation
and presenting report and operation and maintenance testing of equipment.

Further Reading

Read through the various bitumen tests in detail.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The prerequisite of any bitumen test is heating it until its fluid-like. Which of the
following does not require heating?
a) Bitumen emulsion
b) refined bitumen
c) Cut back
d) Paving grade
2. Which grade of Bitumen is the softest?
a) 30/40
b) 60/70
c) 80/100
d) None
3. What should be the minimum distance between samples in a penetration test?
a) 30mm
b) 50mm
c) 10mm
d) 200mm
4. What is the significance of the following tests?
a) Ductility
b) Float test
c) Flash and fire
5. Evaluate the standard conditions of bitumen before carrying out the tests?
6. Evaluate the properties of bitumen.
7. Classify the safety precautions that should be undertaken when collecting the samples?

409
Oral Assessment
1. Summarize the factors affecting each test?
2. Categorize bitumen.

Case study Assessment

Evaluate how bitumen is laid during road construction.

Oral Assessment
1. Select the precautionary measures when carrying out the bitumen test.
2. Distinguish the penetration grades in warmer and colder regions.

Practical Assessment
Prepare the penetration test for bitumen

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Road design manual Part III – Materials and Pavement Design for new roads. (2001). Pdf.
Retrieved from [Link]

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10.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Perform Timber Tests
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7: Perform Timber Tests
Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1 Identify timber tests • Direct instruction

7.2 Obtain standard manuals and procedures • Field trips
7.3 Identify and gather testing tools and apparatus • Discussions
7.4 Obtain samples • Demonstration by
7.5 Prepare samples trainer
7.6 Conduct test • Practice by the
7.7 Record and analyze test results trainee
7.8 Prepare and present report
7.9 Operate and maintain testing equipment

[Link] Information Sheet No10/LO7 Perform Timber Tests

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers timber tests, gathering of testing tools and equipment,
obtaining of samples, conducting of test, recording and analysing test results, obtaining of
samples, conducting tests, preparation and presenting report and operation and
maintenance testing of equipment.

Definition of key terms

Timber samples: These are small pieces of timber picked from the whole and are used for
testing.

Samples: Small pieces of an object that is to be tested that are used to represent the whole.

Contract document: This is a document that contains details of an agreement between

two or more parties.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1 Identify timber tests according to contract document
Timber that is free from defects should undergo these tests. The tests are used to determine
its properties. These properties are elastic, strength and vibration properties. The tests
include:

411
 • Compression test: This test involves applying forces towards each other at the
sides of a material. This may lead to the material crushing and so a universal test
machine is used to determine the compression strength. It is basically, how long a
material can take before it gets crushed.

Figure 105: Compression test

Source from [Link]

• Tension test: Forces heading in opposite direction are applied at the sides of the
material. The material will be pulled until it fractures.
• Shear test: forces are applied in a material such that part of the material slides in
the opposite direction to the other.

Figure 106: Examples of shear on timber

Source from [Link]

7.2 Obtain standard manuals and procedures in accordance with test requirement
The manuals used are:
• BS 5268-2:2002
• BS EN 380 which provide the testing requirements.

7.3 Identify and gather testing tools and apparatus based on test requirements
They include:
• Universal Test Machine – it carries out the various tests in timber
• Machete or power saw – for cutting the timber

412
 • Measuring tape – for taking the measurements
• Marker – for putting marks on the samples

7.4 Obtain samples as per test requirement and contract document

Process for obtaining the samples
i. Where to obtain the samples
• Safety precautions should be considered
• The accessibility should be considered
• Getting permit if necessary
ii. When to obtain the samples
• Climatic conditions of the location
• The season
iii. What type of specimen do you require- the maturity and species are considered?
iv. Method of sampling – mostly through cutting
v. Tools to be used

7.5 Prepare samples in accordance with test procedures

Process of sample preparation
i. The samples should be obtained from their members. They should have the
following characteristics; they should be small, clear, straight-gained and free from
defects.
ii. They should then be cut into the dimensions stated in the standards e.g. compression
test samples should be 2” by 2” and 8” in length along the grain.
iii. Markings should be made to differentiate the e.g. sample no.1 from member 4.
iv. The specimen should then be conditioned to standardize its moisture content and
then kept for testing.

NB: The samples should be cut carefully to ensure that the grain surfaces are parallel to
each other.

7.6 Conduct test according to standard procedures and contract document

The procedure for conducting timber tests
i. A universal test machine is used and the standard test method is applied.
ii. The various tests are applied that is, compression, tension and shear tests and they
are applied both perpendicularly and parallel to the sample grain.
iii. Results are taken and recorded.

413
The purpose of conducting the tests
• It is to determine the behaviour of timber when subjected to stain, stress and shear.
• To determine certain parameters such as elastic limit, ultimate compressive
strength, elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, elastic limit,
yield strength etc.
• To determine the various kind of failure that may occur in timber.
• To determine the suitability of timber.

7.7 Record and analyse test results according to standard procedures

Procedure for recording and analysing test results
i. Calculations are carried out according to test procedures
ii. The test results should be recorded in a table form. The table should contain the
following:
• The source of the sample
• The sample number
• The type of test carried out
• The testing procedures used
• The results
• The SI units of the values
• The specifications if available
iii. Appropriate graphs are drawn
iv. Conclusions are stated

7.8 Prepare and present report as per contract document

The report should contain the following:
• Name of the Labouratory that conducted the test
• The subject
• The sample number
• Date and time of the test
• The testing procedures used
• Test results
• Approval
• Signatory

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered bitumen tests, gathering of testing tools and equipment,
obtaining of samples, conducting of test, recording and analysing test results, preparation
and presenting report and operation and maintenance testing of equipment.

414
Further Reading

Read on more tests that are carried out in timber

Describe the various properties of timber
Read more on the defects of timber and how they affect its quality.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. In timber, shearing action occurs;
a) Across the grain
b) Parallel to the grain
c) Along the grain
d) All of the above
2. What is the ratio of stress to strain in shear?
a) Modulus of elasticity
b) Young’s modulus
c) Modulus of rigidity
d) Rolling shear
3. Which method is used to carry out shear test?
a) Non-destructive testing
b) Creep test
c) Tensile test
d) Torsion test
4. Using relevant diagrams describe a timber specimen.
5. Compare the force applied on timber grain.
6. Evaluate which are engineered timber and give examples.
7. Explain the compression test of timber.
8. Classify the errors eliminated during individual test results?
9. Categorize the method used in measuring the strength of timber.

Oral Assessment
1. Distinguish the crack formed in timber
2. Explain the results obtained from a compression test of timber.

415
Case Study Assessment
Compare the trees near your area and determine the strongest using observational skills.

Oral Assessment
1. Evaluate the significance of carrying out each of the timber tests.
2. Summarize the various failures visible in the trees and timber structures around your
area.

Practical Assessment
Prepare the strength, compression and shear tests of both natural timber and engineered
timber and compare the results.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

EAS. (2002). Timber – Sampling Methods and General Requirements for Physical and
Mechanical Tests
Khokhar., A. (2009). Determination of Shear Strength of Timber Joists by Torsional
Testing.
Standards Policy and Strategy Committee. (2002). British Standard 5286. (5th ed., pp. 151-
154).

416
 CHAPTER 11: HIGHWAY SURVEY

11.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to Perform Highway Survey. It involves
undertaking preliminary site survey, performing levelling activities, conducting
tacheometry works and drafting road cross-sections. It also includes carrying out setting
out activities, performing traversing works and performing traffic engineering survey.

11.2 Performance Standard

Undertake preliminary site survey, carry out setting out activities, conduct tacheometry
works, perform levelling activities, draft road cross-sections, perform traversing works,
and perform traffic engineering survey in accordance with contract document, standard
road construction procedures and SOPs.

11.3 Learning Outcomes

11.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Undertake preliminary site survey
b) Carry out setting out activities
c) Conduct tacheometry works
d) Perform levelling activities
e) Draft road cross-sections
f) Perform traversing works
g) Perform traffic engineering survey

417
11.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Undertake Preliminary Site Survey
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Undertake Preliminary Site Survey
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Prepare preliminary site survey plan • Written tests

1.2 Identify and mobilize survey resources • Observation
1.3 Obtain and interpret survey drawings • Case study
1.4 Assess and record findings of site conditions • Oral questions
1.5 Establish and document original ground level (OGL) is • Third party report
1.6 Establish reference points
1.7 Prepare preliminary survey report

[Link] Information Sheet No11/LO1: Undertake Preliminary Site Survey

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning covers preparing of contract documents, interpreting of the documents,
assessing of site conditions as well as following laid procedures in the standard road
construction procedure.

Definition of key terms

Site survey; It is the process of interpreting construction plans and marking location of
planned new projects, such as roads or buildings. Site survey is necessary before any
construction starts, it helps in determining the precise location, access, best orientation
for the site & the location of the obstacles. Site survey provides insights to the project
manager, it also saves a lot of trouble and potential dangers that are identified before the
project starts.

Contract document; those documents which include a contract. For example;

Construction contract documents define the agreement basis including the roles,
obligations of both parties and a detailed description of the work or service, such as
drawings, specifications, procedures, any other conditions, etc.

Reference points; these are objects or places used in determining if something is in

motion. They may include buildings, trees or signs.

418
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Prepare preliminary site survey plan in accordance with contract document
Preliminary site assessments are undertaken to determine the most appropriate land-use.
With current growth in population with limited land, development properties maximize the
available land. In preliminary site survey it involves collection of adequate data for map
preparation to be used for planning and design.
There are three types of preliminary survey; control surveys, aerial surveys, topographical
surveys. The preliminary survey results form the basis for the project's design, detailed
plans and cost estimates. The following are guides when preparing preliminary survey;
• Calibration reports for devices and the calibration worksheets
• Field notes
• Preliminary survey scope form
• Field notes
• Presurvey conference meeting.
• Special use permits
• Traffic control plans indicating possible access routes
• GPS specification of the proposed site
• GPS planning and network reports to indicating possible future connections.
• Final land survey control diagrams
• Copies of utility maps

1.2 Identify and mobilize survey resources (Human resources, tools, equipment,
stationery, legal documents, power back-ups and location maps) as per the
contract document
Contract document contains the responsibilities of personnel and their duties that they are
obligated to perform by the contract.
Human resources; each project requires both skilled and unskilled labour to make sure
that the work specified is done as dictated. For example, Land surveyor;
Tools & Equipment; these are various device that are used in surveying e.g. theodolites,
dumpy lever, rods etc.
Legal documents; these are documents that are tied to the proposed site. They include
Purchase certificate, Permit survey form. Such documents should be ensured that are in
order to avoid lengthy court cases which may delay construction.
Power backups; Source of electricity near the site should be surveyed. If electricity is not
reliable consider providing for backups
Location maps; Locations maps should be produced based on site visits and observations
at the site. These maps should be able to capture a lot on useful information to be used in
planning and design stage.

419
Figure 107: A geological sketch based on site observations
Source; Surveying Manual

1.3 Obtain and interpret survey drawings as per the contract document Assess and
record findings of site conditions according to standard road construction
procedures
a) Topography; Aerial photographs are used to study the topography of the proposed
site. With advance technology the mosaic prints of digitized images from where,
the GPS coordinates of the points can be mapped.

b) Soil Types Profiles; Soil type and profile have a great influence on the project. The
soil type and profiling of the soil of the proposed site is recommended to have better
understanding of the geotechnical properties of the underlying soil.

c) Vegetation; in reconnaissance stage the vegetation covering the site should be

noted in order to procure the right machinery and for the purpose of cost estimation
costs.

d) Settlement; this can be captured in the local map; this is necessary for design
purposes of the proposed project. This is necessary for evaluation of possible future
expansion or estimation of unoccupied land. Settlement properties should be well
laid out.

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 e) Utility services; these include water connection to the mains, supply of power,
existing underground communication cables. Utility services should be well
indicated in consultancy with the municipal council existing within the project
limits
f) Water Table level; wetland surveys should be done to determine the water level
where the projects will be situated. It should be controlled and oversee by the
relevant body in Kenya its NEMA.

1.4 Establish and document original ground level (OGL) is as per standard road
construction procedures
Original ground level is level achieved after applying machinery to make the ground after
clearing and grubbing. Natural level ground is the ground elevation in its original form, to
achieve the original ground level which is suitable for construction of roads, railway &
highway, areas and volume of the sections of the road need to be evaluated. The following
sub-topics should be covered in class to have idea on original ground level.
• Mass haul curves
• Mid ordinate rule
• Average ordinate rule
• Simpsons rule
• Areas and volumes.
• Transversing
• Tacheometry

Figure 108: Tacheometry

Source; Google

From point A of a known elevation, survey through five turning points, TP1 ... TP5, and
discover point B elevation. To check on the levelling error, survey by traversing BA
through four other turning points, TP6 ... TP9; Then measure the A rise. If the established
starting point A elevation is 153 m, and the measured amount of A at the end of the survey
is 153.2 m, the closing error is 153.2 m-153 m = 0.2 m.

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1.5 Establish reference points based on standard road construction procedures
A control point is a point at the ground or some permanent structure known for its
horizontal and vertical position. If these control points are used to determine other points,
then they act as reference point to the new points.

The following procedure is used in establishing horizontal control;

i. Key points are identified and marked that would act as the control (reference) for
the subsequent surveying. These could be points located at the boundary of the
mapped area, maximum or minimum elevation points, significant characteristics,
etc. There should be at least 3 points clear from each point.
ii. Establish the baseline, a distance precisely determined between 2 control points,
which should occupy fairly level ground. Measure the baseline distance with a 50
m tape to closest 10 mm. If the distance is greater than mark 50 m with survey pins
to the tape lengths. Measure the length of the average in both directions. When the
2 measurements vary by more than 50 mm repeat both measurements, using the
mean of the two distances otherwise. Measure the vertical angle between controls
points to that the length of the surface to a horizontal distance.
iii. The tripod is placed above a control point.
iv. Mount the transit onto the tripod (theodolite). Slide the transit laterally until it is
placed as seen through the optical plunge, directly above the control point. Turn the
3 leveling screws device which centers the bubbles in the 2 orthogonal spirit levels.
v. Release the screw at the top of plate. Rotate the telescope around the vertical axis
until the Vernier scale mark 0 is aligned with the outer horizontal scale proper
magnetic declination. You can make small changes by tightening the set screw and
using the tangent screw.
vi. Document horizontal angle visible from the instrument station to each of the control
points. View of a rod or pole ranging on a stadium. The focusing screw is mounted
outside the normal and does not contain the vertical circle. The centering ring for
the crosshairs is on the eye piece.
vii. Document horizontal angle visible from the instrument station to each of the control
points. View on a stadium rod or pole frame.
viii. By 1800, rotate the telescope around its vertical axis. Adjacent to the telescope is
the telescope set screw. The tangent screw with the focusing screw for fine
adjustment of the telescope 's inclination is located on normal.
ix. Push the transit and repeat instructions 3-8 until horizontal angles between all the
control points are formed.

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1.6 Prepare preliminary survey report according to SOPs
The following are what is included in a preliminary survey report;

1. Introduction: This provides general description of the preliminary surveying

process
• It contains the surveying activities to be carried out, projects schedule & safety
in the site.
2. The preliminary survey processes: The following are under this stage.
• Survey meeting held by engineer to determine schedule and assign
responsibilities.
• Land ownership permission to survey; Map studying, avail of permit documents
to survey.
3. Preliminary and supplemental survey data: A preliminary survey consists of
field data collected used to construct mapping files for the project. Collecting,
editing and submission of data is done here.
4. Carrying out of the appropriate type of preliminary survey: Control, Aerial
geological, wetlands, land survey etc. to be carried and report documented.
5. Distribution of survey and mapping files: Production of previewing of the
finalized documents.

Conclusion
This learning covered preparing of contract documents, interpreting of the documents,
assessing of site conditions as well as following laid procedures in the standard road
construction procedure.

Further Reading

Read further on how to establish the Original Ground Level in pavement construction.

423
[Link] Self-Assessment

Knowledge Based Evidence

Written Assessment
1. Theodolite should be provided with calculation_________ to measure the magnetic
bearing of a line
a) Extra telescope
b) Compass
c) Spirit level
d) Through compass
2. If both ends are inter-visible, to run a straight line between two lines. We define
intermediate points via
a) Line of sight
b) Balancing
c) Use of a random line
d) Backsight
3. Evaluate theodolite can be used for horizontal angle setting.
4. Summarize the reasons as to why the instrument should be levelled.
5. Define setting out with respect to theodolite.
6. The following offsets were taken from a chain line to hedge:

Distance 0 20 40 60 80 120 160 220

Offset 9.4 13.6 11.2 9.6 8.4 7.5 6.3 4.5
Compute the area included in the chain area, hedge and the offset by
I. Mid-ordinate
II. Average ordinate
III. Simpsons rule
IV. Trapezoidal area
7. Evaluate the following:
a) Theodolite
b) Vertical axis
c) Bubble axis
d) Collimation axis
e) Horizontal axis
8. Distinguish the adjustments of a common theodolite type.
9. Explain the adjustment of a transit by collimatica.

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Essay questions
1. Explain how a transit theodolite is checked and calibrated to allow for accurate reading
of vertical angles, if appropriate.
2. Enumerate the constant adjustments of a theodolite transit.

Oral Assessment
1. Briefly differentiate between traversing and tacheometry.
2. Classify the following terms ‘face left, ‘face right’, ‘swing right’, swing left’ operation
of theodolite.

Project Assessment
Conduct a theodolite procedure

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Surveying tools and equipment
• Computers
• CAD & GIS Software
• Construction manuals and guidelines
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Stationery
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos
• Printers
• Workstation
• Standard of specifications

[Link] References

Muhamid, D. I. (2014). Surveying Manual. City of Haii.

Roy, S. (2005). Fundamentals of Surveying. New Delhi.
Surveyors, A. &. (20122). The Calibration of Survey Equipment. Alberta.
UNCRD. (2008). Preliminery survey and assements of school buildings. Shimla,Indi

425
11.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Levelling Activities
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Perform Levelling Activities
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

2..1 Identify and select levelling tools and equipment • Written tests
2..2 Calibrate levelling tools and equipment • Observation
2..3 Set road levels • Oral questions
2..4 Carry out monitoring and control of road levels • Third party
report

[Link] Information Sheet No11/LO2 Perform Levelling Activities

Introduction to learning outcome

The leaner should cover levelling tools and equipment, calibrate levelling tools, set,
monitor and control of road levels per the standard construction requirements.

Definition of key terms

Levelling tools; Levelling tools are what aid us in determination of height in respect to
one known height. Some of the tools include; dumpy level, levelling staff, tilting levels,
tape measure, pegs & ranging rods.
Road levels; Road is said to be in level if it remains within the surface without the loss or
gain through displacement. Road level is arrived after taking chainage and balance the cut
and fills.
Equipment; it is a tangible property that is used for a particular purpose. Examples of
equipment includes; machine, tools

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Identify and select levelling tools and equipment (Dumpy level, tilting levels and
automatic levels, levelling staff, tilting levels, Automatic levels, Tape measure, Pegs,
ranging rods) according to contract document
Dumpy Level; is an optical instrument used to set horizontal or transfer measure in
surveying & building. According to surveying manual, dumpy level operates under two
conditions of adjustments;

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 i. Bubble tube
To test; the instrument is set up such that the bubble is directly over two levelling screws,
the bubble is entered carefully. The instrument is rotated at an angle of 90 degree for the
bubble to be placed over the remaining pair of screws. To reverse, the instrument is rotated
at 180 degrees. To adjust-distance moved by the bubble is twice the error present. The
bubble is brought back halfway to correct the error by turning the adjusting nuts at one end
of the bubble tube. Two level screws are used to renter the bubble.

ii. Horizontal cross hair; Reticule is adjusted to the manner of the automatic levels.

Figure 109: Dumpy Level

Source: [Link]

• Tilting Level; Tilting level consists of a telescope that enabled horizontal rotation
and rotation in its vertical plane approximately 4 degrees. Tilting screw is used to
center the bubble.

Figure 110: Tilting level

Figure 111: Tilting level
Source: [Link]
• Automatic Levels; It similar to the dumpy level, it has a telescope fixed at its
support. For approximate levelling the circular spirit level is attached at the of the
telescope. Compensator is fixed inside the automatic level for accurate levelling.
They are fast, accurate and easy to use.

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Figure 112: Automatic Level
Source: [Link]

• Tape Measure; It is a tool used for measuring distance. It is used in levelling to

find the distance of chosen points.

• Pegs; they are used to mark boundaries and show points and position in a site.
Usually made of wood.

Figure 113 : Pegs used in a site for layout

Source: [Link]

• Ranging Rods; these are tools used to mark the position of the survey stations and
the viewing of those stations as well as the range of straight lines. They are used
where the survey lines are long for proper boundary lines.

2.2 Calibrate levelling tools and equipment according to manufacturer’s manual

To Calibrate is the process of relating readings of an instrument with those of standards to
check the instrument’s accuracy. Overtime levelling tools or any tool needs to be adjusted
to try and bring it to its specification for it to give reliable data.

428
Calibration of tools & equipment
• If a piece of equipment has been subjected to an instance that would require the
initiation of a new calibration, such a calibration shall be carried out;
• The recording of results used.
• To inform the project manager of any defective equipment and ensure that the
equipment is labeled as "OUT of CALIBRATION" and is removed from service
until it is restored/serviced.
• Consultation with the project manager or the employer on how to proceed in case
of any doubt.
• Tools & any equipment should be calibrated as per the Instrument Manual.

Reasons why an equipment should be calibrated;

• Statutory as provided for in the Surveys Act or other relevant legislation
• Driven by event such as; damage of the equipment, new equipment, rental
equipment.
• Driven by time events such as; heavily used equipment, un-used equipment for an
extensive period of time, prescribed calibration schedules.

When calibrating the following should be taken note of;

• The person performing the calibration should be conversant with the calibration
procedure for that particular piece of equipment.
• Equipment owner’s manual should be reviewed with the respect to the procedure.
• The company policy should be reviewed and understood if available.
• All proper forms should be in hand and kept where easily available.

When to calibrate;
• In case of equipment damage.
• When equipment is subjected to shock.
• Equipment has been repaired.
• New equipment.
• Expiry of the stated time limit

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2.3 Set road levels according to the design data
Road level is set through profile levelling, which is determination of elevation of points
measured along a fixed line such as centreline line of rails, sewer line or roads.

Field procedure for levelling

Figure 114: Sketch to guide in levelling

Source: [Link]

i. Levelling instrument is set at position 1.

ii. The staff is held at (RL+50M) and reading taken, this is taken as the Back Sight
since is the first reading after the intermediate sight.
iii. Move the staff to A to take reading, this would be Intermediate Sight.
iv. Move the staff to B, take the reading, this point is taken as Intermediate Sight.
v. Move the staff to C to take the reading for another Intermediate Sight.
vi. Move staff to D take the reading, this is taken as Foresight, the level.
vii. The distance between two station should measure and data recorded in field book.
viii. Level is set at level 2 and leave the staff at D on the change plate. Turn out the
staff so that it faces the level & take the reading, and this should be your back
sight.
ix. Move staff to the point E and take the reading, this point is an intermediate sight.
x. Move the staff to point F and take the reading, this is your foresight since after
taking the reading the levelled is moved.
xi. Move the level to level position 3, leave the staff at F on the change plate.
xii. Repeat the stated process from i to k until the last point at J.

NOTE: All the staff reading should be recorded in a field book; -Students are required to
know how to feed the field book with, staff data.
• To eliminate errors resulting from line of sight also known as collimation back sight
and should be equal in distance.

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• Work usually commences from a known Bench Mark and close the level transverse.
This facilates for level run to be checked.
Booking Levels
There are two methods of taking booking levels.
I. Rise and fall method
II. Height of collimation method.

I. Rise and fall Method

• In the appropriate columns on different lines, backsight, intermediate sight and
foresight readings are entered. However, as shown in the fig below, if you adjust
the level instrument, the back sights and foresights are put on the same side.
• The first lowered level is the datum height, baseline, or R.L.
• If an intermediate sight or foresight is lower than the read of the immediately
preceding staff then the difference of the two readings is in the column of rise.
• If an intermediate sight or foresight is greater than the readings of the
staff immediately preceding then the difference between two readings is in the fall
column.
• The previous reduced level (RL) is increased in case there is a rise and a drop are
subtracted from the previous RL.
NOTE; Arithmetic checks are run to check for any error, it only proves that the rise and
fall is correctly in appropriate columns of rise & fall.

Checks
∑BS-∑FS
∑Rise-∑Fall
Last RL – first R

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Table 24: A Worked Out Tabled Using the Rise and Fall Method

Source: [Link]

II. Height of collimation

• Booking is similar to that of rise and fall method for back sight, fore-sight and
intermediate sight. In place of rise and fall column is replaced with height of
collimation.
• The first reading of back sight (datum, benchmark or RL staff) is added to the first
RL which gives collimation height.
• The next reading of staff is entered in the corresponding column but on a new line.
The station's RL is calculated by subtracting staff reading from the collimation
height.
• Only when the level is moved to a new position will the collimation height change.
The new collimation height is found by adding the back sight to the change point
on the RL.
• It should be noted that the accuracy of intermediate RLs is not tested and errors
cannot be detected.
NB; Students should prefer to use rise and level method because it’s easier to note
errors, a check of all columns is run.

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Table 25: A worked-out table using the height of collimation

Source: [Link]

2.4 Carry out monitoring and control of road levels as per the standard construction
requirements
• Plans, processes, tools and organization carried out by professional design are
required to track the quality of the contract document and ensure compliance with
the standard construction specifications applicable.
• Monitoring and quality control includes observation, inspection, tests,
documentation that checks the quality process such as road [Link] and
control of road levels is necessary to ensure the project meets the requirements of
the contract.
• Monitoring is described as data gathering prior to and during implementation of the
project. Upon analysis, these data identify progress or constraints as soon as
possible, allowing project managers to modify project activities as needed. It also
provides the basis for evaluating commitments. It is the duty of the contractor to
ensure the desired quality is achieved. By ensure that construction materials are
supplied according to contract requirements the overseeing body should ensure the
supplied materials and process of construction is within the required standards. This
is achieved by regular visit by the third party.

Actions to ensure monitoring and control of road levels

• Ensure adherence to the established standards and description of methods.
• A maintenance standard with defined levels for monitored parameters e.g. cut &
fill levels.

433
 • A common system of coordinates which supports connection and Database
synchronization.
• Methods of control of the received data.

Checking and maintenance

In road levels precise rods are used in matched pairs. Test the rods regularly to verify that
vary in index stays constant. The index is checked using comparison High and low
measurements done on the same rod Item. If index has changed, it is either the tape guides
are fouled or the rod is broken. If a tape gets damaged badly, replace the rod. Tape
replacements are not available. The guides are carefully disassembled and washed if the
tape guides are fouled.

Conclusion
The leaner covered levelling tools and equipment, calibrate levelling tools, set, monitor
and control of road levels per the standard construction requirements.

Further Reading

Read further on how to monitor and control road levels

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. A staff intercepts.
a) Maximum if the staff is kept to the line of sight truly normal
b) Is minimum if the staff holds the line of sight truly normal
c) Decreases when staff are tilted away from normal
d) Increases if the staff is tilted towards normal
2. Pick the correct statement from the following:
a) The tangent screw allows for small movement in smooth and positive control
conditions
b) The levelling screws are used to tilt the instrument, so that its angle of
inclination is vertical
c) The levelling head or tribrach needs to stand on a tripod
d) All of the above

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3. Closed contours of falling values to their center represent.
a) Depression
b) A Hill
c) Bed of a river
d) Saddle or a pass
4. When conducing survey works, what name is given to an imaginary line that joins the
points of equal elevation on the earth's surface?
a) Contour line
b) Surface contour
c) Level line
d) None of the above
5. Explain the sensitivity of bubble tube in levelling and state its effect on accuracy of
levelling.
6. Explain levelling and distinguish the tools used.
7. Evaluate the term calibration as used in levelling and it importance.
8. Writes short notes on dumpy level as used in levelling.
9. Complete the levelling table given below. If a gradient of 1 vertical in every 7
horizontal starts at 1 m above the peg 0, what is the height of gradient above or its peg
below peg 7. (I.C.E London)

Table 26: levelling table

Essay questions
1. Sketch the modern tilting level and name its main part. Describe step by step how it is
used and its advantage over the dumpy level.
2. Draw a neat sketch of dumpy level and name its parts.

Oral Assessment
1 Briefly discuss rise and fall method for booking levels. Why would you prefer this
method compared to Height of collimation?
2 Elabourate the importance of arithmetic checks booking levels?

435
Practical Assessment
PRACTICAL 1; LEVEL REDUCED BY RISE AND FALL METHOD
Equipment: Dumpy level, Leveling staff
Procedure: The field procedure and staff reading booking is done in the same way as
explained in the instrument method height (each reading is entered on a different line in
the corresponding column, except at a change point, where an FS and BS hold the same
line).

Tabulation Format;
Table 27: Tabulation

Calculations:
1. The elevation difference between any two successive points (say, A and B) may be
calculated as;

Difference in elevation between A and B = first reading in A-second reading in B

2. NOTE: For every 2 sequential readings by staff:
• A rise is represented if the second reading is of a smaller value than the first
reading. ([Link] a positive sign).
• A fall is represented if the second reading is f a greater value than the first
reading. (rep. by a negative sign).
3. If the elevation of the first is known the second elevation can be calculated as;
Height of B=Height of A + (rise) or Height of B= Height of A- (fall)

436
4. The following arithmetic checks are performed on the booking levels;
A. Number of BS readings=No of FS readings
B. ∑BS-∑FS=∑Rise-∑Fall=RL of last point-RL of first point.

Project Assessment
Carry out a closed levelling of your school flower bed

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Surveying tools and equipment
• Computers
• CAD & GIS Software
• Construction manuals and guidelines
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Stationery
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos
• Printers
• Workstation
• Standard of specifications

[Link] References

Roy, S. (2005). Fundamentals of Surveying. New Delhi.

Muhamid, D. I. (2014). Surveying Manual. City of Haii.
Surveyors, A. &. (20122). The Calibration of Survey Equipment. Alberta.

437
11.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Conduct Tacheometry Works
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Conduct Tacheometry Works
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify and select tacheometry tools and equipment • Written tests
3.2 Carry out calibration of tools and equipment • Observation
3.3 Determine horizontal distances • Oral questioning
3.4 Determine vertical distances • Third party report
3.5 Collected tacheometry data is
3.6 Document data collected

[Link] Information Sheet No11/LO3: Conduct Tacheometry Works

Introduction to learning outcome

The student is expected to cover tacheometry tools, horizontal and vertical distances as
well as data collection by the end of the topic.

Definition of key terms

Tacheometry:
Tacheometry is a surveying branch in which the horizontal and vertical distances are
obtained by optical means in contrast to the ordinary chain and tape processes. This is do
ne with the aid of two special types of instruments: a theodolite and stadia rod.

Horizontal distance
On a horizontal plane the distance between two points is the horizontal distance.

Vertical distance
The elevation of a point above a reference level surface (datum) is its vertical distance.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Identify and select tacheometry tools and equipment (Theodolite, levelling staff,
Total station and accessories, cutting tools, driving tools) according to contract
document
This involves the process of establishing the different types of tacheometry tools available.
In identification of these tools, a clear description of the tools is required.

438
Theodolite: A theodolite is a precision measurement device in horizontal and vertical
planes for calculating angles. A modern theodolite is a movable telescope that is positioned
between the horizontal axis and the vertical axis. The angle of each of these axes can be
determined with great accuracy when the telescope is pointed towards a target object.

Levelling staff: A levelling staff is a wooden or aluminium rectangular rod with

graduations. The staff has metal shoes at the bottom to withstand wear and tear.

Total station: The instrument is a mixture of electronic theodolite and electromagnetic

distance measurement (EDM). It also consists of a micro-processor with a memory unit
that deals with records, readings and the simple measurement calculation. It is designed to
measure horizontal and vertical angles, including measurement of object sloping distance
to instrument.

Cutting tools: These tools are important for site clearing, which is normally the first
operation to be performed once alignment is established. Examples of these tools are grass
slashers and crosscut saws. The kind of cutting tools required depend on the nature of the
site. A site containing grass will require a slasher, while a site requiring tree felling will
require a crosscut saw.

Driving tools: The most common driving tool used in tacheometry is a hammer. The
hammer consists of a metal head and a wooden handle. It is used to drive in pins and probes
into the ground.

3.2 Carry out calibration of tools and equipment according to manufacturer’s manual
This is the process of comparing a known measurement (the standard) and the measurement
using your instrument. Calibration defines the accuracy and quality of measurements
recorded using a piece of equipment. Overtime there is a tendency for results and accuracy
to ‘drift’ when using particular equipment. To be confident in the results being measured,
there is an ongoing need to maintain the calibration of equipment throughout its lifetime
for reliable, accurate and repeatable measurements.

Reference Standards
• Whenever possible, reference standards traceable to SI units (International System of
Units) shall be used. In situations where SI units cannot be used, certified reference
material provided by a competent supplier shall be used if available.
• Reference standards shall be calibrated by an accredited organization or vendor that
can provide proof of traceability. These typically would include, but not be limited
to, ISO certified companies.

439
 • Reference standards shall only be handled by employees authorized by the Quality
Assurance manager/supervisor and shall be stored to prevent contamination and/or
deterioration.
• Reference standards shall be calibrated before and after any adjustment. All reference
standards, certified reference materials, or reference materials used for calibration
shall be uniquely identified. A certificate of traceability, if applicable, shall be
retained to ensure traceability.

3.3 Determine horizontal distances based on datum coordinates

Determination of horizontal distance is done using the stadia method. While finding the
horizontal distance between an instrument station and a point and the elevation of a point
with respect to the instrument station, the line of sight is horizontal.

Figure 115: object glass

Source: [Link]

When the line of sight is horizontal and the staff is held vertical, in this case the horizontal
distance from the axis of the instrument to the staff station is:
𝑓
D = 𝑖 S + (f + d)
Staff intercept, S is found by subtracting the reading of the upper and lower stadia reading.
The constant K = f/i is called the stadia interval factor and the constant (f + d) =C is known
as the additive constant of the tacheometer. These constant values are supplied by the
manufacturer.

440
3.4 Determine vertical distances based on datum coordinates
This is the process of determining the elevation of a point with respect to a particular datum.

Procedure to determine vertical distance

i. Choose a benchmark, with a known elevation. This is the backsight.
ii. Choose the point that you require the elevation. It should be no more than 100
meters away from the instrument. This is the foresight.
iii. Set up the level in a position that is equidistant from the backsight and foresight.
Ensure that from this position, a staff held on either point is visible.
iv. Sight at the backsight, and take a reading. Ensure that the readings obtained are
correct.
v. Add the backsight reading to the backsight elevation. This gives you the Height of
Instrument HI.
vi. Sight to the foresight, and carefully take a reading.
vii. Subtract the foresight reading from the H.I. This gives you the elevation of the
foresight.

3.5 Collected tacheometry data is based on standard procedures

Data collection in tacheometry refers to the process of obtaining information regarding to
vertical and horizontal distances and levels.

Data collection requirements

• The surveyor should include raw values and only use initial entries. They should
include data that is the basis for calculations. These data include coordinates for
inversed distances and bearings for calculated angles and azimuths or bearings.
• The surveyor should write true, comprehensive explanations of all record points, in
particular points of origin and closing points and, lastly, cite references for all
record points used.

3.6 Document data collected based on standard road construction procedures

Documentation of tacheometric data is the process of organisation of data collected in the
field.
Procedure for documentation of data
i. All details are booked in either level books or levelling sheets
ii. These level books or loose-leaf levelling sheets must be numbered and indexed in
a ledger in order to be listed in the history and inspection forms of the station.
iii. The surveyor must enter details of the location, job, date, observer, chainman,
booker, weather, wind, instrument and any other related item.
iv. The surveyor must ensure neatness of records which will be used as referrals.
v. These documents should also be stored in fireproof space.

441
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered on how to conduct tacheometry works such as data
collection, determination of vertical and horizontal distances and calibration of tools.

Further Reading

Refer to Schofield, W. (1984). Engineering surveying. London: Butterworths. for further

reading on tacheometry.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Stadia method can also be known as __________
a) Fixed hair method
b) Sub tense method
c) Tangential method
d) Movable hair method
2. The value of multiplying constant is generally taken as _________
a) 60
b) 80
c) 90
d) 100
3. Summarize tacheometric methods used in engineering survey.
4. Distance and elevation formulae for fixed hair method assuming line of sight as
horizontal and considering an external focusing type telescope is D = Ks + C. where K
is _______
a) f/i
b) i/f
c) f + c
d) f – c
5. Which among the following represents stadia interval factor?
a) f + d
b) f – d
c) f / i
d) i/ f
6. Define the stadia interval factor

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7. Differentiate between a backsight and a foresight?
8. Differentiate between a theodolite and a total station
9. Elabourate the tacheometry?
10. Discuss how to determine horizontal distance between two points

Oral Assessment
1. Categorize the importance of tacheometry?

Practical Assessment
Using the knowledge gathered in class. Conduct an exercise to measure horizontal and
vertical distances between two points.

Oral Assessment
1. What was observed as the difference in measuring horizontal and vertical distances in
tacheometry?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Surveying tools and equipment
• Construction manuals and guidelines
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Stationery
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Relevant videos
• Printers
• Workstation
• Standard of specifications

[Link] References

Ali, A. (2001). Stadia Tacheometry with Electronic Theodolites. Journal Of King Saud
University - Engineering Sciences, 13(1), 25-36. doi: 10.1016/s1018-
3639(18)30723-2
Sosnowski, A., & Ferguson, J. (2000). Tacheometry. Chicago Review, 46(3/4), 217. doi:
10.2307/25304601

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11.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Draft Road Cross-Sections
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Draft Road Cross-Sections
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Compute and record road levels • Written tests

4.2 Produce reduced levels • Observation
4.3 Draft road cross-sections (Cut and fill) • Oral questions
4.4 Interprets road cross-sections • Third party report
4.5 Establish road designs

[Link] Information Sheet No11/LO4: Draft Road Cross-Sections

Introduction to learning outcome

At the end of this topic, the leaner is expected to have a clear understanding on road-levels
as well as road cross-sections.

Definition of key terms

Drafting
Drafting, otherwise known as scientific drawing, is the development of accurate
representations of artifacts, structures, or houses for academic, architectural or engineering
uses.

Cross-sections
This is a depiction of the element under construction, from the structure's side. A cross
section's simplest explanation is to assume that the part of the structure was cut across its
centre. That would allow the viewer to see all the different components that make up the
entire item being drawn.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Compute and record road levels based on SOPs
Computation and recording of road levels is an essential process that involves the use of
levelling methods. There are two methods of booking levels taken in the field: Height of
Collimation Method or Rise and fall Method.

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Procedure for computation of road levels using Rise and fall method
Table 28: Procedure for computation of road levels using Rise and fall method
Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Remarks
sight
2.554 Datum RL +
50m
1.783 0.771 A
0.926 0.857 B
1.963 1.037 C
1.305 3.587 1.624 D/change
point 1

i. Backsight, intermediate sight and foresight readings are entered in the appropriate
columns on different lines. However, as shown in the table above backsights and
foresights are placed on the same line in the case of a change point.
ii. The first reduced level is the height of the datum, benchmark or reduced level.
iii. If an intermediate sight or foresight is smaller than the immediately preceding staff
reading, then the difference between the two readings is placed in the rise column.
iv. If an intermediate sight or foresight is larger than the immediately preceding staff
reading, then the difference between the two readings is placed in the fall column.

Procedure for computation of road levels using Height of Collimation method

Table 29: Procedure for computation of road levels using Height of Collimation method
Backsight Intermediate Foresight Height of Reduced Remarks
sight collimation level
2.554 52.554 50.000 Datum RL +
50m
1.783 50.771 A
0.926 51.628 B
1.963 50.591 C
1.305 3.587 50.272 48.967 D/change
point 1
i. Booking is the same as the rise and fall method for back, intermediate and
foresights. There is no rise or fall columns, but instead a height of collimation
column.
ii. The first backsight reading (staff on datum, benchmark or reduced level) is
added to the first R.L giving the height of collimation.
iii. The next staff reading is entered in the appropriate column but on a new line.

445
 iv. The height of collimation changes only when the level is moved to a new
position. The new height of collimation is found by adding the backsight to the
RL at the change point.

4.2 Produce reduced levels based on computed road levels

Computation of reduced levels using Rise and fall method
Table 30: Computation of reduced levels using Rise and fall method
Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks
sight level
2.554 50.000 Datum RL
+ 50m
1.783 0.771 50.771 A
0.926 0.857 51.628 B
1.963 1.037 50.591 C
1.305 3.587 1.624 48.967 D/change
point 1

For computation of R.L using the rise and fall method, A rise is added to the preceding RL
and fall is subtracted from the preceding RL

Computation of reduced levels using Height of Collimation method

Table 31: Computation of reduced levels using Height of Collimation method
Backsight Intermediate Foresight Height of Reduced Remarks
sight collimation level
2.554 52.554 50.000 Datum RL
+ 50m
1.783 50.771 A
0.926 51.628 B
1.963 50.591 C
1.305 3.587 50.272 48.967 D/change
point 1

For computation of R.L using the Height of collimation method, the new RL is obtained
by subtracting staff readings from the height of collimation.

446
4.3 Draft road cross-sections (Cut and fill) based on road levels
Drafting of road sections involves the use of design software that utilize survey data on
road levels to come up with cross sections of the road. Such software includes CAD
software such as civil 3D. These cross-sections allow for calculation of the areas of cut and
fill once the sections have been plotted.

Plotting of cross-section
Cross sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on either side of it for
the purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. They provide the data for estimating
quantities for earthworks and other purposes. The cross sections are numbered
consecutively from the commencement of the centreline and are set out at right angles to
the main line of the section which the chain and tape, the cross staff or the optical square
and distances are measured left and right from the centre peg cross section may be taken at
each chain. The length of cross-section depends upon the nature of work

4.4 Interpret road cross-sections as per standard procedures

Interpretation of road cross sections involves explaining what the cross sections are trying
to convey.
Ways of interpreting road cross sections
Cross-sections display a right-angled vertical section of the ground or structure to the
centreline of the roadway. There may be hundreds of cross-sections depending on the
length and topographical complexity of the route. Each cross-section is linked to a station.
Material can either be excavated or filled depending on the position of the proposed road
and the natural ground line. These levels of the proposed route and ground levels are
determined by cross- sections. Cross-sections show the slope gradients proposed for cutting
and filling and provide the designer with a means to determine slope steepness.

4.5 Establish road designs based on interpreted road cross-sections and profiles
Most road designs are based on the particular cross-sections provided. Cross-section
selection is key to finding a cost-effective approach to meet traffic needs.

Ways to establish road designs

The cross section displays the location and number of lanes and sidewalks for vehicles and
bicycles, along with their cross slope or banking. The cross-sections also show drainage
features, surface layout and other elements beyond the geometric style group. Depending
on the kind of cross-section, the road design may require additional material to fill in so as
to attain the desirable levels of the proposed route, the cross sections also affect road
designs in terms of cost. Generally, a road should be designed in such a way that it is
economical and guarantees proper performance, depending on the type of cross section and
profile present.

447
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered on road cross-sections, reduced levels as well as road
designs.

Further Reading

Refer to Ritter, L., Paquette, R., & Wright, P. (1987). Highway engineering. Chichester:
Wiley for further reading on highway construction

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What is the creation of accurate representations of objects, buildings or houses for
technical, architectural or engineering purposes?
a) Drafting
b) Drawing
c) Sketching
d) Plotting
2. Compare and contrast between the following methods of computing and recording road
level
a) Height of Collimation
b) Rise and fall
3. Elabourate with a sketch how cross-sections help define cut and fills on a slope
4. Elabourate the use of a cross-section in design of economical and high performance
road.
5. Categorize the step taken when reducing level.
6. Elabourate the steps taken when conducting a draft.
7. Using a sketch explain the term cross-section
8. Classify the methodes used in computing road level.
9. Explain the effects of cross-section on road design.
10. Discuss how road cross sections affect cut and fill.

Oral Assessment
Explain the importance of drafting of road sections.

448
Practical Assessment
Using the knowledge gathered in class. Ask the students to measure levels and compute
road levels using either method.

Oral Assessment
Did the two methods of computation yield the same results?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Surveying tools and equipment
• Computers
• CAD & GIS Software
• Construction manuals and guidelines
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Stationery
• Internet
• Printers
• Workstation
• Standard of specifications

[Link] References

Kutz, M. (2013). Handbook of transportation engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Ritter, L., Paquette, R., & Wright, P. (2005). Highway engineering. Chichester: Wiley.

449
11.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Carry out Setting out Activities
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Carry out Setting out Activities
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Identify and select setting out tools and equipment • Written tests
5.2 Carry out calibrations of equipment • Observation
5.3 Determine proposed alignment • Oral questioning
5.4 Horizontal alignment is set out • Third party report
5.5 Vertical alignment is set out
5.6 Book and compute Alignment data is

[Link] Information Sheet No11/LO5: Carry out Setting out Activities

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with setting out tools as well as equipment’s. It includes
making calibrations on alignment tools and being able to book and compute alignment
data.

Definition of key terms

Alignments: This refers to the placing of survey points along a line. There are two types
of alignments, vertical alignment and horizontal alignment

Setting out: This is the creation of a mark and a line to show levels and specific location
of the elements for the construction work, so that the work can continue with respect to
them.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Identify and select setting out tools and equipment (Strings, Tape measures,
ranging rods, Pegs, cutting tools, driving tools, Angle measuring tools, Plumb bob,
marking tools and equipment) according to contract documents
Setting out tools and equipment are the tools used to create marks and measuring
boundaries in order to describe a particular location or given alignment of a highway. The
tools and equipment must be correctly identified and they must also be in good working
condition for the correct setting out to be carried out.

450
Factors to be considered when identifying and selecting setting out tools and
equipment
• Quality; Choose tools and equipment that are made of high-quality materials so
they have the ability to withstand the deterioration caused by exposure to harsh
environments and the punishment of environmental elements.
In addition, you will save maintenance and repair costs. Please test the quality and
Strength of the equipment before you purchase it.
• Availability of spare parts
• Knowledge of using the equipment; Ensure that only skilled and qualified
technicians are responsible for using these tools and equipment to improve the
efficiency and to keep the workplace healthy and avoid injuries.
• Its availability in the vicinity to the work site
• Cost and reliability

Considerations to be made when using the tools and equipment

• Check the condition of all tools before work begins
• Never use defective equipment when setting out, report any of those that you notice.
• Read the manufacturer’s instructions on any devices, appliances and products you
are using that you are not familiar with.
• Use tools for their intended use only.

How to identify and select setting out tools and equipment

• Strings: These are tools commonly made of a hard-thin linen that are used to
indicate the alignment and levels during road surveys
• Tape measures: Different types of tape measures exist in the market. The most
commonly used tape measure for setting out has a length of 30m and the tapes are
usually made of steel or linen. The numbers on the tape must be legible.
• Ranging rods: These are sticks or steel rods which are commonly 2.5m-3.0m long
with approximately 25mm. Are made of different types of materials such as steel,
wood or plastic and are commonly provided with a pointed metal head.
• Pegs: These are used to mark levels and alignment of the road and are commonly
made of wood. Examples are survey pegs, reference pegs and multi-purpose pegs.
Reference pegs should have a length of 400mm and a cross section of 50mm round.
Reference pegs are commonly used to show road chainages
• Cutting tools: These are tools such as hacksaws which are used to cut material that
are used for setting out purposes
• Driving tools: These are tools that are used to drive other tools into the ground such
as driving pegs into the ground.

451
 • Angle measuring tools: These tools are used for different purposes such as setting
out a right angle to a centerline and estimating or controlling the steepness of
gradients. Are commonly manufactured from 3 wooden laths or steel.
• Plumb bob: This is a weight or bob lead that has a pointed end attached to the end
of a string and is used to indicate the plumb or what is vertical with reference to the
element being studied.
• Marking tools and equipment: These are tools such as chalk, paint, road marking
crayons and survey nails that are used to indicate the boundaries of the given
alignment

5.2 Carry out calibrations of equipment according to manufacturer’s manual

Calibration is the process of checking or adjusting equipment and tools by comparing with
standard specifications.

Reasons for Carrying out Calibration of equipment

• When an instrument is new
• When observations begin to appear questionable
• If the equipment usage/operating time has elapsed.
• When an instrument has had a shock or vibration that may have put it out of
calibration

Calibration is taken as the process of modifying the final output on an equipment in order
to agree with a value of the Standard specification. This is an important step when setting
out of a highway since the number of errors are minimized. Different equipment have
different procedures for calibration. It should be ensured that the calibration activity is done
as per the equipment or instruments’ manual and as per the contract terms.

5.3 Determine proposed alignment is in accordance with preliminary survey report

This process determines where the road will be placed. A preliminary survey serves the
following purposes:
• To survey the various different alignments proposed after the recognition and
gather all the necessary basic information on topography, soil data and drainage
• Comparing the various ideas in light of the successful alignment criteria.
• To estimate the quantity of earthworks and other building elements, and to assess
the expense of alternative proposals

452
How to determine proposed alignments
The alignment of the highways is influenced by terrain. The landscape or topography of a
region is usually categorized as flat, rolling, or mountainous. In level terrain, the selection
of an alignment is affected by factors such as right-of - way costs, land use, rivers that may
require costly bridging, existing roads, railroads and underlying conditions. A number of
factors must be considered in rolling terrain, including: grade and curvature, cut depths and
fill heights, drainage structures and number of bridges. Grades in mountainous country are
the biggest challenge. Many approximate maps are usually drawn, showing various
alignments. Selecting an alignment is a trial and error process, because the proposed
alignments are tested for compliance with the requirements for horizontal and vertical
power. The final alignment selection is based on a cost assessment and the environmental
and social impacts.

5.4 Horizontal alignment is set out based on OGL

A horizontal alignment deals with the configuration of the lateral shift of the Highway on
a horizontal line (original ground level). It consists of a horizontal arc and two transition
curves that create a curve that joins two straights. Under certain circumstances, the
transition curve may have zero length.
A horizontal alignment should be built to the highest standard in line with the
topography and carefully chosen to ensure good drainage and reduce earthworks.

How to set out horizontal alignment based on OGL

Step 1: setting out of straight lines
Set out the centerline of the road on flat ground as a series of straight lines. For this, ranging
rods and pegs are used. The distance between the pegs of the centerline should not exceed
20000mm.

Step 2: Setting out of curves

It is the process of defining on the ground the centerline of the curve by pegs at intervals
of 10m to 30m. The points of tangent and intersection are first be set in the field, in their
correct location.

453
Figure 116: Defining on the ground the centerline

The straights OI1, I1I2, I2I3 etc. are built in the plan. Appropriate curves will then be
constructed using railway curves to link the straight lines. The tangent points of these
curves will then be set, making sure that the tangent lengths are equal, i.e. T1I1 = T2I1,
T3I2 = T4I2; The origin coordinates, point O, and all the intersection points will now only
be carefully scaled from the plan. Using these coordinates, the straight bearings are
measured, and even the coordinates of the tangent points are determined using the tangent
lengths on these bearings. The difference of the straight bearings provides the deflection
angles (almost) of the curves which, in combination with the tangent length, allows the
radius of the curve to be calculated by means of chaining and all set-out data. The tangent
and intersection points are now calculated from existing survey stations, and the curves
distributed between them using the following methods:
• Using coordinates
• Using theodolite and tape
• Setting out using EDM

5.5 Vertical alignment is set out based on OGL

The vertical alignment shows the level of the road and are used to link vertical plane
intersection gradients. It consists of a set of straight-line gradients connected by curves,
typically parabolic in form. Therefore, such vertical parabolic curves must be given at all
gradient shifts. The curvature will be determined by the speed of the design, which is
sufficient to provide adequate driver comfort with reasonable stop sight distances. They
are normally set out after the horizontal alignment has been set out.

454
How to set out Vertical alignment based on OGL
Vertical alignment of a road in rugged terrain takes a lot of practice. Following the terrains
contours can lead to less earthworks. The largest allowable gradients will not be reached.
• Survey pegs are set out to indicate future levels of the road
• The supervisor of the road then places the pegs at least 0.5m away from the area to
be excavated.
• Multi-purpose pegs are placed to direct the workers at the position where the
earthworks will begin. Then, these pegs are linked to strings.
• Whenever "cuts" or "fills" are needed, the pegs must be marked to show how much
will have to be produced or filled. When measurement rates are inscribed on the
peg, always measure from the top of the peg.
• Set out outside the area to be excavated to avoid the loss of the pegs during
construction.

5.6 Book and compute Alignment data as per the standard construction procedures
This is the process of recording alignment data for storage and for the computation of
alignment data. Once observations are made from the setting out of alignments, the data
is booked. Booking data takes various forms, and the format will be shared by your lecturer
and it can also be found from different references. Procedure for booking alignment data
and computation:
• Carry out the survey as per the standard operating procedures.
• Book the data as shown by your lecturer
• Carry out computations from the booked data.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered: alignment, calibration of equipment as well as setting out
of tools and equipment’s.

Further Reading

Watch a video on how setting out is done. You can google it or watch from You Tube

455
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Select the best answer for the definition of an alignment from the following choices.
a) Setting out using EDM
b) Use tools for their intended use only.
c) placing of survey points along a line
d) The centerline of a road
2. All the following are setting out tools and equipment except?
a) Strings
b) Tape measures
c) Phone
d) ranging rods
3. The following are all factors considered when selecting setting out tools except?
a) Quality
b) Availability of spare parts
c) Knowledge of using the equipment
d) Tools for their intended use only
4. The procedure of setting out horizontal curves is? Select the best answer from the
following choices
a) Setting out of straight lines, setting out of curves
b) Setting out of curves, setting out of straight lines
c) Setting out of straight lines, placing of survey points along a line
d) Setting out of curves, setting out of straight lines
5. Differentiate between horizontal alignment and vertical alignment
6. Level pegs are needed when a road passes through a flat terrain. True or false?
7. Summarize reasons for carrying out calibration of tools and equipment
8. Explain the purpose of carrying out setting out?
9. Elabourate the steps taken in carrying out the calibration of an equipment

Case Study Assessment

Visit a road construction site and note down the setting out activities.

Practical Assessment
With the help of your lecturer, carry out a survey of a flexible pavement in your school and
determine its horizontal and vertical alignment.

456
Oral Assessment
Explain to your teacher or friend the procedure you used for carrying out vertical and
horizontal alignment.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Surveying tools and equipment
• Computers
• CAD & GIS Software
• Construction manuals and guidelines
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Stationery
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos
• Printers
• Workstation
• Standard of specifications

[Link] References

J. Uren, [Link] (2010), Surveying for engineers, Fifth Edition Publishes by Palgrave
Macmillan
Us. Department of Transportation (2015). Standard highway signs 2004 edition. Create
space Publishers

457
11.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Traversing Works
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Traversing Works
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Identify and select traversing tools and equipment • Written tests
6.2 Calibrate tools and equipment • Observation
6.3 Determine horizontal and vertical angles • Oral questions
6.4 Bearings and datum coordinates respectively. • Third party
6.5 Determine bearings report
6.6 Measure distances
6.7 Plot traverses

[Link] Information Sheet No11/LO6: Perform Traversing Works

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals mainly with traversing activities such as traversing tools and
calibration of the tools. It also elabourates on standard procedures for bearings and
distances.

Definition of key terms

Theodolite: This is a surveying instrument used in measuring horizontal and vertical
angles.

Traversing: This is a method in surveying, used in the establishment of control networks.

Data collection: In field survey, data collection is the process of measuring angles in
various planes and recording the results obtained, in reference to some datum.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Identify and select traversing tools and equipment (Traverse kits, Compass, GPS
Survey equipment) according to contract documents

Traversing tools and Equipment

Traverse kits
This is a package containing tripods, tribrach, carrier, prisms along with protective
container to carry the total station.

458
 Figure 117: Traverse kits
Source: [Link]

Compass
This is a navigation tool used in field survey to determining the bearing of traversing
including the angles between waypoints and direction.

Figure 118: Compass

Source: [Link]

GPS Survey equipment

These are tools and machines used to determine the position of objects on the surface on
the earth by using signals from satellites.

459
 Figure 119: GPS Survey equipment
Source: [Link]

6.2 Calibrate tools and equipment according to manufacturer’s manual

Calibration: This is the act of eliminating or reducing bias in an instrument’s readings by
adjusting the precision and accuracy of the measuring equipment using a standard
equipment with the assigned correctness.

Methods used in the calibration of traverse equipment and tools.

Table 32: Methods used in the calibration of traverse equipment and tools
EQUIPMENT TESTED CONDITIONS COMMENTS
AGAINST
Prisms Baseline test Done on unknown
baseline
Prism poles Test for vertical The bubble should be Adjust bubble as
with a total station tested in the office required
bracket
Steel tape Approved tape Tapes to be at similar Tension handles
temperatures are used
Level rods Tested steel tape
Tribrach Test and adjust in Ensure that all screws are
office bracket tight
Thermometer A correct Permit enough time for
thermometer the thermometers to
acclimatize
Total stations Check horizontal Always double
angles and adjust critical angles
as per the user’s
manual

460
 Rod bubbles Known vertical Testing item
should be vertical
Levels Two peg test and Test as required Set up a baseline
adjust on larger projects

Reasons for equipment calibration

• Statutory as provided for in the Surveys Act or other relevant legislation
• Driven by event such as; damage of the equipment, new equipment, rental
equipment.
• Driven by time events such as; heavily used equipment, un-used equipment for an
extensive period of time, prescribed calibration schedules.

When calibrating the following should be taken note of

• The person performing the calibration should be conversant with the calibration
procedure for that particular piece of equipment.
• Equipment owner’s manual should be reviewed with the respect to the procedure.
• The company policy should be reviewed and understood if available.
• All proper forms should be in hand and kept where easily available.

When to calibrate
• In the event of equipment damage.
• When equipment is subjected to shock.
• After equipment has been repaired.
• When dealing with new equipment.
• Expiry of the stated time limit of equipment useful life

6.3 Determine horizontal and vertical angles based on datum bearings and datum
coordinates respectively
Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is formed when two lines intersect in the horizontal
plane.
Vertical angle: A vertical line is formed when two lines intersect in the vertical plane.

461
 Figure 120: Vertical angle
Source: [Link]

Determining Horizontal angles

In determining the horizontal angles, measurement between three survey points A, B and
C is considered as follows;
i. The instrument is set up, centered and leveled on survey point B. Parallax is then
removed.
ii. Begin on, ‘face left’, this carefully bisects the target set at survey point A and the
horizontal scale reading of 25o is noted.
iii. The instrument rotated to survey point C which is bisected. The horizontal scale
reading is noted as 145◦.
iv. The horizontal angle is the difference of the two directions. Forward Station (C)
minus Back Station (A), (FS − BS) = (145◦ − 25◦) = 120◦.
v. Change face and then observe survey point C on ‘face right’. The reading is then
noted as 325◦.
vi. Swing to point A, and the reading of 205◦ is noted.
vii. The readings or directions are subtracted in the same order as in, C − A. Therefore,
(325◦ − 205◦) = 120◦

462
Figure 121: Readings or directions
Source: Text book, Engineering Survey by W. Schofildmark.

Determining Vertical Angles

In the case of determining vertical angles, the protractor moves relative to a fixed horizontal
index.
i. Figure (a) below, shows the telescope horizontal and reading 90◦, changing face
would result in a reading of 270◦ being realized.
ii. In Figure (b) below, the vertical circle index remains horizontal whilst the
protractor rotates along with the telescope, as the top of the spire is observed.
iii. The vertical circle reading of 65◦ is the zenith angle, equivalent to a vertical angle
of (90◦ − 65◦) = +25◦ = α.
iv. This illustrates the basic concept of vertical angle measurement.

463
Figure 122: Vertical angle measurement
Source: Text book, Engineering Survey by W. Schofildmark.

6.4 Determine bearings according to standard procedures

Bearing of a line is the direction of the line.
Bearings are of two types; quadrantal and whole-circle bearing.

Figure 123: Quadrantal and whole-circle bearing.

Source: [Link]

464
Quadrantal Bearing
This is whereby bearings are measured either from the north or from the south towards the
east or west. For every quadrant the values range from 0 to 90 degrees.

Whole-circle bearing
This is whereby bearings are measured in a clockwise direction from north and range from
00 to 3600.

6.5 Measure distances according to standard procedures

In performing traverse works, the main objective of determining distance is to establish the
horizontal distance between two points. The methods involved in determining distance
include; tape and plumb bob, tape and calculation

The method used to determine horizontal distance depends on the following factors;
• Accuracy needed
• Available equipment
• Type of terrain
Procedure for measuring horizontal distance using tape is whereby the horizontal distance
is directly measured.

6.6 Plot traverses according to bearings and distance

Traversing is a method in surveying, for the establishment of control networks.

Advantages of Traverse Networks

• Very little pre-sit visit is required compared with that needed for an interconnected
network of points.
• Observations only involve three stations at a time therefore planning the task is
simple.
• Traversing permits the control to follow the route of a highway, pipeline or tunnel,
with the minimum number of stations.

465
Types of Traverses

Figure 124: Types of Traverses

Source: [Link]

Methods used in plotting a traverse

• By using bearings through Each Station
• By quadrants or reduced bearing
• By using a central bearing or Paper Protractor
• By using Rectangular Co-Ordinates:
• Using Chords

Traverse plotted using Bearing method follows the following procedure;

• Having the position of the starting point at a given point A, draw a line representing
the true north.
• With a protractor, plot the bearing of line AB (θ1), and ensure it is according to
the scale.
• Then at point B, draw a line parallel to the previous line representing the meridian
and plot the bearing of BC (θ2) then measure its length with the scale.
• Repeat the whole process until all the lines are drawn.
• If the type of traverse is a closed one, the last line should end at the starting point.
If it does not, discrepancy is said to be the closing error.

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Figure 125: Closed traverse
Source: [Link]

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered performance of traversing works. Which included
traversing tools and equipment’s as well as bearings and distance measurements.

Further Reading

Read further on how to plot traverses using the Bodwitch method.

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The school’s labouratory technician was asked to purchase a traverse kit. Which of the
following was not in the package?
a) Tripods
b) Tribrach
c) Prisms
d) Stopwatch
2. A student was asked to construct a closed traverse in the School’s hockey pitch. Which
of the following was not a factor he should have considered when determining the
method to use in determining the horizontal distance?
a) Accuracy required
b) Available equipment
c) Topography of the field
d) Day of the week
3. During a revision session with her classmates, Nancy was not sure about the types of
bearing using in field survey. Which of the following should she have chosen as a type
of bearing?
a) Straight bearing
b) Vertical bearing
c) Whole circle bearing
d) Diagonal bearing
4. Elabourate the term bearing
5. Distinguish between horizontal and vertical angles
6. Classify the different types of traversing
7. Using sketches, discuss the difference between whole circle bearing and
quadrantal/reduced bearing.

Practical Assessment
Conduct a calibration check on the traversing tools and equipment present in your school’s
engineering labouratory

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Surveying tools and equipment
• Computers
• CAD & GIS Software
• Construction manuals and guidelines
• Projectors
468
 • Flip charts
• Calculators
• Stationery
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos
• Printers
• Workstation
• Standard of specifications

[Link] References

J. Uren. (2010), Surveying for engineers, Fifth Edition Publishes by Palgrave Macmillan
W. Schofield (2007) Engineering Survey. Burlington, UK. Elsevier Ltd.

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11.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Perform Traffic Engineering Survey
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Perform Traffic Engineering Survey
Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1 Identify pavement location • Written tests

7.2 Prepare traffic survey for • Observation
7.3 Carry out traffic counts • Oral questions
7.4 Estimate traffic and road characteristics • Third party report

[Link] Information Sheet No11/LO7: Perform Traffic Engineering Survey

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome tends to deal mainly with pavement survey. This entails pavement
location as well as traffic and road characteristics that entail the analysis of traffic
behaviour in order to come up with designs that will ensure economical, smooth and safe
operations in the traffic sector. In order to come up with such a traffic sector, there is need
to have vast and adequate knowledge on the nature of traffic flow by knowing the traffic
stream parameters and the kind of mutual relationship that they have. This learning
outcome will therefore equip the learner with the basic concept of performing a traffic
engineering survey.

Definition of key terms

Traffic: This is a term that is mainly used in Civil Engineering to refer all the vehicles
moving on a section of road or all the pedestrians or transportation vessels moving along a
particular route at a given time.

Pavement: This is a structure with layers of processed materials that are superimposed on
top of the natural soil sub grade with the aim of transmitting stresses brought about by
wheel loads onto the sub grade to reduce them sufficiently.

Survey: This is a term used to refer to the analyzation/examination or inspection of the

behaviour in a particular area while taking down records in order to ascertain a condition
or come up with a plan, map or description of the area characteristics.

470
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1 Identify pavement location
Before the construction of a pavement, there is usually need to first identify the most
suitable route or section.

Steps undertaken in identifying a suitable location for pavement construction

i. There should to be a thorough examination of the existing records for that location.
ii. Subsurface explorations are conducted in order to establish the various engineering
properties of the rock and soil that is present in that area.
iii. The relevant properties like durability, strength susceptibility to moisture and even
durability is then determined either by empirical estimates as per the soil types,
field tests or even by carrying out measurements in the labouratory.
iv. When carrying out the tests, the sample is first tested in its weakest expected state
which is normally the materials most probable moisture content.
v. Its possible performance when subjected to various traffic conditions is then
identified.
vi. After the tests have been completed, the soils found to be unsuitable for laying the
final pavement are identified and removed then replaced with the most suitable
materials.
vii. Finally, the degree of compaction that ought to be attained is identified together
with the drainage requirements then the location can now be considered as the most
suitable for the pavement construction.

7.2 Prepare traffic survey for as per SOPs

The section of the outcome tends to outline the steps to be followed in carrying out the
traffic survey to data collection and recording.

Types of data and data sources

Various data/variables will be required in order carry out a successful study with the nits
of analysis and units of observation classified.
a) Units of analysis include;
• Means of transport and modal split/division
• Road network and traffic route
• Pedestrian routes
• Transportation facilities
• Road design and condition
• Road user behavior
• Traffic volumes and capacity
• Conflict points and accident point

471
 b) Units of observation include;
• Generators of traffic
• Land use
• Road user (pedestrians, Motorists, cyclists, motorcyclists,)

Population sampling
The population area should then be stratified with the required stratified random sampling
in order to take into account data from the whole of the population subgroup using the road.
The main sub-groups present will include private vehicle owners, public vehicle operator
and even pedestrians. The samples will then be selected based on periods and areas of high
traffic congestion and traffic conflict i.e. the points selected will have to be given ample
time to fetch/collect qualitative data. From the first 2 strata, about 15 respondents can be
requested to fill in a questionnaire with the questionnaires being availed to the motorist at
the beginning of a jam density/congestion then collected at the other end of the jam density
i.e. before vehicles left the jam. Interviews can be carried out for the pedestrians if
necessary.

7.3 Carry out traffic counts

This is the section of the outcome that requires the student to do the actuals traffic count
and data collection. When conducting the survey, data from primary and secondary sources
will be required collection of data consisted of both qualitative and quantitative techniques.
As discussed below;

i. Secondary data
This is the data sourced from literature review of the existing works by other scholars
and researchers on vehicular and pedestrian traffic challenges as well as transportation
planning. One could also use other source of secondary information like aerial
photographs case studies, maps and other documents obtained from the library,
government office or even media and the internet.

ii. Primary data

This will include data collected directly from the field through any of the following
methods:
• Observation
It is a systematic selection, watching and recording of behaviour and characteristic of
subject, object or phenomena that is related to the study. Variables are observable and
can include pedestrians, motorist and other road users.

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 • Questionnaires
Written questionnaires that had been presented to respondents who were expected to
answer the question in written form. The questions were both structured and open-
ended questions with some having choices to choose from for precision purposes
while others required full explanation.
• Interviews

Written interviews
Interview schedules can be drafted and prepared for the relevant stake holder in the
traffic management sector which may include the Ministry of roads, ministry of
transport, traffic personnel and the NCC (transportation section). The type of data to
be collected from the mentioned sources include planning data on traffic patterns and
management as well as the challenges and prospects of highway traffic

Oral interviews
This is part of the data collected through talking to respondent individually or as a
group. It will mainly be used for complementing questionnaires especially where the
sample characteristic did not understand the questionnaire. In such a case the
questionnaire will have been converted into a discussion between the respondent and
the interviewer with the most convenient language for both parties.

iii. Mapping and photography

For this section, existing maps can be used to map out the spatial traffic scenarios within
the area under survey. Photographs can also be used to enhance the analysis of the existing
traffic situation along the area under study.

7.4 Estimate traffic and road characteristics

This section of the outcomes deals with the data analysis, presentation and synthesis. The
data which has been collected may be analysed using computer-based analysis and/or other
various models by doing computer- based analysis with programs such as SPSS or other
programs that help in solving theories and concepts such as the green shield model and
green berg. The data synthesis can then be presented in the form of graphs, charts, tables,
maps or diagrams that may help in interpret the data and aid in the estimation of the traffic
and load characteristics.

473
Conclusion
By the completion of this section of the outcome, the student should be well equipped with
the knowledge on performance of traffic engineering survey as this learning outcome
covered traffic counts, traffic survey as well as determining pavement location. The
outcome goes to elabourate on the steps required to effectively carry out the survey and
even how to analyse and present the collected data.

Further Reading

Read on:
1. Highway traffic analysis and design by R. J salter.
2. Transportation Engineering by Alfredo Adkins
3. Watch videos on how to create traffic data reports

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. All transport vessels moving along a particular route at a given time is referred to as?
a) Transport
b) Travel
c) Traffic
d) Survey
2. Which of the following is not a unit of analysis in traffic survey?
a) Pedestrian routes
b) Land use
c) Transportation facilities
d) Road design and condition
3. Differentiate between traffic and transportation?
4. Evaluate the of traffic data analysis
5. Differentiate between written and oral interviews
6. Classify methods of carrying out traffic data counts
7. Categorize the ways in which traffic and road characteristics can be estimated

Oral Assessment
1. Discuss units of observation under types of data and data sources
2. Outline the process of identifying pavement location

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Case Study Assessment
Carry out a traffic survey on a section of a chosen road, collect the data, analyze it and
present it in any relevant or suitable form.

Oral Assessment
What was the selected time intervals selected for carrying out the survey?

Practical Assessment
What tools or equipment are relevant when performing a traffic survey?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• SPSS Software
• Traffic survey manuals and guidelines
• Projectors
• Calculators
• Stationery
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos
• Workstation

[Link] References

Coleman A. O'Flaherty (2018). Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering. Oxford:

Butterworth Heineman
Mannering, F.L.; Kilareski, W.P. and Washburn, S.S. (2005). Principles of Highway
Engineering and Traffic Analysis, Third Edition.
O'Flaherty, C., & O'Flaherty, C. (2007). Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering.
Hoboken: Taylor and Francis
Osborne, E., & Simha, A. (2003). Traffic engineering with MPLS. Indianapolis, IN: Cisco
Press.
Sigua, R. (2008). Fundamentals of traffic engineering. Diliman, Quezon City: University
of the Philippines Press.

475
 CHAPTER 12: BASIC PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

12.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to design basic pavement structures. It
involves conducting site visit, designing highway drainage and hydraulic structures,
designing road geometrics, designing pavement structure, designing pedestrian and cyclist
path and designing for road furniture.

12.2 Performance Standard

Conduct site visit, design highway, drainage and hydraulic structures, road geometrics,
pavement structure, pedestrian and cyclist paths, and road furniture based on contract
documents and standard procedures.

12.3 Learning Outcomes

12.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Conduct site visit
b) Design highway, drainage and hydraulic structures
c) Design road geometrics
d) Design pavement structure
e) Design pedestrian and cyclist paths
f) Design road furniture

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12.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Conduct Site Visit
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Conduct Site Visit
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Determine pavement location • Direct instruction

1.2 Undertake preparation for site visit • Case studies
1.3 Collect On site data • Field trips/site
visits

[Link] Information Sheet No 12/LO1: Conduct Site Visit

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers preliminary site visit, data collection methods, tools and
equipment for data collection, collection of onsite data and determining pavement location.

Definition of key terms

Datum points: Are landmarks and heights from which all other heights and levels are
measured.

Road reserve: An area of land set aside for potential construction of roads, for which
construction is not permitted.

Settlement: Downward motion of the ground due to traffic loading.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Determine pavement location based on contract documents.
This is the process of identifying the most feasible location of a pavement i.e. a surfacing
of a road, footpath, airstrip etc. A pavement transmits loads such as traffic loads, to the
underlying soil. Pavements can either be flexible or rigid. In the case of flexible
pavements, the surface is usually applied in two layers-the base course
and wearing the course, with the base course and the extension of the road base
layer, but providing a regulatory course on which the final layer is applied. In the case of
rigid pavements, the structural function of both roadsides and the surface
layers are built into the concrete slab approaching their workstations where they will
provide the stipend and budget as well as those having expertise in the area.

477
The location of the site is described in the various specifications.
The site of the works shall be the area within the various road reserves, spoil areas, access
roads and deviations, contractor’s installations, storage areas, camp sites,
Engineer’s offices, labouratories and accommodation, shown on the drawings or
established specifically for the contract with the approval of the engineer.
Selecting the location of a proposed pavement is an important initial step in the design
process.

Factors Affecting Choice of a Pavement location

The choice of location is usually based on:
• Usage: The traffic loading in terms of usage of a pavement determines its location.
• Topography; terrain of a place affects the cost as well as the ease of construction of
a pavement which in turn affects its location.
• Soil characteristics; Different soil types have different characteristics; some soil
types may exhibit favorable characteristics while other types such as expansive
soils like clay may be unfavorable in terms of providing a stable foundation.
• Environmental factors such as noise and air pollution; Environmental pollution
such as noise and air are an important factor when deciding the location of a
pavement. Pavements are located away from residential areas as per standards due
to their contribution.
• Economic factors; the cost of constructing a pavement is a core factor in deciding
locations of pavements. The most economical designs of pavements are normally
selected depending on location selected.

The process of positioning the pavement involves four processes as per contract
documents as follows
i. Conducting an Office Study of Current Information on the pavement; this
allows for a study on the available data and specifications required for the
positioning of a pavement.
ii. Conducting a Recognition survey: This is conducted by carrying out a pre-visit
to the selected locations.
iii. Conducting a Preliminary location survey: The survey of the possible locations
identified for the pavement will help in determining their feasibility.
iv. Conducting a Final survey of the location identified: From the preliminary
survey conducted a feasibility report is prepared and the location selected is
surveyed in order to gather more data on the pavement location.

478
1.2 Undertake preparation for site visit as per contract document
Site Visits are a component of the contract documents. These include visiting the site where
you are hoping to deploy your services for the purpose of obtaining in-depth information
on the pavement. The procedure to be followed deals with a number of items that should
be considered when preparing for visits to the actual and virtual site as per contractual
documents.

Steps Undertaken in preparation for site visits

Step 1: desk study
This involves obtaining and reviewing documents relating to the pavement.

Useful sources of information for desk duty

• Geographical maps, including historical maps, can provide information on
topography, drainage and the site 's former uses
• Geological maps may show the possible conditions on the ground and, for
example, whether there is a possibility of subsidence or shear.
• Aerial photography records and Google maps provide valuable information to
help recognize or validate past use of the site, unknown structures, and
topographical and river course adjustments.
• Records of utilities can help to identify hidden utilities such as: power cables,
irrigation, telephone cables.
• Past inquiries, estate record sketches

Step 2
• List all matters to be dealt with during the site visit in advance.
• Obtain all necessary equipment such as safety kits and any required procedures
agreed upon.
• Note in advance all relevant issues, such as weather conditions, plant and
equipment locations, measurements, etc.
• Revisit the matters to be dealt with during the site visit

Step 3
This stage includes a physical visit to the site, making observations and taking photographs
of the conditions of the site.
The site conditions include general topography, access to rigs, geological features, land use
conditions and water flow.

479
Step 4
Prepare a report from the site visit from the observations noted. Recommended items for a
site visit:
• Field book
• Maps
• Sturdy boots
• Tape measure
• Reflective vest and hard hat
• Digital camera
• Introduction letter from your department in order to avoid conflicts.

Importance of undertaking preparation for site visits

• Assessing the ground conditions for the pavement to be designed
• To give prior knowledge and experience to the designing team
• To get a better understanding of the project.

1.3 Collect On site data (Datum points, Settlement, Natural features, Soil type, Water
catchment areas, Accessibility of utility services, Land marks, Road reserve)
according to standard procedures
This is the process of gathering data in order to enhance the implementation of the different
types of pavements. On site data collection is an important step when designing different
types of pavements. The data collected is helpful in the design process as the Engineer is
able to understand site conditions and therefore design pavements according to
specifications and standard procedures such as AASHTO Standards.

Factors that affect on-site data collection

Some of the factors that may affect the quality of data are but not limited to:
• Availability of tools and equipment; the availability of the right tools as per the
standard specifications is an important factor.
• Weather; Adverse weather conditions may deter the data collection activity
• Cost; Data collection must not be an expensive activity.
• Bias- certain demographic factors such as the type of person collecting data may
affect its quality. It must always be ensured that the person collecting data is an
ethical profession in this field.

The methods used for data collection include and are not limited to; conducting surveys,
sampling, observations and experiments.

480
Steps considered for on-site data collection
i. Identify the data element to be collected and determine the necessary tools needed
for data collection.
ii. Determine the data collection procedure for the specific element as per the standard
procedures.
iii. Conduct a site visit with the necessary tools and equipment and do the on-site data
collection as per the specification used.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered preliminary site visit, data collection methods, tools and
equipment for data collection, collection of onsite data and determining pavement location.

Further Reading

Read more on the standard specifications for pavement design used in Kenya

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. From the following choices choose the data collection methods
a) Surveys
b) Interviews
c) Experiments
d) Questionnaires
2. The following is a list of data collection tools, identify the tool that’s not appropriate
a) Camera
b) Book
c) Computer
d) Calculator

481
3. Choose a step which is not part of determining pavement location based on contract
documents.
a) List all matters to be dealt with during the site visit in advance.
b) Obtain all necessary equipment such as safety kits and any required procedures
agreed upon.
c) Determine the data collection procedure for the specific element as per the
standard procedures.
d) Determine the data collection procedure for the specific element as per the
standard procedures
4. Select the correct answer from the following
a) Road reserve- An area of land set aside for potential construction of roads, for
which construction is not permitted
b) Road reserve-An area of land set aside for potential construction of roads, for
which construction is permitted
c) Road reserve- An area of land set aside for construction, for which potential
construction of roads is not permitted
d) Road reserve- an area that has been set aside for construction of drainage
features
5. On site data may include but are not limited to all the following. Select the best answer?
a) Datum points, Settlement, Natural features, Soil type
b) Datum points, road reserve, Natural features, Soil type
c) Accessibility of utility services, roads, waterways
d) Land marks, Road reserve, datum points, vehicles
6. Define Datum point
7. State four data collection methods
8. What is a preliminary site visit?
9. State the six tools and equipment used for data collection
10. Discuss how to conduct a preparation for a site visit as per contract documents

Practical Assessment
Using the knowledge that you have gained, conduct a site visit to a location where a
pavement is being constructed and do data collection with the help of your lecturer.

Oral Assessment
State how you conducted the site visit according to the standard specifications.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras

482
 • Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Garber, N. J., & Hoel, L. A. (2020). Traffic and highway engineering. Cengage.
Rogers, M. G., & Enright, B. (2016). Highway engineering. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

483
12.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design Highway, Drainage and Hydraulic Structures
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Design Highway, Drainage and Hydraulic Structures
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

2.1 Conduct a preliminary site visit • Case studies

2.2 Estimate the surface run-off • Field
2.3 Design highway drainage structures trips/site
2.4 Design bridges visits
2.5 Design drifts and causeways • Discussions
2.6 Design retaining walls
2.7 Determine construction materials

[Link] Information Sheet No 12/Lo 2: Design Highway, Drainage and Hydraulic

Structures

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers hydrology and hydraulic engineering, establishment of
longitudinal sections of a river, determination of water levels of a river and location of
highway drainage sites.

Definition of key terms

Water catchment area: This is an area from which the natural environment receives
water. In a catchment, rainfall and runoff water ends up flowing into the groundwater
system or into a water body. In a catchment, human and natural systems such as animals,
streams, fields, houses, plants, dams and humans can co-exist.

Surface run-off: Surface runoff is the flow of water that occurs above the ground. This
flow happens when the soil is completely saturated and the rainfall intensity is greater than
infiltration rate. Surface runoff frequently occurs in impermeable areas (such as roofs and
paving) that do not allow water to soak into the soil.

Slope: Watershed slope is total elevation change divided by hydrologic length.

484
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Conduct a preliminary site visit
Preliminary site investigation is the first step of a site investigation that includes gathering
information on site-specific features that may need to be addressed during planning, design
and construction, or problems that might require more thorough physical investigations.

Purpose of preliminary site investigation

• Offers an initial understanding of the features of a site or region.
• Provides early detection of site features and possible threats, so that they can be
handled more effectively.
• Informs the details, scope and methodology of the investigations that follow.
• May help prevent excessive, expensive or intrusive inquiries.
A preliminary site investigation takes place in two steps: a desk study and a site visit.

Procedure for preliminary site investigation

Step 1: desk study
This step involves obtaining and reviewing documents relating to the site.
Useful sources of information for desk duty
• OS maps, including historical maps, can provide information on topography,
drainage and the site 's former uses
• Geological maps may show the possible conditions on the ground and, for
example, whether there is a possibility of subsidence or shear.
• Aerial photography records and Google maps provide valuable information to
help recognize or validate past use of the site, unknown structures, and
topographical and river course adjustments.
• Records of utilities can help to identify hidden utilities such as: power cables,
irrigation, telephone cables.
• Past inquiries, estate record sketches

Step 2: Site visit

This stage includes a physical visit to the site, taking observations and pictures of the
conditions of the site and the performance of other surrounding projects. The conditions
of the site include general topography, access to the rigs, geological features, conditions
of land use and water flow. Usually, preliminary site investigations will be supplemented
by more thorough physical inspections to identify areas where more information is
needed, or where unique questions are posed.

485
2.2 Estimate the surface run-off
Estimating and evaluating surface runoff is an important and relevant concern of
hydrological and geographic research. Runoff is a significant factor in flood analysis, soil
erosion and other hydrological hazards.

Methods of estimating surface runoff

• Rational Method
• Curve Number Method

Curve Number Method

This method is a commonly used, easy and efficient method to calculate the quantity of
runoff in a given area. Annual runoff values can be determined from this method. The
requirements for this approach are very small. The value of curve number depends on the
land use, hydrological group of soils and hydrological condition of the region. The general
equation to obtain volume of runoff using this method is:

Figure 126: quantity of runoff

Retrieved from [Link]

Values of the runoff curve numbers for typical land cover characteristics and a category of
hydrological soils can be obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture.

486
Rational method
This method is the most common and easiest way of calculating surface runoff in the basin.
The general equation for this method is given by
Q=ciA
Q = discharge (cumecs)
c = runoff coefficient
i = rainfall intensity, mm/hour
A = drainage basin area, acre

The runoff coefficient c is dependent on the drainage basin slope and soil type. The Rainfall
intensity i, is obtained from rainfall duration /intensity curves for the particular
geographical region.

2.3 Design highway drainage structures as per the design manuals and procedures
The objective of road drainage design is to remove the energy produced by flowing water.
As their velocity increases, the destructive capacity of moving water also increases. Water
must therefore have a velocity that minimizes wear along the drains.

Procedure for design of drainage structures

The commonly used equation for open channel flow design is the manning equation. This
was developed in 1889 by the Irish mathematician Robert Manning. The Manning equation
is based on uniform flow in open channels and it depends on roughness, slope and flow
area. The general manning’s equations is:
k
V = n ( 3√𝐴/𝑃 )2√𝑆
V = velocity (ft/s, m/s)
k = 1.0 for SI units and 1.49 for English units
n = Manning coefficient of roughness
S = slope (ft/ft, m/m)
Pw = wetted perimeter (ft, m)
A = cross sectional area of flow (ft2, m)
Manning’s roughness coefficients for various surfaces are tabulated and are given as a
range.

Factors that affect n-values

• Silting / scouring
• Obstruction
• Surface roughness
• Shape of channel
• Vegetation

487
2.4 Design bridges as per the design manuals and procedures
A bridge is a structure that carries either a road or railway over an obstacle such as a river.

Figure 127: Example of a bridge, Nyali Bridge

Source: [Link]

Types of bridges
• Arch bridge
• Slab bridge
• Truss bridge
• Beam bridge
• Cable stayed/suspended bridge

Procedure for bridge design

Step1: Evaluating the Purpose of the bridge
In the process of design, the first significant step is understanding the purpose of the
structure. Otherwise the design will end up being unbeneficial. The design team need to
understand the bridge’s purpose to ensure a design that is feasible, functional, and
economical.

488
Step 2: Load Determination
The next step of design is the determination of the possible loads expected to act on the
bridge. These loads are dependent on the function and location of the bridge. In design,
engineers consider three categories of loads: dead loads, environmental loads and live
loads:
• Dead loads include the self-weight and all other fixed components of the bridge,
such as guardrails, road signals or road surfaces.
• Live loads- these include vehicles
• Environmental loads –these result from environmental factors such as wind and
earthquakes.

Step 3: Load Combinations

To achieve the task of load combination, engineers use many methods. UBC and ASCE
are the two most popular methods. The building code BS 5400 used in Kenya defines five
different combinations of loads. With this approach, design planning uses the load
combination which produces the most critical impact or highest load. In Kenya, the most
common load combination includes dead load, live loads and wind load and in some cases
earthquake loads depending on the location.

Step 4: Determination of Member Sizes

This step is conducted after the load combinations have been determined by the engineer.
Depending on the loads the size of the members is determined. These members include
beams (girders) and columns (piers. These members are designed separately suing different
design techniques.

2.5 Design drifts and causeways as per the design manuals (Ministry of Works road
design manuals, AASHTO Standards) and procedures
Drifts are essential structures, and can be the lowest type of construction of watercourse
crossing. Drifts effectively provide a firm surface on which vehicles can pass a waterway
on condition that the water level is low enough. Drifts are typically the most suitable option
from an economical and technological point of view when big, normally dry rivers have to
be crossed.

Procedure for drift design

i. On rivers with spans equal to or greater than 50 m and on rivers with spans of less
than 50 m, the drift approach roads should be extended by 10 m on either side of
the riverbank. The approach road should be built above the amount of flooding
experienced to avoid damage at the end of the road when the floods are high.
ii. The foundations should have a minimum width of 500 mm, and a construction
depth of 250 mm.

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 iii. Walls should have thickness of 300 mm. Depending on the volume of traffic and
the typical load, the top slab, should have a thickness of 150-200 mm.
iv. The drift should be packed with hard-core material and compacted on sandy
riverbeds to a maximum depth of 1 m, and 0.6 m on rocky riverbeds.
v. The foundations, walls, and slab should be bound together rigidly to provide
maximum resistance to floodwaters being swept away by the drift. Depending on
the form and amount of the expected traffic the width of the pavement slab will
vary between 3 and 5 m.
vi. The drift height over the current riverbed should be a maximum of 1 m to ensure
sufficient depth for upstream sand and water accumulation.

2.6 Design retaining walls as per the design manuals and procedures
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed for the purpose of withstanding
lateral ground pressure and supporting soil materials. The lateral pressure comes from
liquid pressure and the filling of soil

Types of retaining walls

• Gravity retaining wall
• Anchored retaining wall
• Cantilevered retaining wall
• Sheet piling retaining wall

Procedure for design of Retaining Walls

Calculate all loads applied. These include soil stresses, axial, wind, and surcharge loads.
i. Design the stem. Usually, this is a trial and error procedure. Design starts at the
bottom of the stem where there's maximum moment and shear.
ii. Calculate overturning moments. These are calculated around the footing toe. An
overturning factor of safety of at least 1.5 is considered standard
iii. Based on the assumed footing distance, measured around the front edge of the
footing, compute resisting moments.
iv. Check sliding. A safety factor of 1.5 or more for the sliding is conventional. To
achieve an accepted safety factor for sliding, an adjustment of footing depth is
required.
v. Calculate the eccentricity of total vertical load based on an appropriate factor of
safety against overturning.
vi. Calculate the toe and heel soil pressure. If the eccentricity, e, is > B/6, calculate
another value of B
vii. Design moments and shear for footing. Pick reinforcement.

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2.7 Determine construction materials
In road construction, a broad range of materials are used. These materials include soils),
aggregates, bituminous materials and cement. The use of certain construction materials is
dependent on their cost and availability.

Types of construction materials

1. Soils
Soil is the major material for many civil engineering construction projects such as the
subgrade or even pavement for lower class. Soils serves as an embankment material for
roads built on higher levels such as overpasses. Moreover, soil serves as foundation
materials in many highway projects. For effective use of soils, they need to be are classified
into a given system according to certain principles. A soil classification system groups
different types of soil based on specific characteristics such as texture and gradation. The
common systems used for general engineering classification of soils are:
• AASHTO Soil Classification System
• Unified soil classification system (USCS)

2. Aggregates
Mineral aggregates are the most significant materials used in construction of roads.
Aggregates such as gravel are obtained naturally from disintegration of rocks. Other types
of aggregates are manufactured. An example of this type of aggregate is blast furnace slag.
To a highway engineer, the knowledge of the sources and types of aggregates, their
evaluation and properties is of utmost importance. In general, aggregates are a widely sued
construction material. Desirable properties of soil aggregates used the construction of road
are:
• Strength
• Hardness
• Toughness
• Shape
• Texture

3. Bituminous materials
Bituminous materials or asphalts are a commonly used construction material in Kenya.
This is because the materials are of relatively low cost and have excellent binding and
waterproofing properties. Bituminous materials contain bitumen, which is a cementitious
substance that can occur naturally or be manufactured. Bitumen is composed primarily of
high molecular weight hydrocarbons. Bitumen is manufactured from crude petroleum
through distillation

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Different forms of bitumen
• Asphalt / bitumen cutback – these are also known as liquid asphalt and is obtained
by dissolving bitumen in a distillate
• Bitumen Emulsion- A mixture in which asphalt cement is separated into globules
in water containing an emulsifying agent.
• Straight run bitumen- This is bitumen manufactured from short residue this
bitumen has a high viscosity.

4. Cement concrete
Cement concrete is a flexible commodity that has revolutionized civil engineering. A well-
designed cement concrete provides a solid, stable and resilient pavement after setting and
hardening after curing. A cement concrete pavement is able to resist repeated impacts from
wheel loads, withstand adverse environmental conditions and its construction cost is
relatively low.

Desirable properties of Cement Concrete

Workability
This is a property of fresh concrete and is defined as ease of placement. The workability of
concrete is assessed using the slump test. A workable cement concrete mix allows the
pavement to be easily placed and compacted. Dry mixes with a slump of 0-25 are used in
road making.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the design of highways, drainage and hydraulic structures.

Further Reading

For further understanding of pavement construction refer to Ritter, L., Paquette, R., &
Wright, P. (1987). Highway engineering. Chichester: Wiley

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. How many soil classification systems are used in Kenya?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) I don’t know
2. Which is not a desirable property of aggregates
a) Strength
b) Toughness
c) Workability
d) Texture
3. Which load is not considered in design of bridges in Kenya?
a) Dead load
b) Wind load
c) Snow load
d) Live load
4. Rational formulae for estimation of surface runoff is Q= ciA. where C is _______
a) Runoff coefficient
b) Roughness coefficient
c) Curve number
d) I don’t know
5. Which among the following represents hydraulic radius in the manning’s formula?
a) Rh
b) S
c) V
d) kn
6. List the three types of bitumen
7. What is the difference between a drift and a causeway?
8. List two methods used to estimate surface runoff
9. What is workability of concrete?
10. Discuss on the design procedure for bridges

Oral Assessment
Why do we conduct preliminary site investigations?

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Practical Assessment
Using the knowledge gathered in class. Conduct a labouratory exercise to classify soils
different types of soil

Oral Assessment
What is soil classification systems did you use and why?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Chow, V., Maidment, D., & Mays, L. (2013). Applied hydrology. New York: McGraw-
Hill Professional.
Kutz, M. (2013). Handbook of transportation engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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12.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Design Road Geometrics
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Design Road Geometrics
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Acquire resources • Direct instruction

3.2 Obtain OGL (Original Ground Levels • Discussions
3.3 Design horizontal alignments • Demonstration by
3.4 Design vertical alignments trainer
3.5 Design road intersections • Practice by the
3.6 Produce drawings trainee
3.7 Prepare and present report

[Link] Information Sheet No 12/Lo 3: Design Road Geometrics

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers the determination of the OGL, horizontal and vertical
alignments, road intersections and preparation of working drawings and reports.

Definition of key terms

GIS: Stands for Geographic Information System, which is a computer system that by
design captures, stores, analyses and displays data related to positions located on the
surface of the Earth.

Horizontal curve: A horizontal curve is made between two tangent lengths of a roadway
in order to provide a smooth transition. This is usually at the point where the road changes
direction to the left or to the right.

Vertical Curve: These are curves that are used to connect stretches of roads going up or
down a hill/slope. They can either be at the top of the hill, called summit curves/over
verticals or at the bottom of a hill called sag vertical/ under verticals.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Acquire resources (Geometric tools, straight edge, ruler, compass, protractor,
computers, AutoCAD Software, Civil 3D, Arch CAD, GIS) in accordance with
geometric design requirements.
Geometric design of a highway refers to the determination of the dimensions and layout of
the features of the highway. It is concerned with positioning these elements according to
existing standards. The existing standards take into account the following factors:
a. Design speed
b. The type of vehicle
c. The slope/ road grade
d. The stopping distance
e. The view obstructions

The features include horizontal alignments, vertical alignments and intersections.

After the design parameters have been determined, the subsequent design will require
resources. Stationery such as rulers, compasses and geometric tools can be bought easily
from a nearby bookshop. Software such as Auto CAD, Civil 3D, Arch CAD, GIS can be
acquired from the internet by directly purchasing it from the software provider.
Subsequently, the software should then be installed on a computer so that it can be used.

3.2 Obtain OGL (Original Ground Level) according to standard road construction
procedures.
Original Ground Level refers to the vertical height of an area with relation to the mean sea
level. This is established after the site for the road has been cleared and machinery used to
compact the ground.
Using survey equipment, the site for the road is levelled and the information recorded on a
field book.

3.3 Design horizontal alignments based on standard road construction procedures.

Horizontal alignments are done so as to provide safe, continuous operation of vehicles at
the designed speed for considerable lengths of highway. Considerations taken into account
for horizontal alignment are the following:
a. Design speed
b. Topography
c. Safety
d. Profile grade
e. Geological features
f. Drainage
g. Existing highway
h. Likelihood of future developments

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 i. Cost of construction
j. Environmental issues
k. Right of way
These considerations have to be balanced to produce an alignment appropriate to the
highway in terms of its location and classification.

Types and Properties of Horizontal Alignments

a. Simple curves: A simple curve is an arc that joins two tangents.
b. Spiral curves: A spiral curve is used to provide a gradual curvature change from
a road that is straight to one that’s circular.
c. Reverse curves: It is made up when two consecutive circular curves join at a point
of tangency with their centers on opposite sides of the main tangent.
d. Compound curves

This is made up of two or more consecutive circular curves that are in the same direction
which have varying radii.

Figure 128: Types of Horizontal Curves

Source: Engineering Aid 1-Advanced Structural Engineering Guide Book, Chapter 11,
Figure 11-3

The four main variables of simple curves include;

1. Radius,
2. Design speed,
3. Side friction factor and
4. Super elevation.

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The parameters used in designing horizontal curves depend on the relationship between the
curvature and design speed. This relationship co-relates also with super-elevation and side
friction. Side friction factor is the lateral acceleration acting on a vehicle. It is calculated
according to the following formula:
𝑣2
𝑓 = 127𝑅 − 0.01𝑒
Where,
f is the side friction factor
e is the rate of super elevation
v is the vehicle design velocity
R is the radius of the curve

Super elevation is having the highway tilted. It helps a vehicle overcome centripetal forces
while going round a curve. It is usually set at 6%. In calculating the minimum radius, the
following equation is used:
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣 2 /127(0.01𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
Where,
v is the design velocity
e is the super elevation
f is the side friction factor
R is the radius of the curve

3.4 Design vertical alignments based on standard procedures

Vertical alignment curves should be able to provide:
a. Safety
b. Adequate sight distance
c. Comfortable driving
d. Good drainage
e. Pleasing appearance

Vertical curves are parabolic in nature. The minimum length to the crest is usually
determined by the headlight stopping distance, where the lighting isn’t sufficient. Where it
is adequate, the passenger comfort factor is used to determine the length of the sag vertical.
The minimum length of vertical curves should be 300 feet or according to design speed; it
should be 3 times that value.

498
Figure 129: An Example of Crest Vertical Curve
Source: [Link]

Figure 130: An Example of Sag Vertical Curve

Source: [Link]

Steps followed in determining the curve parameters.

1. Deciding sight distance to be used: When designing curves in a hilly place, the
stopping sight distance is used. The intermediate sight distance is also useful while
doing curve design.

2. Determining the value of K: After the design speed and road type are established, the
value of K can be obtained from the following table:

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MINIMUM VERTICAL CURVE ‘K’ VALUES.
Table 33: Minimum Vertical Curve ‘K’ Values
Design speed Single lane roads Two lane single Dual
(km/hr) (3.7m carriageway roads carriageway
carriageway) (6.2 and 7.3m roads
carriageway) (2 x 7.3)
ISD SSD ISD OSD 1SD
30 4 2 4 18 -
40 9 4 9 35 -
50 18 9 18 70 18
65 35 18 35 140 35
80 35 70 270 70
100 70 140 540 140
Source: adapted from Table 7.47, RMSS, Vol V11A

3. Calculating A: A is the change in grade in percentage form. It’s necessary as it

determines if the change in grade necessitates a vertical curve. The values can be
obtained from the following table:

VERTICAL CURVE APPEARANCE CRITERIA.

Table 34: Vertical Curve Appearance Criteria.

Design speed Max. Change in grade Minimum length of
(km/hr) permitted without using a vertical curve for good
vertical curve (%) appearance.
(m)
30 1.5 15
40 1.2 20
50 1.0 30
65 0.8 40
80 0.6 50
100 0.5 60
Source: adapted from Table 7.42&7.43, RMSS, Vol. V11A

4. Calculating the length of the curve: 𝐿 = 𝐾 × 𝐴

5. Carrying out cross checks: Check L and compare it with the minimum length of the
curve and adjust it if necessary. If the sight distance is longer than the vertical curve,
use 𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 960/𝐴 to recalculate curve length where S is the sight distance.

500
6. Checking for feasibility and doing any necessary amends: Avoid using curves with
a radius between ISD and SSD. This might tempt them to overtake.

3.5 Design road intersections (Y-junctions, T-junctions, underpass, overpass,

roundabout, cross-junction, interchange) as per standard road construction
procedures
An intersection is an area shared by two or more roads that enables drivers to change route
directions. There are 3 categories of intersections;
• Grade separated intersections without ramps
• Grade separated intersections with ramps/ Interchanges
• At grade intersections

Intersections are of various forms including Y intersections, T intersections, scissor, cross,

staggered etc. Intersections can also be circular, to produce a circular traffic pattern and
reduce the crossing conflict points. These are called traffic circles. Roundabouts are a type
of Traffic Circle but have the following definitive characteristics:
a. They yield control at each approach.
b. They allow speeds of below 30 miles /hour due to their geometric characteristics of
the central island.
c. They separate conflicting traffic using raised islands or pavement markings.
d. Parking within the circulating highway is not allowed.

Generally, while doing design of an intersection, the four main elements that have to be
taken into consideration are:
1. Human factors
2. Traffic considerations
3. Physical elements
4. Economic factors

3.6 Produce drawings as per design data

Based on the data gathered in designing of a highway from the design calculations
drawings of the highway can be generated either on paper or by using software such as
Auto CAD. The drawings will include cross sections, profile drawings and the plan
drawing. The plan drawing will include alignments, the cross-section levels etc. When
using software, one can easily be able to generate reports from the plan. It also facilitates
generating a more presentable plan in 3D.

501
3.7 Prepare and present report as per contract document
Based on the requirements of the contract, the road design report should include the
following sections:
1. The roadway design drawings
2. The specifications
This includes the design and construction details and requirements.
3. The quality management plan
4. Construction quality management plan

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the determination of the OGL, horizontal and vertical
alignments, road intersections and preparation of working drawings and reports.

Further Reading

Read more on the geometric design of roads so as to be able to carry out the necessary
calculations. Do some further reading and write notes on levelling.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Knowledge Based Evidence

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a type of vertical alignment?
a) Simple curve
b) Complex curve
c) Spiral curve
d) Compound curve
2. Which one is not a category of intersections?
a) At grade intersections
b) Interchanges
c) Bridge
d) Intersections without ramps

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3. Which one is not a main element while designing an intersection?
a) Human factors
b) Traffic considerations
c) Specifications
d) Economic factors
4. Define geometric design of highway.
5. What are factors affecting geometric design?
6. List five considerations taken while doing vertical alignment.
7. List three types of intersections.
8. Write an essay detailing the process of highway design and the steps taken until
drawings are obtained.

Case Study Assessment

Based on roads in your vicinity, obtain the plans used and study them. Using the skills you
have learnt point out any improvements that can be made especially on the curve design.
Note down the improvements you came up with.

Oral Assessment
1. Mention four types of horizontal curves.
2. Mention some road intersection features.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

503
[Link] References

AASHTO. (2018). A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. Washington

D.C. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Hombuger, W.S., Hall, J.W., Reilly, W.R. and Sullivan, E.C. (2001). Fundamentals of
Traffic [Link] Course Notes UCB-ITS-CN-01-1.
Kobryń, A. (2017). Transition Curves for Highway Geometric Design: Gewerbestrasse.
Springer International Publishing.
Wolhuter, K, M. (2017). Geometric Design of Roads Handbook: Taylor and Francis
Limited.

504
12.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Design Pavement Structure
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Design Pavement Structure
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

4.1 Acquire resources • Case studies

4.2 Estimate traffic load • Discussions
4.3 Determine road/pavement type • Project
4.4 Design pavement structures • Demonstration
4.5 Produce pavement structural drawings by trainer
4.6 Develop materials schedules • Practice by the
4.7 Prepare and present a detailed report and specifications trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 12/ Lo 4: Design Pavement Structure

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers preparation of pavement structural drawings, development
of material schedules and preparation and presentation of a detailed report and material
specifications.

Definition of key terms

Subgrade: The in-situ materials or improved ground with imported materials that form the
platform for a pavement structure.

Sub-base: In transportation engineering, a subbase is a load-distributing layer immediately

below and usually of inferior materials to the road base.

Rigid Pavement: This is a pavement whose main structural layer is a concrete slab. They
are termed rigid due to their high flexural strength or high modulus of elasticity.

505
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Acquire resources in accordance with pavement structure requirements.
The design of pavement structures requires the determination of the thickness of layers and
composition of materials. The resources and tools required in pavement design can be
found through;
• Online USGS store for topographical maps
• Download Road Design Manuals online from the KeNHA web page.
• Visiting the library for literature on pavement structures
• Accessing design software from trusted online suppliers.

4.2 Estimate traffic load as per traffic survey information.

Traffic loading in transportation engineering is the cumulative load characterized by traffic
volume, magnitudes, wheel repetition, and truck weight data. The procedure for
determining traffic loading is:
• Determining the axle load
• Calculating the Equivalent Factor and the number of single axle loads (SAL)
• Calculating the total SAL as Cumulative standard axle (CSA)

4.3 Determine road/pavement type (rigid and flexible pavement) as per

client/developer/financier requirements and nature of the ground.
Pavement types are categorized into two major types; rigid and flexible pavements.

The procedure for selection of a pavement structure involves:

• Assessing the initial cost of construction
• Evaluating life cycle costs in the pavement maintenance and subsequent
rehabilitations
• Determining the traffic loading
• Identifying the topography and land use

4.4 Design pavement structures (sub-grade, sub-base, base, surface) based on traffic
engineering analysis outputs and material testing results
The typical components of a pavement that functions to support and distribute traffic load
are what makes a pavement system. The procedure for design is as follows:
• Collecting and analyzing traffic data into CSA
• Collecting and analyzing material testing results on subgrade for CBR, OMC and
MDD.
• Determining the pavement thickness based on traffic and material testing results.

506
Figure 131: pavement thickness
Source: [Link]

4.5 Produce pavement structural drawings as per design outputs

Pavement structural drawings are documents that depict the detailed cross-section of a
proposed road. The software that are commonly used are AutoCAD and Civil 3D.
The process of producing structural drawing should include:
• Drawing of cross-sections after every 100m or in areas of a sudden change in
gradient.
• The area of fill and cut to be shown at all times

4.6 Develop materials schedules according to design results

Materials scheduling is the process of organizing and controlling the sequence of delivery
of materials on site. Material scheduling requires considerable knowledge of technical
specifications for each component in structural design. The procedure to develop material
schedule is:
• Identifying and working out quantities of materials needed from the structural
drawing
• Identifying where materials will be procured
• Identifying the unit cost of the materials
• Determining the lead times of the materials

4.7 Prepare and present a detailed report and specifications as per the contract
document
A detailed project report and specifications is a planning and design output document that
provides particulars for a specific project. The preparation and presentation of a detailed
report and specifications, with regards to pavement design, will involve the following;
• Identifying the projects particulars such as the project description, the scope,
existing conditions, and the field investigations.
• Collecting information on the final route location
• Collecting the specification for soils and materials
• Collecting and organizing design details of the pavement, culverts and other
features
• Compiling and presenting all the projects details and parameters.

507
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered preparation of pavement structural drawings, development
of material schedules and preparation and presentation of a detailed report and material
specifications.

Further Reading:

1. Conduct further research on pavement structure from the Road Design Manual Part III
-Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads. Chapter 9: The Standard Pavement
Structure
2. Read more on preparation of detailed report from the article: Tips for Writing an
Engineering Project Report [Link]
engineering-project-report/

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Rigid Pavements are analyzed by
a) Infinite layer theory
b) Elastic plate theory
c) Rigid plate theory
d) Interlocking of aggregates
2. The most superior pavement layer is that which distributes loads as
a) Uniformly varying load
b) Uniformly distributed
c) Point load
d) Triangular load
3. Which among the following is not a contract document?
a) Bill of Quantities
b) Financial Statements
c) Specifications
d) Construction Scheduling

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4. Load transfer in flexible pavements is by
a) Consolidation of sub-grade
b) Grain to grain contact
c) Bending action of layers
d) Shear deformation
5. Which of the following is not typical layer of flexible pavements
a) Tack coat
b) Road base
c) Sub-base
d) Sub-grade
6. Briefly describe the functions of each layer in flexible pavements.
7. What are the advantages of rigid pavements?
8. Briefly describe how material scheduling is conducted.
9. Briefly describe four factors controlling the design of pavements.
10. List and explain the various pavement design methods
11. Discuss the input data required to design a pavement

Oral Assessment
1. What is the importance of preparing Bill of Quantities and Specifications for pavement
structures to contractors?
2. In which instances it would a rigid pavement be selected instead of a flexible
pavement?

Project Assessment
You are first required to briefly highlight the procedure of CBR test. Thereafter, design a
flexible pavement using MoPW Design Method using the following data; trial pits dug at
intervals of 500mm produced CBR results ranging 10-20% for the subgrade and 25-40%
for the subbase. The traffic data for the pavement is estimated to be 1500/day with predicted
growth rate of 5% p.a. According to axle loading survey, Ef=2.25SA/CV. Design the
pavement for design life of 15years.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers

509
 • Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Chandra, Satish (n.d) Pavement versus Rigid Pavement. Retrieved 23 June 2020, from
[Link]
[Link]
Chandra, Satish (n.d) Pavement versus Rigid Pavement. [Photograph] Retrieved 23 June
2020, from [Link]
[Link]
Mannering, F., & Washburn, S. (2019). Principles of highway engineering and traffic
analysis.
Road Design Manual Part III -Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads

510
12.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Design Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Design Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Identify and gather required resources • Direct instruction

5.2 Estimate pedestrian and cyclist traffic • Case studies
5.3 Determine a pedestrian and cyclist path location • Field trips/site
5.4 Design pedestrian and cyclist paths visits
5.5 Produce drawings • Discussions
5.6 Specifications • Practice by the
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 12/ Lo 5: Design Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers the determination, designing and locating of pedestrian and
cyclist path.

Definition of key terms

Pedestrian crossing: This is a specially designated area on a road where pedestrians have
the right way.

Information signs: These are traffic signs that function to guide motorists in navigation
and offer information on important facilities along the way.

Warning signs: Traffic signs that caution road users of potential dangers along the road.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Identify and gather required resources as per design requirements
Resources required in the design of pedestrians and cyclists’ paths are materials that will
help in determining the thickness and dimensions of the paths. Resources for design include
GIS tools, computer tools, and expertise, maps, and travel surveys.

511
The procedure of identifying and gathering resources include;
• Identifying information on demographical data, legislations for special needs
groups, and land use
• Getting the areas plan and the available road reserve.
• Utilize the information to determine the dimensions of the paths

5.2 Estimate pedestrian and cyclist traffic in accordance with traffic survey
information
Pedestrian and cyclist traffic are the aggregation of road users not using vehicular means
of transport. According to Nordback, Sellinger, and Phillips (2017), the procedure to
estimate this type of traffic involves;
• Evaluating land use and road network connectivity
• Enhancing models to conduct non-motorized trip generations in a smaller zone

5.3 Determine the pedestrian and cyclist path location according to road profile
Pedestrian and cyclist paths are routes that provide a safe passage from non-motorized road
users. According to Segadilha and Sanchez (2014), selection of the location of a pedestrian
and cyclist paths according to the road profile is subject to:
• Visibility
• Gradient and cross fall

5.4 Design pedestrian and cyclist paths as per design manuals and procedures
Pedestrian and cyclist paths should be designed to ensure minimal conflicts and with
special consideration to people with impairments. The design of these paths demands;
• Providing paths dimensions and geometry that accommodate all users
• Surface materials to be selected on the basis of safety and convenience.
• Providing and designing street furniture’s accordingly

5.5 Produce drawings according to design output

The design drawings for the pedestrian and cyclist path illustrates the cross-section layout
of the paths. Design drawings are produced using software such as AutoCAD which will
provide information on:
• Dimensions of the paths, including their thickness.
• Dimensions of the street furniture such as Kerb

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5.6 Prepare and present the report and material specifications according to contract
document
Reports according to contract documents give information on, but not limited to the project
milestones, stages, labour, and equipment. The procedure to make a report will include;
• Collecting and organizing information on project activities, labour, and
materials
• Structure the information into relevant segments
• Present the report with accurate charts and spreadsheets.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the determination, designing and locating of pedestrian and
cyclist path.

Further Reading

Read more on providing footpaths and recommended dimensions

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which among the following is NOT a zone of a footpath?
a) Through route
b) Frontage zone
c) Carriage way
d) Street furniture zone
2. All the following are traffic signs except
a) Warning signs
b) Explanatory signs
c) Information signs
d) Regulatory Signs
3. The following are design features of a pedestrian and a cyclist path except?
a) Gradient
b) Visibility
c) Width
d) Length

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4. All the following are street furniture except
a) Bollards
b) Traffic signs
c) Culverts
d) Rubbish bins
5. A report provides information on
a) Manpower
b) Materials
c) Project milestone
d) All the above
6. What is the difference between a zebra crossing and a pedestrian crossing?
7. Given the information acquired, which measures will be most effective in reducing
cyclist-motorist collision?
8. Give two instances where it is unsuitable for providing a pedestrian footpath along the
way.
9. Highlight three surfacing materials used in pedestrian and cyclist paths.

Oral Assessment
1. Vehicles parking on pedestrian and cyclist path has been a common practice in the
recent past. Which measure should be put in place to prevent cars from closing and
obstructing side paths?
2. In your specific locality, which surfacing material is most common along pedestrian
paths? Mention at least two advantages and disadvantages of the said materials.

Project Assessment
You are required to conduct a traffic survey for cyclists and pedestrians in your locality.
Use the data collected to design a combined pedestrian and cyclist path. Your design output
should be structural drawings, from AutoCAD or any other software, illustrating the cross-
section, and width of the path. Please note to design for safety and aesthetics.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data

514
 • Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Nordback, K., Sellinger, M., & Phillips, T. (2017). Estimating walking and cycling
distance at the state level. Retrieved 24 June 2020,
from [Link]
t=trec_reports
Peers, F. (2012). Appendix-A: Resources for Design of Pedestrian Facilities. Retrieved
24 June 2020,
from [Link]
Pedestrian-Design-Resources?bidId=
Segadilha, A., & Sanches, S. (2014). Identification of Factors that Influence Cyclistś
Route Choice. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 160, 372-380. Doi:
10.1016/[Link].2014.12.149s

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12.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Design Road Furniture
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Design Road Furniture
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

6.1 Gather required resources • Direct

6.2 Determine type of road furniture instruction
6.3 Determine location of road furniture • Field trips/site
6.4 Design road furniture visits
6.5 Produce drawings • Discussions
6.6 Prepare and present the report and material specifications • Demonstration
by trainer

[Link] Information Sheet No 12/ LO6: Design Road Furniture

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers the determination and design of road furniture.

Definition of key terms

Guard rails: This is a boundary that is used to deter access to off-limits area, it allows
light and visibility in a much greater way than a fence

Traffic lights: This is a signalling instrument found at road intersections, pedestrian

crossings and wherever needed to control traffic flow

Street lights: This is a standard raised source of light at the boundary of a road or path

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Gather required resources according to design needs
Design needs are those requirements that are required to be met to ensure the functionality
and reliability of a structure. The resources that are required to be gathered include;
i. The Kenya National Highway regulations
ii. Experts in the road and Highway construction management sector
They can be gathered by approaching their workstations where they will provide the
stipend and budget as well as those having expertise in the area

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6.2 Determine type of road furniture (Road markings, information signs, warning
signs, street lights, traffic lights, guard rails) based on road type and relevant
manuals
Road Furniture are devices that provide road users with the necessary information on
warnings, rules or directions in order to ensure safe use of the roads
• They serve many functions related to the usage of the streets in many ways
whether directly or indirectly Their importance includes;
• Lead to a better usage of the streets as an urban space been used by people
• These setups the streets are not only passages of movement, but also living
spaces that contains and improves people’s lives and human activities
• With the lack of street furniture designs, these setups are considered as barriers
and obstacles in the streets that may affect negatively, the functions being
performed in the streets.

Road markings: This is any kind of physical representation of official information on a

road surface end is usually placed with road marking machines
Information signs: This is a very readably printed or distinguishable placard to convey
the purpose of an object or give the directive on the use of something
Warning signs: These are a type r regulatory signs that are used to show a potential hazard,
obstacle or condition requiring caution
Street lights: These are standard raised source of light at the boundary of a road or path
Traffic lights: This is a signalling instrument found at road intersections, pedestrian
crossings and wherever needed to control the flow of traffic
Guard rails: This is a boundary that is used to deter access to off-limits area, it allows
light and visibility in a much greater way than a fence

6.3 Determine location of road furniture as per geometric road design

Road furniture are devices that provide road users with the necessary information on
warnings, rules or directions in order to ensure safe use of the roads.
To determine the location of the road furniture the following steps must be
undertaken:
a. Site visit
b. Collect the onsite data collected according to standard procedures
c. Identify the road intersections as designed as per standard road procedures
d. OGL (Original Ground Levels) are obtained according to standard road
construction procedures
e. Horizontal alignments are designed based on standard road construction
procedures
f. Vertical alignments are designed based on standard procedures
g. Sketch the data determined and a report is compiled of all the completed tasks

517
6.4 Design road furniture according to standard road construction procedures
Road Furniture are devices that provide road users with the necessary information on
warnings, rules or directions in order to ensure safe use of the roads

The design of Road furniture includes

Route planning: Establish specific goals and prescriptions for road network development
along with the more general location needs.

Design Criteria which includes the following among others;

• Resource management objectives; why is it needed
• Environmental and physical factors’ topography and vegetation characteristics of
the area
• Environmental and Social-political constraints e.g. high rainfall intensities and
land ownership boundaries
• Traffic requirements; average daily traffic (ADT)
• Vehicle characteristics; distinguishing between “design vehicle” and “Critical
vehicle”
• Road uses distinguishing from Administrative users, Agricultural users among
others six Safety -Safety requirements such as stopping distance, sight distance
or allowable deign speed
• Economics -Economic evaluations should be done

The design elements which include the Number of Lanes and Lane width, Road width and
Turnouts, turn arounds, curve widening, Clearance, Speed and Sight distance, Horizontal
and vertical alignment as well as travel time

Figure 132: Design elements

Source: [Link]

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6.5 Produce drawings based on design requirements
The design and construction of Road furniture goes through a rigorous process which
includes cooperation of many entities to deliver a quality road.

Basic Requirements for Producing Drawings

• Computer installed with Civil 3D software
• Survey data

Steps of Producing Drawings based on design requirements.

• OGL data of the road is taken with the help of the survey team using a Total Station
• The data is then loaded into a computer with the necessary processing power.
• The road is then designed as per the standard requirements in the Ministry of Roads
and Transportation using different software, preferable Civil 3D
• A report is then generated from the design with all the cut and fill data as well as
the elevations of the pavement.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the definition of various road furniture, the standards and
design of road furniture.

Further Reading

Read on Standard Specification for Road works and standard specification

Project Management for Construction than develop a flow chart on the mandatory steps
that must be conducted when designing a road furniture device.
Read manuals on the Safety Measures in developing countries and identify the specific to
road users and Pedestrians
Read reports on Road and Highway constructions and determine the similarities in them

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a road furniture?
a) Standard lights
b) Safety barriers
c) Bridge
d) Traffic lights
2. Which of the following is not an objective of Warning Signs?
a) Convey the purpose of an object or give the directive on the use of something
b) Indicate potential hazard
c) Indicate obstacle or
d) Indicate condition requiring caution
3. Which of the following is a factor to be considered as a standard in road furniture
design?
a) Original ground level
b) Horizontal alignment
c) Vertical alignment
d) Economics
4. Which of the following is not a performance criterion when constructing a road
furniture?
a) Conduct site visit
b) Design highway drainage structures
c) Design road geometrics
d) Quality system requirements
6. Which of the following is a requirement needed in a report prepared before construction
of a road furniture?
a) Referenced documents
b) Social-political factors
c) Road markings
d) Agricultural users
7. Which of the following is not a skill required to be competent in road furniture
construction?
a) Drawings
b) Innovation
c) Leadership
d) Marketing

520
8. Which of the following is the correct definition of a traffic light?
a) These are standard raised source of light at the boundary of a road or path
b) This is a signaling instrument found at road intersections, pedestrian crossings
and wherever needed to control traffic flow
c) This is a boundary that is used to deter access to off-limits area, it allows light
and visibility in a much greater way than a fence
d) These are a type regulatory signs that are used to show a potential hazard,
obstacle or condition requiring caution
9. Briefly describe the various categories of Traffic Users (4 marks)
10. Explain five Environmental factors that influence the road furniture standards
11. What is geometric road design
12. Distinguish between “design vehicle” and “Critical vehicle”, vehicle characteristics
13. Explain the resource management objectives that could lead to the construction of road
furniture
14. List and explain the on-site data that should be collected during construction site visit
15. Explain the various pavement structures

Oral Assessment
1. What are the two types of Pavement types (2 marks)
2. Name 5 road furniture (5 marks)

Case Study Assessment

In the new constructed super highway there was a government directive to place Road
furniture at every exit to assist the road users. According to the Standards of Road and
Highway, identify 5 established exits identify the road furniture expected, specify the
distances appropriate to place them and explain the social-political factors that influence
the road furniture at a specific area

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet

521
[Link] References

Barba J. Jackson (2010) Construction Management Jumpstart Sybex; 2 edition (June 3,

2010)
Journal of Modern Engineering Research (2014). The Importance of integrating Street
furniture in visual image of the city
Kyle Perry (2018) Guaranteed Project Success New York
Paul Netscher (2017) Construction Management Tips and Insights, Panet Publications

522
 CHAPTER 13: ROAD CONSTRUCTION WORKS

13.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to perform road construction works. It
involves carrying out earthwork activities, constructing road/pavement structure layers and
constructing parking, walkways and cyclist lanes, footbridges and bus bays. It also includes
installing road furniture, construction of erosion prevention structures, constructing
highway drainage and hydraulic structures and undertaking highway maintenance

13.2 Performance Standard

Carry out earthwork activities, construct road/pavement structure layers, parking, walk
ways and cyclist lanes, foot bridges, bus bays, erosion prevention structures, highway
drainage and hydraulic structures, install road furniture, and undertake highway
maintenance as per contract documents, construction procedures, design output and SOPs.

13.3 Learning Outcomes

13.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Carry out earthwork activities
b) Construct road/pavement structure layers
c) Construct parking, walk ways and cyclist lanes, foot bridges, bus bays
d) Install road furniture
e) Construct erosion prevention structures
f) Construct highway drainage and hydraulic structures
g) Undertake highway maintenance

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13.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Carry out Earthwork Activities
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Carry out Earthwork Activities
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Obtain relevant legal documents • Direct instruction

1.2 Identify and mobilize earthwork resources • Case studies
1.3 Carry out Site clearance and demolition activities • Field trips/site
1.4 Interpret drawings visits
1.5 Conduct Setting out for earthworks • Group discussions
1.6 Obtain Statutory requirements • Demonstration by
1.7 Establish Road formation trainer
1.8 Take and document ground levels • Computer Aided
1.9 Determine Volumes of cut and fill materials Learning (CAL)
1.10 Carry out Haulage and disposal of waste material
• Practice by the
1.11 Operate and maintain construction tools and equipment trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No13/LO1 Carry out Earthwork Activities

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers various learning activities such as interpreting drawings,
determining volumes of cut and fill and operating and maintaining construction tools with
the end goal of learning how to carry out earthwork activities which is part of road
construction works.

Definition of key terms

Earthwork resources; earth filling or excavation of soil or rocks from one area to another
by, hauling, dumping, crushing and compaction of soil

Site clearance and demolition activities; this involves removal of old infrastructure,
removal of top soil, cut and fill.

Statutory requirements; verified documents used for the road construction.

524
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Obtain Relevant legal documents as per the contract requirement
Legal document: it is an official document required by law that binds the client and the
contractor
Types of legal document
• Scope of work: work is clearly defined including the materials to be used.
• Construction schedule: it helps the clients and contractors to know how and when
the project will be completed.
• Conditions: involving general and specified conditions, general is rights for each
party while specified is conditions for a given work and certain circumstances.
• Bill of quantities: this is the part of contraction project which includes labour, list
of materials etc.
• Drawings: all contracts require drawings this include actual blueprints
For project.

Steps of obtaining relevant Legal documents

• Obtaining surveying plan: this is to confirm if the land is the exact one and proof
of the land ownership
• Obtain project report from (NEMA): this is to approve environmental impact of the
project
• Obtain approval of the architectural plans: drawings are approved
• Obtain stamps on architectural and structural plans.

1.2 Identify and mobilize Earthwork resources as per the contract document
This is the process of determining the resources required and getting the necessary finance
to acquire these resources.

Types of Earthwork resources

• Bulldozer: heavy tractor which assist in digging, pushing, excavating and levelling
• Hoe, mattock, pick axe, crowbar, spade: used for excavating materials
• Basket, stretcher, shovel, wheelbarrow: used for removing materials
• Rake, spreader, hoe: used for spreading
• Hand hammer: used for compaction
• Excavators: used to dig and load materials in a tractor
• Trenchers: used to dig trenches in the ground

525
Steps of Identifying and mobilizing the necessary resources
(i) Determine the particular earthwork activity to be carried out at the site. This is done
so as to determine the type of earthwork resource required for the particular activity.
(ii) Acquire the necessary permits and financial resource to mobilize these resources.
(iii)Mobilize the earthwork resources from whichever location you identified as per the
standard specifications of the contract documents.

1.3 Carry out site clearance and demolition activities based on contract document and
construction procedure
Site clearance is the process or removing unnecessary vegetation and structures along the
route planned for construction of the road. This is done so as to get a clear and workable
site. It involves the removal and disposal of all bush, trees, roots, grass and top soil. This
activity must be done before any construction of the roadway starts. Unless the Engineer
agrees in writing otherwise, all materials including trees, grass, crops and structures, which
fall within the road alignment must be removed.

Figure 133: Clearing and Grubbing

Source: Construction practices and procedures manual May 2001

1.4 Interpret Drawings as per construction procedures

For easier interpretation and understanding of a drawing one should follow the following
steps
• Commencing with the title block, which shows you the title of the drawing and
what the drawing is all about
• Understand the basic symbols on the drawing
• Identify specific abbreviations and try to understand what they mean
Try to visualize the structure in your imagination

526
1.5 Conduct setting out for earthworks based on design output
Setting out process is used to establish the boundaries and marks for excavation of
earthworks and is based on the design output. It enables construction to be carried out as it
has been planned according to dimensions specified in layout drawings. Setting out can be
done using various methods the most common being the profile board method.

Steps of Setting out Using the Profile Board Method

This method uses several profile boards and a string line level so as to provide control
levels when constructing. A series of level boards are placed along where excavation will
take place.
(i) The level boards have to be a meter above the excavation level.
(ii) Between 2 subsequent profile boards, a third profile board, called a traveler is used
to control the depth of excavation. It has a fixed height and is put between the line
of sight and the 2 profile boards. If it is below the line of sight, the excavation has
been done too deep. If it is above the line of sight, more excavation is required.
(iii)Slots are established using the traveler where the right depth of excavation should
be done. They are made at regular intervals of 4 to 5 meters along the line of sight.
(iv) Excavation is then done by joining the slots.
The traveler is then used to ensure that there are no too high or too low points.

A line level is used to control the level of the profile boards in the following ways:
a. Transferring the exact level of one profile board to another thus ensuring uniform
level.
b. Measuring higher or lower from the horizontal level to set another profile board at
a different level.
c. Measuring the slope between two fixed profile boards.

1.6 Obtain Statutory requirements based on contract document and standard

construction procedures
Statutory requirements are the standard needs requires in carrying out road construction
activities. These are required by the state.
Examples of Statutory requirements
• Bill of Quantities
• Drawings
• Contract Documents
• Practicing licenses

Reasons for obtaining statutory requirements

• These are legally binding documents which are necessary as per the contract terms

527
Steps of Obtaining Statutory requirements.
• Determine the activities to be conducted and the necessary statutory requirements
for each specific activity.
• Acquire the statutory documents from the respective offices as per the Kenyan
standard specifications on road construction

1.7 Establish Road formation based on standard construction procedures

A road formation is the surface of finished earthworks where the road pavement will be
constructed. It includes the shape of the road, the basic drainage infrastructure but excludes
storm water infrastructure.

Steps of establishing Road formation

Step 1: preparation of subgrade- This is the lowest layer of the pavement and is the first to
be constructed.
Step 2: construction of sub-base- This a layer laid on the subgrade and is made up of mainly
aggregates
Step 3: construction of base: This is the structural layer of the pavement and standards
must be followed to the later during its construction
Step 4: Construction of Surfacing: This is made of mainly asphalt for flexible pavements
Step 4: preparation of wearing course- This layer is mainly made of aggregates that acts
as a layer that induces friction to the tyres.
Step 5: construction of shoulders
Step 6: opening traffic
All construction standards and procedures must be followed as per the Design manuals and
the contract terms.

1.8 Take and document Ground levels according to SOPs

SOP is a procedure that provides clear instructions to how teams operate for completion of
certain processes. The ground level is the level of the ground as defined in a field survey
authorized by a qualified surveyor. For road construction, ground levels are established by
the process of levelling. Levelling is done using the following equipment:
• Dumpy level/ optical level
• Tilting level
• Automatic level
• Laser level
• Digital level
• Water level

528
The levels observed are booked in a levelling book. The steps followed when booking
include:
(i) A new page should be used for a new job
(ii) Details are to be entered at the top of the page.
(iii)Observations that are booked should be legible and any mistakes should be crossed
out. Avoid overwriting.
(iv) One line should be used for each position of the staff
(v) An entry should always be made in the remarks’ column.
(vi) Work should be appropriately spread.

1.9 Determine Volumes of cut and fill materials in accordance with contract document
This is a procedure of achieving the standard level by removing some material in raised
parts and adding standard material to sloppy parts. There are three major methods to
compute volume of earthworks; cross-section method, spot height method and contours
method. Volume from cross-section has four methods: mid-cross-section method, mean
area method, end area method and prismoid formula.

Procedure of obtaining volume of cut and fill

• Calculate cross-section areas at given intervals along he projects
• Calculate area of cut and fill between areas of proposed formations
• Calculate aggregates algebraic volume for each section
• Longitudinal section along the proposed centerline is plotted proposed level
included
• Axes of mass haul are drawn underneath the longitudinal profile
• Mass haul curve as the aggregates volume on the coordinates is plotted

1.10 Carry out Haulage and disposal of waste material as per the standard
construction procedures
Haul is the total volume of material multiplied by the distance the material has been moved.
Waste is the volume of the materials which is disposed due to unsuitability.

Disposal of waste materials

• Landfilling; the ground is covered with soil for use
• Incineration; burning at high temperatures
• Reuse; using materials which attain the standards required
• Compositing; waste is dumped in a pit

1.11 Operate and maintain Construction tools and equipment are as per the SOPs
Equipment’s are classified into two types, hand tools and machineries. Hand tools are
generally used in small depths of excavations.

529
Machinery tools
• Excavators; used to remove materials from ground
• Bulldozer: used to push
• Trenchers: used to dig trenches in the ground

Construction tools
• Hoe; used for soft soil
• Forked hoe; used for hard soil or stony
• Pick axe; used for hard stony soil
• Crow bar; stony soil
• Mattock;

Maintenance of tools
• Cutting tools are maintained sharpening
• Clean all the tools after use
• Store in dry and secure places
• Make sure all the tools are in there initial packaging
• Moving parts should be oiled

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered various learning activities such as, determining volumes of
cut and with the end goal of learning how to carry out earthwork activities which is part of
Road construction works.

Further Reading

Read more on:

Constructing the rise and fall and calculations involved.
Setting out of curves and their calculation.
From J. Uren, [Link] (2010), surveying for engineers, Fifth Edition Publishes by
Palgrave Macmillan curves and mass haul diagram

530
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is waste haulage waste disposal.
a) Landfill
b) Turning
c) Setting out
d) Haul
2. Which of the following refers to volume of material required to be excavated in a
proposed area
a) Mass haul
b) Haul
c) Overhaul
d) Waste
3. Which of the following has the meaning of establishment of marks
a) Excavation
b) Setting out
c) Benchmarks
d) Waste
4. Which of the following require setting out
a) Disposal of waste
b) Types of excavation
c) Tool maintenance
d) Procedure of excavation
5. Which of the following is needed while carrying out excavation
a) Spoons
b) Seesaw
c) Pickaxe
d) Screw
6. Which of the following is a method of excavation
a) Mass haul
b) Bracing
c) Levelling
d) Overhaul

531
7. Which of the following tools is used for soft soil
a) Hoe
b) Crow bar
c) Mattock
d) Pick axe
8. Analyze the procedure for earthwork
9. Analyze importance of earthwork
10. Exam various type of earthwork
11. Give the procedure of setting out of curves
12. Draw a mass haul diagram and explain all the terms in it

Oral Assessment
1. Define terms used in excavation
2. Construct a mass haul diagram

Practical Assessment
Set out curves in the field and setting out

Project Assessment
Construct a mass haul diagram, and set out of curves after going to the field with the help
of your lecturer.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Internet
• Workshop
• Construction materials
• Construction tools and equipment
• Construction designs and drawings
• Sample contract documents
• Computer software e.g. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Civil3D
• Stationery
• Road construction site
• Material testing labouratory
o Molds
o Tamping rods
o CBR Machines
o Crushing machines
• Schedule of work
• Standard manuals

532
 • Road under construction
• Contract documents

[Link] References

Sixth edition Engineering Surveying [Link] and [Link]

J. Uren, [Link] (2010), surveying for engineers, Fifth Edition Publishes by Palgrave
Macmillan

533
13.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Construct Road/Pavement Structure Layers
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Construct Road/Pavement Structure Layers
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Acquire and mobilize required road construction • Direct instruction

resources • Case studies
2.2 Interpret drawings • Field trips/site visits
2.3 carry out levelling activities • Group discussions
2.4 Construct sub-grade pavement layer • Demonstration by
2.5 Construct sub-base pavement layer is trainer
2.6 Construct base layer • Computer Aided
2.7 Document ground levels Learning (CAL)
2.8 Road surfacing is constructed
2.9 Carry out Quality control operations
2.10 Undertake maintenance of road/pavement structures

[Link] Information Sheet No13/LO2 Construct Road/Pavement Structure Layers

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome will cover various processes and activities that goes into the
construction of road/pavement structure layers.

Definition of key terms

Road construction resources-these are elements such as materials, human resources,
machinery and plant that are required in the process of road construction.

Levelling activities-these are actions undertaken in order to determine the height of one
level relative to another.

Quality control operations-are activities undertaken to ascertain that products and

facilities being generated meet the established standards.

534
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Acquire and mobilize required road construction resources are as per contract
document
In this process, all the relevant resources that are essential in the construction process are
identified and sourced out. This involves the following steps
i. Identify the required resources (materials, plant and machinery) and their providers
ii. Make plans on how these resources will reach your site
iii. Make necessary arrangement for the proper storage of these resources

2.2 Interpret drawings as per construction procedures

For easier interpretation and understanding of a drawing one should follow the following
steps
i. Commencing with the title block, which shows you the title of the drawing and
what the drawing is all about
ii. Understand the basic symbols on the drawing
iii. Identify specific abbreviations and try to understand what they mean
iv. Try to visualize the structure in your imagination

2.3 carry out levelling activities as per standard construction procedures

Levelling activities include the following steps
i. Setting out-this process involves putting marks and lines that define a position and
level where construction work is start with respect to them.
ii. Eliminating parallax error which results from the movement of the observer’s eye
at the eyepiece. Parallax will be eliminated when the eyepiece is adjusted until the
cross hairs are in sharp focus.
iii. Making bookings

2.4 Construct sub-grade pavement layer according to contract document and

standard road requirements
The process of constructing the sub-grade layer of the pavement begins at the sub-grade
formation where the following activities are undertaken
i. The soil of choice in its loose condition is spread in a layer over the prepared surface
using the appropriate equipment.
ii. Water is sprayed on the soil for it to achieve the optimum moisture content as
determined in the labouratory.
iii. The soil is then compacted by a roller this aids in achieving the required density.
iv. This process is repeated till the required subgrade thickness is achieved.

535
2.5 Construct sub-base pavement layer is as per contract document and standard
road requirements
The sub base layer is optional in some road construction work. It is mostly used in the
strengthening of a weak subgrade or when it’s economical (when the sub-base material is
cheaper compared to base material). The procedure of construction of the sub base is the
same as discussed previously in the sub grade construction.

2.6 Construct Base layer according to standard road construction procedures and
contract document
This layer is composed of gravel and crushed rocks that is stabilized by either lime, cement
or bitumen. It’s a layer of very high stability and density. The main function of the base
layer is to distribute the stresses created by the wheel load to the sub grade. In road
construction the base course materials are spread on the prepared sub base. The thickness
and cross section is maintained as per the design.

2.7 Document ground levels as per standard procedures

These are levels at the ground. During construction processes ground markings for
boundaries and other elements can be made by following the procedure of setting out which
involves
i. On the ground level a temporary bench mark is placed. This bench mark can either
be a man hole cover or a post
ii. A baseline is then established where all the setting out activities start from.
iii. Horizontal controls –which are points of known coordinates with respect to a
specific point are placed. Vertical points are also placed by timber post. These
points are established through levelling.

2.8 Road surfacing is constructed as per the contract document and standard
construction procedures
They are many road surfacing material available but the best material used is in road
construction is concrete and asphalt. Concrete is usually used in areas where the road is
expected to carry large volumes of vehicles thus a strong and durable road is needed,
whereas asphalt is more resistant to weathering and it’s also economical.

2.9 Carry out Quality control operations according to standard construction

procedures
Quality control operations can be conducted on construction materials this is done by
i. Making sure all the materials that arrive to the site are at par with the set standards
ii. Ensure proper storage of materials so that they maintain their quality
iii. Materials that stay longer without usage should first be re-tested to ensure their
quality is in check

536
2.10 Undertake maintenance of road/pavement structures as per maintenance
procedures
The main purpose of road maintenance is to try keeping the roads in their best form. They
are many types of maintenance that can be undertaken in order to preserve roads these
include crack sealing, pothole repair, repair of paved edges, regular grading and reshaping
of roads.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered all the activities and processes that are involved during the
construction of road/pavement structure layers

Further Reading

The learner can read and research further on types of pavements, the materials used in road
construction and machineries used on the road construction.

[Link] Self-assessment

Written Assessment
1. What is not a levelling activity?
a) Setting out
b) Making bookings
c) Preparing the subgrade
d) Elimination of parallax errors
2. Which of the following is not among construction resources?
a) Machinery
b) Human resource
c) Economics
d) Materials
3. Which among the following is not a proper maintenance practice?
a) overworking equipment
b) following of safety rules
c) wearing of protective garments
d) regularly lubrication of machinery

537
4. In detail analyze levelling
5. In detail Examine quality control
6. In details investigate the necessary resources road construction
7. Examine in details all the activities that are carried out during levelling activities
8. Quality control involves activities that test materials to ascertain their viability discuss

Oral Assessment
1. Name the principle layers of a road/pavement
2. Give two road construction resources.

Case Study Assessment

Suppose you are invited by your community to help in a project of constructing an unpaved
road. What steps will you follow in order to finish your task successfully?

Practical Assessment
Your lecturer asks you to carry out levelling around the department of civil engineering.
How will you proceed to ensure your task is completed?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Internet
• Workshop
• Construction materials
• Construction tools and equipment
• Construction designs and drawings
• Sample contract documents
• Computer software e.g. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Civil3D
• Stationery
• Road construction site
• Material testing labouratory
o Moulds
o Tamping rods
o CBR Machines
o Crushing machines
• Schedule of work
• Standard manuals
• Road under construction
• Contract documents

538
[Link] References

M, G. Lay (2010). Handbook of road Technology 4th Edition. Taylor &Francis Publishers.

539
13.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Construct Parking Walk Ways and Cyclist Lanes,
Foot Bridges, Bus Bays
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Construct Parking Walk Ways and Cyclist Lanes, Foot Bridges,
Bus Bays
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Acquire and mobilize required resources • Direct instruction

3.2 Interpret Drawings • Case studies
3.3 Construct parking • Field trips/site visits
3.4 Construct Walk ways, cyclist lanes and bus bays • Group discussions
3.5 Construct foot bridges • Demonstration by
3.6 Carry out Levelling activities trainer
3.7 Document Ground levels • Computer Aided
3.8 Carry out Quality control operations Learning (CAL)
3.9 Undertake maintenance of parking, walk ways and cyclist
lanes, foot bridges, bus bays

[Link] Information Sheet No13/LO3 Construct parking walk ways and cyclist lanes,
foot bridges, bus bays

Introduction to learning outcome

This outcome covers all the activities that go into the construction of parking walk ways
and cyclist lanes, foot bridges and bus bays. Some of the learning activities are; interpreting
drawings, carrying out levelling activities and carrying out quality control operations as
per standard construction procedures.

Definition of key terms

Quality Control- defines of a framework which specify all the procedures and works that
should be undertaken so that the end product meets or surpasses the specified quality
requirements as per the agreement.

Levelling-is the process undertaken to establish the height of one point in relation to
another.

540
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Acquire and mobilize required resources as per contract document
In this process, all the relevant resources that are essential in the construction process are
identified and sourced out. This involves the following steps
(i) Identify the required resources (materials, plant and machinery) and their providers
(ii) Make plans on how these resources will reach your site
(iii)Make necessary arrangement for the proper storage of these resources

3.2 Interpret Drawings as per standard construction procedures

For easier interpretation and understanding of a drawing one should follow the following
steps
(i) Commencing with the title block, which shows you the title of the drawing and
what the drawing is all about
(ii) Understand the basic symbols on the drawing
(iii)Identify specific abbreviations and try to understand what they mean
(iv) Try to visualize the structure in your imagination

3.3 Construct parking according to contract document, design manuals and standard
construction procedures
After all the design considerations for the parking lots are made, the following should be
undertaken
(i) Preparation of the subgrade- the area where the subgrade is to be laid should be
adequately prepared through clearing of bushes and vegetation cover on the surface.
The subgrade material should be spread and properly compacted with the
appropriate equipment
(ii) Paving of the parking lot- here paving blocks are laid and fitted properly to cover
the entire area. Kiln dried sand is then poured to fill the spaces between the paving
blocks

3.4 Construct Walk ways, cyclist lanes and bus bays according to contract document,
design manuals and standard construction procedures
After all the design considerations for the walk ways, cyclist lanes, bus bays are made, the
following should be undertaken
• Preparation of the sub base- the area where the sub base is to be laid should be
adequately prepared through clearing of bushes and vegetation cover on the surface.
The sub base material should be spread and properly compacted with the
appropriate equipment
• Paving of the parking lot- here paving blocks are laid and fitted properly to cover
the entire area. Kiln dried sand is then poured to fill the spaces between the paving
blocks

541
3.5 Construct foot bridges according to contract document, design manuals and
standard construction procedures
A foot bridge is a structure linking two points that are above the ground. This structure is
to allow the passage of pedestrians only. After deciding on a suitable location and design
of the footbridge to be constructed, the following can be undertaken:
• Making all the necessary clearance on the substructure works ie preparing the
ground level where the abutments are to be erected etc.
• Making all the clearance on the superstructure work clearing of vegetation and
bushes that may block the view/ the footbridge
Below is a picture of a simple footbridge design.

3.6 Carry out Levelling activities as per standard construction procedures

Levelling activities include the following steps
i. Setting out-this process involves putting marks and lines that define a position and
level where construction work is start with respect to them.
ii. Eliminating parallax error which results from the movement of the observer’s eye
at the eyepiece. Parallax will be eliminated when the eyepiece is adjusted until the
cross hairs are in sharp focus.
iii. Making bookings

3.7 Document Ground levels as per standard procedures

These are levels at the ground. During construction processes ground markings for
boundaries and other elements can be made by following the procedure of setting out which
involves
i. On the ground level a temporary bench mark is placed. This bench mark can either
be a man hole cover or a post
ii. A baseline is then established where all the setting out activities start from.
iii. Horizontal controls –which are points of known coordinates with respect to a
specific point are placed. Vertical points are also placed by timber post. These
points are established through levelling.

3.8 Carry out Quality control operations according standard construction procedures
Quality control operations can be conducted on construction materials and is done by
• Making sure all the materials that arrive to the site are at par with the set standards
• Ensure proper storage of materials so that they maintain their quality
• Materials that stay longer without usage should first be re-tested to ensure their
quality is in check

542
3.9 Undertake maintenance of parking, walk ways and cyclist lanes, foot bridges, bus
bays as per maintenance procedures
Regular maintenance of parking, walk ways, cyclist lanes, foot bridges, bus bays should be
conducted to ensure proper working of these structure. These can be achieved through the
following steps
• Clearing of bushes and vegetation cover that tend to cause an obstacle on and along
the paths
• Cleaning of the side drain freeing it from any silt, rock debris and other obstacles
that may interfere with the free flow of water
• Repair all the defective path surfaces i.e. through filling of pot holes

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered all the major activities and standard procedures that goes
into the construction of parking, walk ways and cyclist lanes, foot bridges and bus bays.

Further Reading

The student should read extensively on different designs of foot bridges, the various
materials used on the construction of parking lots, walk ways and foot bridges.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a levelling activity?
a) making bookings
b) elimination of parallax
c) preparing of base layer
d) Setting out
2. Which of the following is not a maintenance practice in caring of parking lots, cycle
ways and bus bays?
a) Clearing of bushes
b) Preparation of subgrade
c) Cleaning of side drains
d) Repairing defective pathways

543
3. Which is not a method of operating and maintain construction equipment?
a) Lubricate machine
b) Following of safety rules
c) Allow anyone without skills to operate complex equipment
d) Wearing of protective gear
4. Explain the procedure of interpreting engineering drawings?
5. Summarize the procedure of levelling.

Oral Assessment
1. What is meant by quality control?
2. What is levelling?

Practical Assessment
You are invited in a community activity where they are to repair existing parking lots, walk
ways and cyclist lanes in your area. As an expert in civil engineering, how are you going
to guide them through this process?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Internet
• Workshop
• Construction materials
• Construction tools and equipment
• Construction designs and drawings
• Sample contract documents
• Computer software e.g. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Civil3D
• Stationery
• Road construction site
• Material testing labouratory
o Moulds
o Tamping rods
o CBR Machines
o Crushing machines
• Schedule of work
• Standard manuals
• Road under construction
• Contract documents

544
[Link] References

Ursula Baus, Mike Schlainch (2007). Footbridges: Construction, Design and History.
Birkhauser Publishers.
Robert Delatte. (2008). Concrete Pavement Design, Construction and Performance. USA:
Taylor and Francis Publishers.

545
13.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Install Road Furniture
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Install Road Furniture
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Mobilize road furniture • Direct instruction

4.2 Carry out interpretation of drawings • Case studies
4.3 Determine location of road furniture on the road • Field trips/site visits
4.4 Identify and acquire road furniture for installation • Group discussions
4.5 Install road furniture on the road • Demonstration by
4.6 Undertake quality control procedures on road trainer
furniture installation • Computer Aided
4.7 Carry out maintenance activities on road furniture Learning (CAL)
4.8 Review traffic signs
4.9 Undertake maintenance of road furniture

[Link] Information Sheet No13/LO4 Install Road Furniture

Introduction to learning outcome

Installation of road furniture is a major activity during road construction that may ensure
the safety of road users. The learning activities range from determining location of road
furniture to understanding quality control procedures on road furniture.

Definition of key terms

Road furniture- these are objects that are fixed on the roads and road reserves that serves
as a guide for traffic and pedestrians

Contract documents- are legal- binding documents that outlines the work, roles and
responsibilities in a construction project as per the agreement between the parties involved.

Traffic signs-these are signs that are put up above or at roadsides to direct and give
information to road users.
The following is an example of road furniture in Kenya

546
Figure 134: Traffic signs
Thika Road sign board. Photo Courtesy;

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Mobilize road furniture according to contract document and designs
After identifying the type of road furniture to be set up at a particular area and the relevant
authority has approved the installation, road furniture will be designed and manufactured
in accordance to all the set standards. Once they are ready they will be transported to
required location awaiting installation.

4.2 Carry out interpretation of drawings according to the contract document and
relevant manuals
For easier interpretation and understanding of a drawing one should follow the following
steps
i. Commencing with the title block, which shows you the title of the drawing and
what the drawing is all about
ii. Understand the basic symbols on the drawing
iii. Identify specific abbreviations and try to understand what they mean
iv. Try to visualize the structure in your imagination

547
4.3 Determine location of road furniture on the road according to standard road
procedures and legal requirements
They are many factors that determine where road furniture are placed along or on road
sides. These include:
• Crash history of a site- with this analysis, the highway authority is able to place
road furniture on these areas this helps guide road users of black spots
• Volume of traffic – the amount of vehicles on the road aid the planner on where to
put road furniture.
• The number of school children that are crossing a particular road.
• The size of the community also helps in determining where road furniture are to be
placed

4.4 Identify and acquire road furniture for installation as per contract document
The process of acquiring approval for the installation of road furniture take time, for
instance it can go up to two years. The following is the process of acquiring approval for
installation of road furniture.
• The applicant shall have to submit written documents on why they seek to have
the road furniture
• Also the design concept and drawings shall also be submitted to the relevant
authority.
• Wait for the relevant authority to decide if the applicant will be granted the
approval.

4.5 Install road furniture on the road based on standard construction procedures
The installation process should be undertaken with keen and minimum disturbance to the
road users. General safety should be practiced to avoid any accidents during the installation
process. Before any installation process commences, a plan of the site must be reviewed.
The following are the activities done during the installation process
• Barriers and sign board should be erected so signal vehicles and pedestrians of
ongoing works.
• Excavation works of trenches where the signs are to be situated- the depth of these
trenches will be as per the standards.
• Backfilling materials.
• Removal of surplus materials away from the site.
• Levelling of foundation ready to receive the road furniture for installation
• The installation of the equipment.

548
4.6 Undertake quality control procedures on road furniture installation as per
relevant manuals
Before the installation process the quality of road furniture should be assessed to ensure
standard work is put up. These include checking on this such as
• The road furniture should be visible at a legible distance for road users to easily
spot them day and night.
• The road furniture should be the correct size, they should be big enough
• The road furniture should be durable to withstand harsh conditions i.e. (rain, dust
and fog)

4.7 Carry out maintenance activities on road furniture based on standard

maintenance procedures
Road furniture are regularly inspected so that it performs its function effectively.
Maintenance of road furniture can be done through the following ways
• Cleaning – due to dirt build up, the visibility of road furniture is usually
compromised the chemicals that may damage the road signs.
• Most of the times road furniture is stolen or vandalized. To prevent this, road
furniture should always be fixed with special fasteners that make it difficult to
remove these signs
• Clearing of vegetation cover- the growth of vegetation around road furniture
reduces visibility. Clearing should be done regularly in areas where vegetation
grows rapidly.
• Checking on the firmness of sign support – road furniture should always be in an
upright position for easier visibility. Regular inspection should be done to make
sure that these road furniture are in the correct standing position.

4.8 Review traffic signs according to standard requirements

This is the process of evaluating the effectiveness of traffic signs. Proper evaluation of
traffic signs can be done by looking at a number of things/factors which indicate how
effective the signs are. These factors are
• the development of an area
• the general layout of the area
• the number of vehicles using accessing that area
• the number of pedestrians using that road
The following picture shows the various traffic signs that are used in Kenya

549
4.9 Undertake maintenance of road furniture as per maintenance procedures
Road furniture regularly inspected so that it performs its function effectively. Maintenance
of road furniture can be done through the following ways
• Cleaning – due to dirt build up, the visibility of road furniture is usually
compromised therefore cleaning should be done. The cleaning agents should be
free from any harsh chemicals that may damage the road signs.
• Most of the times road furniture is stolen or vandalized. To prevent this, road
furniture should always be fixed with special fasteners that make it difficult to
remove these signs
• Clearing of vegetation cover- the growth of vegetation around road furniture
reduces visibility. Clearing should be done regularly in areas where vegetation
grows rapidly.
Checking on the firmness of sign support – road furniture should always be in an upright
position for easier visibility. Regular inspection should be done to make sure that these
road furniture are in the correct standing position

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered all the processes go into the installation of road furniture
from mobilization, acquiring, identifying and maintenance.

Further Reading

The student should read further on the types of road furniture and how to read them. This
will aid to increase on their body of knowledge.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a maintenance practice of tools and equipment?
a) Regular cleaning of tools
b) Lubrication of tools
c) Overworking of tools
d) Proper storage of tools

550
2. Which of the following is not a maintenance activity on road furniture?
a) Clearing of vegetation
b) Not replacing stolen road furniture
c) Anti-theft measures
d) Regular cleaning of road furniture
3. Which is not a factor to consider when positioning road furniture?
a) Crash history
b) Size of the community
c) Empty roads
4. Evaluate the procedure of acquiring road furniture.
5. Explain how you interpret drawings
6. Supposed you are asked to participate in a school project to install a crossing sign board
near our school. What steps will you take to ensure the work is completed?

Oral Assessment
1. Summarize traffic signs
2. Explain road furniture

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Internet
• Workshop
• Construction materials
• Construction tools and equipment
• Construction designs and drawings
• Sample contract documents
• Computer software e.g. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Civil3D
• Stationery
• Road construction site
• Material testing labouratory
o Moulds
o Tamping rods
o CBR Machines
o Crushing machines
• Schedule of work
• Standard manuals
• Road under construction
• Contract documents

551
[Link] References

Us. Department of Transportation (2015). Standard highway signs 2004 edition. Create
space Publishers
National Transport and Safety Authority (2016). Highway Code for Road Users. Nairobi.
Government Printers.

552
13.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Construct Erosion Prevention Structures
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Construct Erosion Prevention Structures

Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Mobilize construction resources • Direct instruction

5.2 Determine erosion control structures for construction • Case studies
5.3 Establish location of erosion prevention structures • Field trips/site
5.4 Carry out interpretation of drawings visits
5.5 Carry out construction of erosion prevention structures • Group discussions
5.6 Undertake quality control procedures • Demonstration by
5.7 Undertake maintenance of erosion prevention structures trainer
• Computer Aided
Learning (CAL)

[Link] Information Sheet No13/LO5 Construct Erosion Prevention Structures

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with the construction of erosion prevention structures in road
construction and involves various learning activities ranging from mobilizing construction
resources to operating and maintaining construction tolls and equipment

Definition of key terms

Sediment Control Basins-These are basin structures that are constructed to control the
flow within a drainage area

Diversion terraces-These are structures constructed in lieu with terraces across a slope to
handle runoff

Grassed waterways-These are saucer-shaped channels constructed to move surface water

across a farmland without causing erosion

553
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Mobilize construction resources are as per contract document
Mobilizing consists of making sure one has resources and people agreed upon in the
contract ready to begin work. The construction resources could include:
• Excavators
• Tractors,
• Ploughs,
• Man-power
• Bull dozers
• Graders,
• Back hoes

To mobilize the construction resources the following steps are to be considered;

i. Identify the key stakeholders in indicated in the documents
ii. Generate a work plan and share with all involved
iii. Continuously recognize effort and identify how to outsource the tasks if need
be

The Mobilization of construction resources ensures efficient and effective delivery of

product and service within the allocated time and within a pre-determined budget.
Therefore, the mobilization occurs at the onset of the construction process

5.2 Determine erosion control structures for construction based on prevailing site
conditions
Erosion control structures are devices that are used to reduce the erosive power of water
hence protect soil. They are categories of Erosion construction structures such as;
• Control Basins-These are basin structures that are constructed to control the flow
within a drainage area
• Diversion terraces-These are structures constructed in lieu with terraces across a
slope to handle runoff
• Grassed waterways-These are saucer-shaped channels constructed to move surface
water across a farmland without causing erosion
The erosion construction structures are determined by;
a. Making inquiries of the prevailing site
b. Determining the soil characteristics of the site
c. Observing the effects of uncontrolled flow of water to the site hence deducing the
best way forward
The erosion control structures are based on prevailing site conditions to ensure the
longevity and the efficiency of the structure. This activity is undertaken by the expert at
the onset of the process, and as the process progress alterations may be adopted

554
5.3 Establish location of erosion prevention structures according to contract
document
The location of prevention structures is a process that requires the skill of an expert such
as a surveyor or engineer. When locating the appropriate site for such a structure the
following must be considered;
• The topography of the location
• The type of the prevention structure to be constructed
• The supplementary uses of the water collected
• The drainage of the water collected
These is established by;
• Identifying the available resources
• Consulting the relevant authorities
• Approaching experts and research previously done on the location
The location is a critical piece of information so therefore it is established promptly by all
the stakeholders involved, to ensure commencement of work and that all processes are
abiding to the set regulations.

5.4 Carry out interpretation of drawings as per standard construction procedures

Interpretation entails using the skill of a trained personnel to explain and represent the
drawings taken at the site. This is important as it helps to design the control structure
appropriately avoiding wastage of time and resources. The drawings may be in form of
Charts, Diagrams graphs and the drawings themselves which have used national and
International standards and conventions to provide a universal visual language. There are
various sources used for interpretation such as GIS, AUTOCAD and other design
software’s as this is done before the commencement of construction
A Standard scale of interpretation is already established by the parties concerned and
experts are consulted to ensure it meets the standards agreed upon.

The following procedure is used when interpreting drawings;

i. Acquaint oneself with scale drawings -Always determine the scale first before
examining in detail, if unsure consult the engineer who drew it for clarification
ii. Acknowledge the basic symbols used in engineering drawings-They may be
rectangles, circles or triangles mainly indicating shapes, processes and dimensions.
If unsure consult the engineer who drew it
iii. Look at circled numbers-Due to a very detailed drawing that may be produced and
in a small scale the circled number often shows an area identified in greater detail
on another page
iv. Identify specific abbreviations-Some common abbreviations may be ;DP-Depth
and DIA-Diameter

555
5.5 Carry out construction of erosion prevention structures in accordance with
standard construction methods
This entails involving all the personnel agreed upon to participate in the various activities
such as;
i. Site clearance activities
ii. Cut and fills
iii. Standard road construction procedures e.g. excavation, cut material disposal
and compaction
iv. Interpret drawings
v. Quality control procedures
vi. Levelling activities
vii. Establishment of structure
The process is a lengthy one and requires the continual advancement of the area, the
construction of the structure will not only improve the quality of life in the region but
improve the quality and quantity of products from the location

Figure 135: terrace showing different base sizes

A terrace showing different base sizes (FAO,2000)

5.6 Undertake quality control procedures according to standard procedures

Quality control procedures are a set of activities that are done at the area to ensure that the
quality of the control structure meets the standard requirements of both the client and the
specification. They are conducted by an expert in the field (surveyor, engineer) after the
construction of the control structure with the guide of established standards such as those
by AASHTO standards and FAO e.g.
i. Maximum dry density
ii. Cone penetration

556
 iii. Plasticity index
iv. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
v. Shear tests
vi. Marshall test
The tests are important to be undertaken early in the project so as to ensure that the
characteristics and the conditions of the land are not overlooked that may cause adverse
effects to the structure in future

5.7 Undertake maintenance of erosion prevention structures as per maintenance

procedures
Maintenance of the erosion prevention structures ensures the preservation of the structure
and its continued efficiency. The maintenance is done every season and requires the input
of an expert, and the use of the earthwork machinery sparingly. They could include
methods such as reinforcing the terrace and removing rocks inside the waterways firming
up the soil through compaction.
An example of Maintenance Plan for sediment control structures;
• All Erosion and Sediment control practices will be checked for stability and
operation after every run-off producing rainfall mandatorily every week. Repairs
are carried out immediately to ensure practices are maintained as designed
• The sediment basin will be cleaned out when the level of sediment reaches 2.0ft
below the riser. Gravel will be cleaned/replaced when the sediment pool no longer
drains properly
• Sediment will be removed from the sediment trap and obstruct the gravel intake
protection device when the storage capacity has been approximately 50%fillled.,
Gravel will be cleaned/replaced then
• Sediment will be removed from behind the sediment fence when it becomes about
0.5 ft deep at the fence. The fence will be repaired as necessary to maintain the
barrier
• All seeded areas will be fertilized, reseeded as necessary and mulched according to
specifications in vegetative plan to maintain vigorous, dense vegetative cover

Figure 136: Sediment Basin Control Technique

Source; IECA Australia (June 2018) Sediment Basin Control Technique

557
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the construction of erosion prevention structure and their
maintenance procedures.

Further Reading

1. Read Erosion and Sediment Control Planning and Design Manual and identify the
various erosions structures developed by governments
2. Read on technologies to combat soil erosion by World Overview of Conservation
Approaches and Technologies
3. Sample Erosion and Sedimentation Control Plans

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of these is not an earthwork equipment?
a) Grader
b) Bull dozer
c) Sub-soil
d) Excavator
2. Which of the following is not an Erosion control Structure?
a) Diversion terrace
b) Green house
c) Control Basins
d) Grassed waterways
3. Which of the following is of most importance when determining the location of an
erosion control structure?
a) Topography
b) width
c) material
d) procedure Manual

558
4. A grassed waterway
a) These are saucer-shaped channels constructed to move surface water across a
farmland without causing erosion
b) The topography of the location
c) The tools and equipment that are used in the construction of erosion control
structures
d) These are basin structures that are constructed to control the flow within a
drainage area
5. Which of the following is not a Personal Protective Equipment (PPT) used during
construction of an erosion control structure?
a) Head gear
b) Lab coat
c) Gloves
d) Reflective clothing
6. Which of the following is not an expert required in designing an Erosion control
Structure?
a) Engineer
b) Agriculturalist
c) Surveyor
d) Telemarketer
7. Is a Terrace Constructed?
a) Across a slope
b) Below a valley
c) Along the river
d) Adjacent a basin
8. Evaluate 7 erosion construction structures and state their importance
9. Summarize the activities undertaken when conducting site clearing
10. Explain the different types of cut and fill materials used in construction
11. Evaluate the various procedures carried out in Quality control operations and state their
importance?
12. Explain the statutory requirements and what are their importance?
13. What are control erosion structures and wat are their importance?
14. What is the personal protective equipment required and what are their relevance?

Oral Assessment
1. Distinguish 6 erosion control structures
2. Explain 3 quality control procedures adopted when constructing erosion control
structures

559
Case Study Assessment
During the months of July and August 2019 the National government proposed the
construction of a diversion terrace in Nyandarua. During the heavy downpour later the year
the Terrace collapsed .State some of the procedures that would have been overlooked for
such a scenario to occur

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Internet
• Workshop
• Construction materials
• Construction tools and equipment
• Construction designs and drawings
• Sample contract documents
• Computer software e.g. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Civil3D
• Stationery
• Road construction site
• Material testing labouratory
o Moulds
o Tamping rods
o CBR Machines
o Crushing machines
• Schedule of work
• Standard manuals
• Road under construction
Contract documents

[Link] References

Pablo A Garcia (2015) Erosion control and Land restoration, Outskirts Press
[Link] (2005) Soil Erosion and Conservation, 3rd Edition
Andre Bationo (2007) Advances in Integrated Soil Fertility Management in Sub-Saharan
Africa

560
13.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Construct Highway Drainage and Hydraulic
Structures
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Construct Highway Drainage and Hydraulic Structures

Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Plan for Highway drainage and hydraulic structures • Direct instruction
construction • Case studies
6.2 Construct culverts • Field trips/site
6.3 Construct side drains, meter drains and cut-off drains visits
6.4 Construct sub-surface drains and gullies • Group discussions
6.5 Construct bridges • Demonstration by
6.6 Construct drifts and causeways trainer
6.7 Construct retaining walls • Computer Aided
6.8 Undertake maintenance of highway drainage and Learning (CAL)
hydraulic structures
• Practical

[Link] Information Sheet No13/LO7 Construct Highway Drainage and Hydraulic

Structures

Introduction to learning outcome

The construction of highway drainage and hydraulic structures is a learning outcome that
is critical in the construction of roads/pavements. It involves various learning activities
such as the construction of culverts, drains, bridges and retaining walls

Definition of key terms

Hydraulic structures: A hydraulic structure is a structure which remains partially or fully
submerged in a body of water which alters, diverts or completely stops the flow of water
[Link] dam, weir, flumes etc.

Retaining walls: A retaining wall is a structure which is designed and constructed to resists
the lateral pressure of soil so as to prevent the material being retained from sliding away.

Bridges: A bridge is a structure carrying a road, path, railway across a river, road or other
obstacles. It's constructed above the maximum flood level.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Plan for Highway drainage and hydraulic structures construction
An efficient drainage system allows disposal of water from the road in the shortest time
possible. Some of the crucial features for such a system are:
• Road surface drainage which makes sure that water can flow from the road
• Side drains which are vital in collecting water from the road's surface
• Scour checks which slows down the flow of water and thus prevent the ditches from
being eroded
• Culverts which are crucial in leading the water from the side drains.
• Bridges and drifts which ensures that the road cab go over roads and streams in all
seasons.

To plan for a drainage system the following is required

• Observation of drainage patterns and requirements during rainy periods so that an
accurate data about the amount of water can be determined.
• Establishing the exact cause and effect of the drainage failures.
• Determine a center line that avoids poorly drained areas, large runoffs and
unnecessary stream crossings.
• Reducing the road gradients for roads with steep gradients so that the drainage of
water from the road surface can be done in a controlled manner to avoid erosion

6.2 Construct culverts

Culverts can be built using a variety of material, include brick and stone masonry,
corrugated steel, timber and concrete culverts are also constructed in a wide-range of shape
and sizes. The most common types of culvert is fitted with one or several rows of circular
pipes made of concrete. The most common is the pipe with a diameter of 60 cm.

The stages of construction of culverts

i. Estimation of the area of the culvert required.
The rule of thumb can be used to assume that the area of the culvert required is one-third
of the area of waterway when the stream has reached its highest flood level, i.e. for every
three-square meters of waterway one square meter of culvert should be placed.
ii. An apron should be made to protect the bed from erosion at the outlet side of the
culvert
iii. Head/wing walls should be made at the inlet and outlet side of the culvert to protect
the road embankment from the river water and serve also to support the
embankment, so that the soil does not slide into the river when a vehicle passes;
iv. Proper compaction of the soil around, between and on top of the culverts. This
compaction should be done in layers not exceeding 15 centimeters.

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The gradient of culverts should normally be the same as the gradient of the stream bed and
should not be greater than 5 per cent.
When a natural stream crosses the road at an angle, it is often better to construct
a skew crossing or to realign the road, so that a 90° crossing can be constructed. If an
existing channel bed is altered, usually a lot of erosion problems can be expected.

6.3 Construct side drains, meter drains and cut-off drains

Side drains, meter drains and cut-off drains are used to prevent the flow overshooting the
drainage works or to direct flows into culvert inlets. They are also used as erosion checks.
The type of side ditch selected must be checked to ensure that it will carry the expected
flow without running as deep as to wet the road pavement nor so fast as to cause scour

6.4 Construct sub-surface drains and gullies

Subsurface drains: Includes any type of drain designed to collect groundwater whether
this is rising from below or percolating from the surface

Gullies: include a small sump into which detritus may sink for subsequent removal,
preventing it entry into the drainage system, where it may otherwise accumulate and cause
blockages, and a 'trap' which prevents the entry of floating materials to the system. They
can be positioned below the surface of the pavement, in which water will enter through a
grating placed flush with the surface – known as channel inlet; or not one side of the
pavement with an inlet mounted in the face of the kerb- (kerb inlet). Gratings and covers
are in cast or ductile iron whilst the body of the gully is preformed, clayware/ plastic and
is bedded in class 25/30 concrete

563
Figure 137: Sub-surface drains and gullies
Source: guide of trainer's manual.

6.5 Construct Bridges

The design procedure of constructing a bridge includes:
i. Site investigation: In this stage the highway engineer identifies a preferred location
for the bridge and decides on the type, size and capacity of the structure
ii. Sketch of proposed bridge and brief technical descriptions of bridges
iii. Substructure design: this involves design of spread footings, driven piles, and
drilled shaft foundations.
iv. Superstructure design: this stage deals with analysis and design of bridge decks and
deck systems of concrete, metal, and wood or combinations thereof subjected to
gravity loads.

6.6 Construct Drifts and causeways

Drifts: these are structures which are normally constructed to provide a firm place to cross
wide, normally dry rivers which are periodically flooded. Construction of a drift depends
on the design of the drift, however there are some general procedures as stipulated below.
i. Rechanneling of the water flow so as to obtain a dry working space.
ii. Setting out the center-line of the drift with survey pegs showing the future level of
the drift surface.

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 iii. Setting out reference pegs at the down-stream and the up-stream sides of the drift.
These pegs should be used to ensure the drift surface follows the gradient of the
existing river.
iv. Place multi-purpose pegs showing where the foundation trenches will be excavated.
These trenches should be wide enough to allow sufficient working space to the
masons or carpenters.
v. Excavation of foundation trenches until you have reached a solid layer (rock, hard
soil). In case of (high water-table) the water should be drained by means of buckets,
pump, and meter drain whichever is convenient. In such conditions, a gabion
foundation wall can be used or else fill the trench with rocks up to the water level
and continue with masonry until you have reached the correct levels.
vi. After completing the foundation wall(s) excavate the area in between and place the
hand-packed stone.
vii. Provide a concrete finish if specified in the design.

Causeways: this are structures which are designed and in such a way that the normal dry-
weather flow of the river passes through culverts below the roadway. The construction
procedure of causeways is similar to drifts for the first four steps and thereafter a bed level
for the culverts is prepared using a minimum gravel layer of 15cm and preferably topped
with a minimum concrete layer of 7.5cm. The culverts are then laid in positions and at a
gradient of 3.5 per cent. Thereafter the headwalls are constructed up to road level and a
smooth layer of concrete is provides a smooth surface for the traffic.

6.7 Construct Retaining walls

There are different procedures of constructing retaining walls depending on their type.
Cantilever retaining wall is the most common type and it's constructed from reinforced
concrete, precast concrete, or prestressed concrete. The Design criteria of retaining walls
involves the subsequent stages: Determining the ranking active pressure and the resisting
moments about the toe of footing. Checking the factor of safety and determining the size
of key and finally the design of masonry and footing. During construction footings should
be placed on firm undisturbed soil, or on adequately compacted fill material. Backfilling
against retaining walls should not be permitted until the masonry has achieved sufficient
strength or the wall has been adequately braced. During backfilling, heavy equipment
should not approach closer to the top of the wall than a distance equal to the height of the
wall. During construction, the soil and drainage layer, if provided, also needs to be
protected from saturation and erosion. Weep holes should be provided to prevent the
accumulation of water behind the face of the wall and to reduce the possible effects of frost
action.

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6.8 Undertake maintenance of highway drainage and hydraulic structures as per
maintenance procedures
It is important to have a drainage plan indicating the location and layout of lateral and main
drains, outfalls, surface water inlets and other drainage structures for purposes of
maintenance. The maintenance plan involves:
• Looking for signs of sediment in drain discharge and in the receiving ditch Locate
the area where the sediment is entering the drainage system and repair the drain or
remove the sediment using one of the methods described earlier in this Factsheet.
• Removing any trash, debris or plant material that has accumulated around the inlet
to make sure that it functions properly
• Cleaning lateral drains through the use of sewer-cleaning rods or
• Flushing using high pressure pumps where the deposit is only for a short stretch of
pipe.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the construction of highway drainage and hydraulic
structures.

Further Reading

Research on the various types of retaining walls, their design and construction

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. State whether true or false a foundation of a culvert can be improved by
a) Improving the existing subsoil.
b) Placing gravel material.
c) Constructing a floating floor.
d) Pouring a concrete floor.
2. Which of the following is not part of a bridge superstructure
a) Bridge deck
b) Bridge guard rails
c) Pipe handrails
d) Piers

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3. Which of the following is not part of a bridge substructure
a) Abutments
b) Retaining walls
c) Culverts
d) Bridge bearings
4. State whether true or false
a) A bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments.
b) The soil of a bridge site must be of sufficient strength to ensure the stability of
the structure.
c) The bridge and its associated works should not harm adjoining land or
buildings, or be susceptible to damage from/to the local environment.
d) A bridge can only be built at a river crossing.
5. Which of the following is not a type of a retaining wall
a) Masonry retaining wall
b) Cantilever retaining wall
c) Counterfort retaining wall
d) Gabion wall
6. With the aid of a diagram differentiate between a causeway and adrift
7. Categorize the different types of culverts
8. Categorize the various types of hydraulic structures
9. Differentiate between a kerb inlet and a gully pot
10. Summarize the preliminary stage in the design of the bridge
11. Summarize the phases involved in the construction of a retaining wall.

Oral Assessment
When would a drift be a preferred option over a causeway?
What is the importance of hydraulic structures in the agriculture sector?

Case Study Assessment

Determine the efficiency of subsurface drains a case study along Thika superhighway.

Oral Assessment
Summarize how the drainage and hydraulic structures affect the design life of a pavement?

Practical Assessment
Visit an urban center in your local area and try to identify the various types of culverts,
Drains retaining walls and any other hydraulic or drainage systems about this chapter.

567
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computer
• Internet
• Workshop
• Construction materials
• Construction tools and equipment
• Construction designs and drawings
• Sample contract documents
• Computer software, e.g. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Civil3D
• Stationery
• Road construction site
• Material testing labouratory
o Molds
o Tamping rods
o CBR Machines
o Crushing machines
• Schedule of work
• Standard manuals
• Road under construction
• Contract documents

[Link] References

Design Manual for Roads and Bridges Part 6(a)-Bridges and Culvert
Guide to the Training of Supervisors - Trainees' Manual/Part 2 - For Labour-Based Road
Construction and Maintenance (ILO, 1981, 254 p.)
Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering- Dr.L. R Kadyali and Dr.N.B. Lal

568
13.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Undertake Highway Maintenance
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7: Undertake Highway Maintenance

Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1 Assess pavement conditions • Direct instruction

7.2 Prepare for maintenance activities • Case studies
7.3 Carry out Emergency maintenance works • Field trips/site visits
7.4 Perform routine maintenance activities • Group discussions
7.5 Carry out periodic maintenance works • Demonstration by
trainer

[Link] Information Sheet No4/LO7 Undertake Highway Maintenance

Introduction to learning outcome

Undertaking highway maintenance is the last outcome in road construction and is a key
element that should be mastered

Definition of key terms

• Maintenance activities
These are essential procedures undertaken to;
i. Preserve a highway to be in its initial constructed condition.
ii. Provide user safety and protection of nearby resources.
iii. Enable efficient and convenient transportation on the highway.
These activities can be done either as a routine to determine any minor damages to the
pavement, slopes or drainage. They can also be carried out periodically, which involves
more detailed investigation and works on various facilities and structures. They can also
be carried out in case of emergencies to restore the pavement or nearby resources due to
the occurrence of an accident or a natural disaster.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1 Assess pavement conditions
An accurate assessment of pavement condition is the first step to a successful maintenance
procedure. This is mostly done by visual inspection to determine the surface distress; this
is to assess the cracking of the surface. This is carried out for each segment of the highway
and represented as Surface Rating and Dominant Distress. However, it is important to note
that the performance or a highway is not just limited to surface cracking. Factors such as
friction, structural soundness and user comfort are also very important in efficient and
convenient use of a road. It is important to factor in the road user satisfaction in the decision
making, design and maintenance of any road because it is the first thing any road user
notices. The ability of a pavement to provide comfortable, safe and economical riding
surface to the user can be measured in terms of present serviceability index (PSI). Many
countries use pavement condition rating (PCR) to assess a road condition. The structural
soundness of a road is measured in terms of response of the road to load application,
volume of traffic is represented as Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) in this case.

Assessment Procedure
The assessment procedure entails majorly a detailed observation of the road. If the area to
be assessed is large, it can be opted to use digital data collection such as a video footage of
the road segment or digital images. Data pertaining to roughness can be collected using
survey vehicles such as the fifth wheel and appropriate interpretation of the result done.
Assessment should be carried out in inspection units. These are small portions of the road
usually 15 to 60 meters. The inspection units provide the advantage of a detailed report of
the current road conditions and the avoidance of overlooking of some segments.

Figure 138: Alligator cracking

570
Figure 139: Block cracking

Figure 140: Bleeding

Figure 141: Depression

Figure 142: Edge cracking

571
Figure 143: longitudinal and transverse cracking

Figure 144: Patching

Figure 145: Rutting

Figure 146: Shoving

Source: FHWA, 1998

572
7.2 Prepare for maintenance activities
Preparation for maintenance activities would involve the various activities as indicated in
the flow chart below.

Figure 147: Road maintenance activities

Source: Rural Road Maintenance Handbook / Ministry of Transport, 2003

1. Budget estimate: this is done based on the budget or recent routine maintenance
done on the road. This provide useful information in the discussion of the funds
required and can also be used pending the final budgeting.
2. Road mapping: this is done by the application of GPS technology
3. Road inventory: this include all the information about the road and can always be
found at road departments of each government. The inventory does not need regular
updates but is essential to be updated when a major change has been done to the
road design.
4. Inspection and assessment of the road: this can be done by an observer in a vehicle
moving along the road. He notes and indicates which sections needs maintenance
and also recommends the kind of maintenance required.
5. Preparation of the community maintenance agreement: this is the document that
outlines the responsibilities of the community as well as the government or local

573
 government in the routine maintenance of the road. The document should contain
the names of signatories, responsibilities under agreement, amount of work, issuing
and returning hand tools, timing and condition of payment, starting and expected
finish date and how to deal with any disagreement.
6. Selection of the maintenance team: this team should comprise members above 18
years old, live in the locality, literate and with relevant experience.
7. Inspection of work; this is done to assess the quality of work. Once the work done
is satisfactory, interim payments are made. The inspection process continues until
the completion of work and would also involve the solution to emerging disputes.
8. Returning of tools: the team ensures that all the tools issued out are returned in the
perfect shape and any damage beyond reasonable expectation from the kind of work
deducted from the pay.
9. Awareness creation: the last step would be to sensitive the locality on the
importance of proper road maintenance.

7.3 Carry out Emergency maintenance works

Emergency maintenance works are carried out to restore a road following damage due to
accidents or natural disaster. Some of the activities would include;
• Minor repairs of bridges awaiting final restoration following the damage. This
would include stiffening with steel, reinforced concrete or timber.
• Replacement or repair of failed or washed away culverts
• Removal of earth material or any debris on the road
• Creation of short-term diversions in the aftermath of an event pending repair of the
road.
It is important to have a rapid response structure to deal with emergencies that could
interfere with traffic flow or endanger users' lives. Reserve funds should be allocated yearly
in order to deal with emergency situations. All emergency maintenance should focus on
reinstating the road to its original sate or to temporarily enable the road serve awaiting
further repair.

7.4 Perform routine maintenance activities

The process of routine maintenance would be carried out on various items as follows;
i. Vegetation; vegetation should be cut if they are affecting the vision of the road
user or interfering with the drainage in the shoulder. Also, in the case where the
shoulder is getting eroded, grass should be planted. Any cut vegetation should be
disposed of safely in order not to affect the functionality of the road.
ii. Drainage; ensure that silt and debris are removed from the drain before the rainy
seasons and after storms to avoid blocking of the drains. Construct new drainage or
side turnout drains with adequate lining to avoid water ponds on the sides of the
road. Repair eroded ditches and drains.

574
 iii. Earth works: Trim and will the embankment with the same material to the
appropriate slope. After which vegetation should be planted. Trees may also be
planted in order to stabilize the slope. Constant watering should be done to ensure
the growth of the vegetation. Fill erodes slopes by first cutting the gully into a
workable shape then compacting the material. Drive piles at the bottom of eroded
embankment to avoid slope failure. Remove any small landslide material on the
road.
iv. Shoulder; the shoulders should be reshaped with the correct slopes to ensure that
they drain water away from the road.
v. Cleaning; any debris or loose material should be removed and safely disposed
away from the pavement in order to avoid being washed back. Keep bridges and
decks clean always. Remove any kind of obstruction in the channels.
vi. Dust control: sprinkle water on dusty roads to avoid vision obstructions on the
road that might lead to accidents.
vii. Road sign; regular cleaning of road signs and removal of any form of obstruction
to the road sign is necessary.
viii. Road surface; in case of pothole, the surface should be cut in vertical sides and
filled with the same material about 1cm above the nearby surfaces. In the case of
a wet surface as in rural roads, the road section should be built up with material
of appropriate moisture content. Periodic reshaping and cambering of the road is
also appropriate.
ix. Structures; loose bolts, damaged rivets, rusted trusses and damaged welding joints
for a bridge should be repaired. Other defects on culverts, retaining walls and
causeways should be assessed and remedied as well.

7.5 Carry out periodic maintenance works

The process of periodic maintenance would be carried out on various items as follows;
Re-graveling; this involves relaying of the road foundation. This is done following a
structural evaluation of the road segment. Graveling can also be done on the pavement to
improve the safety of the road by providing more friction

Resealing/surface dressing; this is done to seal the distresses on the surface by applying
the necessary sealant so as to protect the subgrade from damage and thus prolong the
structural life of the road.

Maintenance of traffic signs and road markings. This is done to ensure the safety of all
road users. Traffic signs are very important in providing information to the road user and
together with appropriate road markings ensure efficient use of the road.

575
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered highway maintenance.

Further Reading

Read further on road assessment techniques as described in “Oversees Road Note 1. Road
management for district engineers”.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not an activity conducted in routine maintenance?
a) Rehabilitation of embankments
b) Marking of road
c) Digging of ditches
d) Erecting road signs
2. When should payments be made in a road maintenance project?
a) At the signing of contract
b) After return of tools
c) After inspection of work
d) After auditing the work
3. Which of the following is assessed in before road maintenance?
a) Bleeding
b) Creep
c) Buckling
d) Rutting
4. Which one of the following is not an activity in surface dressing?
a) Pre-patching
b) Cleaning any loose material
c) Applying bituminous binder
d) Applying chippings
5. Which one of the following is not a cause of alligator cracking on paved roads?
a) Inadequate pavement thickness
b) Low modulus base
c) Brittle base or wearing course
d) High traffic volume

576
6. Explain three benefits of road maintenance
7. Explain three reasons for carrying out road maintenance.
8. Outline the requirements of an individual to form a maintenance team.
9. Differentiate between routine maintenance, periodic maintenance and emergency
maintenance
10. Summarise the preparation process of maintenance activities.
11. Summarise various activities in routine road maintenance.

Oral Assessment
1. Why do we need an inventory for a road in performing a road maintenance?
2. Which in your opinion would be the most expensive phase of road maintenance?

Case Study Assessment

[Link] consider the following case study of
a proposal for a road assessment.

Oral Assessment
1. Why did you choose your recommended maintenance methods?
2. How much do you think your proposal would cost?

Practical Assessment
Visit a local rod near you and perform an assessment on the road. Recommend various
routine maintenance that should be carried out on the road.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computer
• Internet
• Workshop
• Construction materials
• Construction tools and equipment
• Construction designs and drawings
• Sample contract documents
• Computer software e.g. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Civil3D
• Stationery
• Road construction site
• Material testing labouratory
o Moulds
o Tamping rods
o CBR Machines
o Crushing machines

577
 • Schedule of work
• Standard manuals
• Road under construction
• Contract documents

[Link] References

(ASTM, the American Society for Testing and Materials 2007).Standard Practice for Roads
and Parking Lots Pavement Condition Index Surveys. ASTM D6433-07
[Link] last accessed on June 23, 2020.
Broten, P.E., and Sombre, D.E. (2001).The Airfield Pavement Condition Index (PCI)
Evaluation Procedure: Advantages, Common Misapplications, and Potential Pitfalls.
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Managing Pavements, August, Seattle
Washington, United States.

578
 CHAPTER 14: ENGINEERING STRUCTURES DESIGN

14.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to design engineering structures. This
involves load estimation, designing structural elements, assessing of cost effectiveness of
designs, analysing site test data and modifying structural designs.

14.2 Performance Standard

Calculate load estimates, design structural elements, assess cost effectiveness of the design,
and modify structural designs client’s needs, design standards and structural use, and code
procedures.

14.3 Learning Outcomes

14.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Calculate load estimates
b) Design structural elements
c) Assess cost effectiveness of the design
d) Modify structural designs

579
14.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Calculate Load Estimates
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Calculate Load Estimates
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Determine intended use of a structure • Demonstration by

1.2 Create the layout of the structure from the trainer
architectural drawings • Practical work by
1.3 Determine the codes of practice/manuals required to trainee
obtain the required loading • Demonstration videos
1.4 Carry out load analysis/estimation • Projects
• Group discussions

[Link] Information Sheet No14/LO1: Calculate Load Estimates

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with the determination of the intended use of a structure as
per clients need, creation of layouts from architectural drawings, load analysis and
estimation and gaining knowledge of codes of practice and manuals.

Definition of key terms

Codes of practice – refers to a set of rules in the form of a written document which explains
and guides how people in a certain profession should behave or act in their professional
practice.

Layout – refers to a drawing or a plan that shows how a structure will be build.

Intended use – refers to the purpose for which a structure is built for.

580
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Determine intended use of a structure as per client needs
The intended use of a structure can be determined based on the purpose for which the larger
part (space of the building) of the total floor area of the building is used. The intended use
of a structure can be but not limited to the following
• Residential – used for peoples dwelling
• Commercial – used for business purposes
• Industrial – used for various purposes such as processing etc.
• Educational – used for learning purposes
• Agricultural – used for agricultural purposes such as storage facilities

In order to carry the intended use of a structure, BS6399-1:1996 gives various categories
of occupancies and usage of structures. This categorizes helps know the types and
magnitude of loads experienced by each occupancy. These include;
• Domestic and residential areas
• Office and work areas
• Shopping areas
• Areas that are susceptible to accumulation of goods
• Areas where people congregate
• Traffic and vehicle areas

1.2 Create the layout of the structure from the architectural drawings as per design
standards and structural use
Creation of a building layout helps mark out positions of columns, walls, boundaries or
any other structural element of a building. An understanding of the type of dimensions
present in the drawing is necessary in order to create a layout. The layout gives other
engineers the type of structural elements presents in the building. The general rules or
procedures of preparing a structural layout are as follows;
a) Adhere to the architect’s original plan – architectural drawings supersede structural
layouts. Make your arrangement to coincide with the architect’s work.
b) Choose a stable arrangement – the layout should represent the structural behavior
of the structure. Ensue stability and equilibrium.
c) Build ability – the arrangement you select should be buildable. The consideration
of the technical capacity of the contactors is necessary.
d) Balance between economic and structural aspects – consider a choice that is more
economical for instance the use of more concrete or steel.
e) Produce the layout on a CAD software.

581
Once the layout is created, the setting out of the structure can be carried out to establish the
building physically on the ground. An example of a layout from an architectural drawing
is shown below.

Figure 148: Floor plan and corresponding structural layout

Source: [Link]

1.3 Determine the Codes of practice/manuals required to obtain the required loading
are based on structural use.
A code of practice to be used can be determined on various aspects;
• Type of construction material – e.g. the code for steel is different from that of timber
• Type of structure – e.g. the code for buildings is different from the code of practice
for roads
• Type of loads experienced – e.g. the code for wind loads is different from the code
of practice for
• Region – the environmental factors also influence the choice of the code of practice.
Additionally, various regions have different codes of practice.

Some of the commonly used codes of practice are;

• BS6399 –Part 1:1996 – for loads on various structures depending on the occupancy
• BS8110 – Part 1:1997 –for the design and construction of reinforced concrete
structures
• BS5950 –Part 1:2000 – for the design of rolled and welded steel sections in building
construction.
• Eurocodes- these are currently being developed to replace the BS codes.

582
1.4 Carry out load analysis/estimation as per code procedures
Load estimation is based on the structural elements such as beams, columns, slabs and
other elements which are not necessarily structural such as partitions, furniture and
finishes. Load estimation also starts with a knowledge of the various types of loads that the
structure may experience. The following are categories of loads which can be experienced
by a structure.
• Dead loads – these are the permanent elements in the structure. They include
the roof, floor, walls,
• Imposed or live loads – these are the temporary elements or components in the
structure. They include; furniture, people etc.
• Wind loads
• Earthquake loads
• Snow loads

Dead loads are obtained by multiplying the unit weight of the material used with the
volume of the element. Imposed load values are read from BS6399-1:1996 and they depend
on the type of occupancy or usage of the structure. Loads analysis can be carried out as
follows;
a) Determine the type of structural elements present in the structure – these include
beams, columns, slabs etc.
b) Calculate the dead loads (Gk)
c) Calculate the imposed loads(Qk)
d) Multiply the loads with the safety factors to get the design loads
e) Determine the ultimate design load (W) from the combinations of dead and
imposed loads. W= 1.4Gk +1.6Qk
f) Calculate shear, moment and deflection.

Example of Column load calculation

Unit weight of concrete = 24kN/m3
Volume of column = Length (l) x Width (w) x Height (h) x No. of columns
Weight of columns = unit weight x volume

Example of load calculation of a slab

583
Figure 149: Example of load calculation of a slab
Source: [Link]

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered codes of practice, creation of different layouts from
architectural drawings and load analysis and calculations as per the codes of practice.

Further Reading

Read more on the following;

1. Design loads acting on structural elements
2. Types of structural loads - buildings and other structures(Wind loads, earthquake loads
and snow loads)
3. Methods of structural load analysis

584
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The following are various types of structural layouts except one;
a) Foundation layout
b) Beam layout
c) Floor plan
d) Column layout
2. Dead load usually comprises of the following, which one?
a) Temporarily attached loads
b) Permanently attached loads
c) Permanent and temporary attached loads
d) Wind and snow loads
3. Structural loads are of various categories, select the odd one out.
a) Dead load
b) Rain load
c) Live load
d) Wind load
4. Explain the following different types of loads; dead loads, Imposed loads
5. Evaluate at least four structural elements in a building.
6. Apart from dead and imposed loads, define other types of loads which may be
experienced in a building.
7. A code of practice guides the way work should be done. Why were codes of practice
developed?
8. According to BS6399-1; 1996 building loads are determined with the type of usage for
the building. List the various categories of occupancy listed.

Essay question
Describe the procedure of producing a building structural layout using illustrations.

Oral Assessment
Explain the various existing codes of practice and the applicability in load estimation
What would happen to the loads in a structure in the case the usage of the structure is
changed from the original intended use.

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Practical Assessment
Visit a nearby construction project site and identify the following structural elements,
columns, beams, foundation, and slab. Sketch the layout on a piece of paper and carry out
structural load analysis of the various elements.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• Computers
• Printers
• Measurement tools
• Survey instruments

Materials
• CAD software
• Stationery
• Workstations
• Civil Engineering labouratories
• Legal documents (Engineers Act)
• Civil Engineers Code of Practice

[Link] References

Allen, A. (2002). Reinforced Concrete Design to BS8110 simply explained. CRC Press.
Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2013). Building Construction handbook. Routledge
Hibbeler, R.C., & Kiang, T. (2015). Structural Analysis. Upper Saddle River: Pearson
Prentice Hall

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14.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Design Structural Elements
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Design Structural Elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Select design methods • Demonstration by trainer

2.2 Determine design software • Practical work by trainee
2.3 Design structural elements • Demonstration videos
• Projects
• Group discussions

[Link] Information Sheet No14/LO2: Design Structural Elements

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with design methods which are cost effective and design
softwares such as AutoCAD Structural Design Software, Prokon, and Revit. The design of
various structural elements is also dealt with in this outcome.

Definition of key terms

Design methods- procedures of designing which provide different kinds of activities that
someone designing is able to apply during the process of design.

Design software- computer based operating information and programs that aid in the
drawing or plan developed to demonstrate the working of a building.

Structural elements- load bearing components of a structure.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Select design methods based on cost effectiveness and client needs as per code
standards
Cost effective design methods are those structural design procedures that require very low
cost or no cost at all, while client needs are the specifications of the clients that must be
met by the design method while code standards are set specifications preset by structural
design organization for uniformity in the field. The coast effective design methods include;

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a) Utilization of cost and value engineering
Most of the time projects are not given excess money but money just enough, therefore, all
expenses have to fall below budget. Utilizing cost is the management of all these costs.
Value engineering is the controlling of the expenses involved so that every one of them
falls within the budget

b) Economy analysis for alternative designs

For many industries if not all take this into serious account. Things like operation,
maintenance, replacements and investments are looked into prior to the building’s design.
With time the cost of these things change hence future projections are very important.
Understand how the buildings future investments will be rated.

c) Considering priceless gains such as aesthetics, sustainability etc.

Not everything can be bought or charged at a price. Some building features such as
formality are not an exception. The main reason of a life cycle assessment is to determine
costs and benefits of design other options for better decision-making. Something like cost
is easily measurable compared to gain since it has a price on it. Gains have no price
attached to them. In some cases, priceless cases are able to come ahead of quantity available
cost comparisons.

d) Full analysis and design software;

• Effective and fast design method.
• Each of the members is designed and modeled in one workflow
• Materials, members, forces and section properties can all be accessed automatically
from the software model.
• Standards can be preset for reference.

2.2 Determine design software as per organizational standards.

Software as per organization standards are software that meet the specification of
procedures or methods of structural design. The organization standards include;
• Accuracy
• Appearance
• Scalability
• Flexibility

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The design software that meet these standards include;
1. AutoCAD structural software-
A product of Autodesk. Its major application is creation of different dimensional designs,
drafting of layouts, modeling workflows etc. It enables you to; evaluate and digest the
project performance, responds quickly to changes and maintains data and processes
consistently. Some of its advantages include;
• Appearance - drawings are clear, simple to use when reduced (minimized) and
predictable.
• Scalability- AutoCAD drawing sheet is enormous thus eliminating scaling error
possibilities and also allows the drawing to be printed at any scale.
• Flexibility - work can be shared and distributed electronically

2. Autodesk Revit structural software

A product of Autodesk used for modelling and enables design of structures, buildings and
components in 3D also allows access to building information from building model data
base. Some of its advantages are that it allows modifications on different structures hence
flexibility and scalable.

3. Prokon
• Software that allows structural design of elements.
• Easier and faster input and comprehensive integration.
• Easier access to detailed analysis output.

4. SAP2000- Civil engineering software good for design and analysis of any type of
structural system. Looks forward to bring together distinct modules in a company

5. RISA-Develops creative structural design and analysis tools to solve most of recent
engineering problem.

Some of its advantages include;

• It is fast
• It is productive
• It is accurate
• Has a user-friendly interface that interacts with other products such as RISA
foundation.
• It comes embedded with the most recent design codes for steel design, cold-formed
steel, concrete design, aluminium, masonry and timber
• Provides needed tools in case of multi material structure

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6. STAAD Pro- does structural analysis design and modelling, also provides a user-
friendly interface easy to navigate.
• Easy to use interface

7. Naviswork
A product of Autodesk. This is a comprehensive project review solution. Navisworks is
used by design, engineering and construction management professionals. Its use is to obtain
detailed insight into the project and enhance productivity and quality.
Some of its advantages include;
• Allows the users to open, combine, review and share detailed design models in
various file formats.
• Easy to Import all file formats and merge all the files to create a model

2.3 Design structural elements as per design standards

The procedure of design

i. Determination of loads acting on the structure

ii. Determination of loads acting on individual elements

iii. Determination of bending moments, shear forces and

deflections

i. Beam sizing

ii. Column sizing

Structural elements are load bearing parts of a structure and include;

• Columns Slabs
• Wall beams
• Trusses cables
• Frames

In concrete, steel, timber and masonry.

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Factors to understand during structural elements analysis
a) Free body diagrams – these are to understand the load path and checking your
assessment. Free body diagrams are load and moment diagrams drawn which show
the applied loads and moments at an equilibrium with corresponding reaction loads
and moments and shear forces.
b) Buckling –this is majorly in columns
c) 3D rigid body analysis - Sometimes this method is used in determination of loads
on joints, a classical hand calculation in structural analysis.

Example: design of a beam singly and doubly reinforced rectangular

Figure 150: Design of a beam singly and doubly reinforced rectangular

Source: Design of structural Elements by Chanakya Arya

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered design methods, design softwares and structural elements.

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[Link] Further Reading

Read on:
1. Design of Structural Elements
2. Stress analysis [Link]
structural-analysis/
3. Whole Building Design Guide [Link]

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Of the following which one is not a structural design element?
a) Train
b) Truss
c) Arch
d) Cables
2. From below which structural design software has the highest rating
a) AutoCAD
b) Prokon
c) Revit
d) Miniso
3. Select a design method which is not cost effective
a) Free Software
b) Spreadsheets
c) Hand calculation
d) Charged software
4. Define the term structural design
5. Explain scalability of a design software
6. Give two advantages of Prokon design software

Essay questions
AutoCAD adheres to organization standards, elabourate.

Oral Assessment
Why would you choose Revit if you are given a structural design project?

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Case Study Assessment
Kenyatta University intends to expand the school of engineering building another
workshop. The civil engineering in charge has selected you as his assistant and has given
you a sketch of the building and told you to present it to the board during the launch of
construction to all board members. Select the most appropriate software to use to present
the design and give reasons why and also design the elements of construction for the steel
frame.

Oral Assessment
Why would you need to analyse different design methods before choosing the one to use?

Practical Assessment
Using AutoCAD design a three-floor building with a 300 people carrying capacity

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• Computers
• Printers
• Measurement tools
• Survey instruments

Materials
• CAD software
• Stationery
• Workstations
• Civil Engineering labouratories
• Legal documents (Engineers Act)
• Civil Engineers Code of Practice

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[Link] References

Arya, C. (2009). Design of structural elements: concrete, steelwork, masonry and timber
designs to British standards and Eurocodes. CRC Press.
Lurie, K. A., & Cherkaev, A. V. (2018). “Effective Characteristics of Composite Materials
and the Optimal Design of Structural Elements. In Topics in the mathematical
modelling of composite materials (pp. 175-271). Birkhäuser, Cham.
Mazars, J., Kotronis, P., Ragueneau, F., & Casaux, G. (2006). Using multifiber beams to
account for shear and torsion: Applications to concrete structural elements.
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 195(52), 7264-7281.

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14.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Assess Cost Effectiveness of the Design
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Assess Cost Effectiveness of the Design
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1Determine alternative cost saving design • Demonstration by trainer

methods and materials • Practical work by trainee
3.2 Review preliminary designs to determine • Demonstration videos
elements that can be reduced or replaced • Projects
• Group discussions

[Link] Information Sheet No14/LO3: Assess Cost Effectiveness of the Design

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with cost saving design methods and optimization of the
design cost by either replacement or reduction of some elements.

Definition of key terms

Cost effective design: this is a plan that is affordable and efficient.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Determine alternative cost saving design methods and materials based on site
conditions
Cost effective design methods are those structural design procedures that require very low
cost or no cost at all likewise to the materials in this case we look at those based on site
condition which are mostly harsh weather conditions like rainy or sunny. They include;

a) The process of design;

The advice you seek from consultancy firms play an important role in the reduced cost of
your building. Websites provide affordable designs for buildings. It will enable you to
obtain a proper design within what you can afford within limited time.

b) Application of technology;
The latest technologies like the use of renewable energy which are maximumly affordable
and keep buildings cost effective. They don’t make your building dismal but purpose is
more important and you don’t have to go bankrupt.

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c) Location selection
Where you choose to build your building will determine the cost you incur in designing
the building. A higher percentage of this is true among commercial buildings. For example,
the right selection of a commercial property location influences the final outcome
positively as this makes it easy to estimate the traffic load in order to correctly arrange the
layout of the property. Therefore it is possible to start the process of designing a cost-
effective building design before the actual blueprints have been initialized.

d) Orientation of the building

Orientation of building is in terms of the position of sunlight at various times of the day.
Buildings are designed around the movement of the sun over an area. Most of the activities
are planned in sections where the intensity of the sun is not [Link] same way, sections
that have limited interactions are designed to be in areas where the sun is intensified. This
orientation helps create buffer zones between the sections thus keeping spaces with more
activity cooler in a passive way.

e) Plan Layout
When properly done can really sell out. A proper layout helps obtain affordable building
specifications. For example; if the west side of your structure will be subject to high
sunlight throughout the day, it will be unthoughtful of you to put the kitchen on this side
otherwise you will need engineered cooling methods, that will rather be expressive.
Therefore, placing on the eastern part will be more logical

f) Wall Cladding
The physical appearance of a building is enhanced with the walls of the structure. How
long the structure will last will be determined by the durability of the materials that make
up the walls. In this manner a low temperature is maintained in the room by insulating
walls. Proper wall cladding will enable a big difference in maintaining the running cost of
your establishment to the minimum. For cost-effective building design, wall cladding play
a very important method.

g) Roof Materials
Just like the wall, the roof details are very vital when it comes to creating a cost-effective
building design. How long the structure will last will be determined by the durability of the
materials that make up the roofing materials as well.

h) Interior design and interior furniture

Interior design can entail small details that can make the design quite expensive. Some
simple interior design rules can help make a cost-effective building design.

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i) Sourcing Materials
Understanding where to get the best, low cost materials will sky rocket you career in
building and construction. Beware of high-end places that give poor quality materials at
very high prices. Carry out research concerning all the places where you can get materials
before decide on one final choice

j) MEP & HVAC

The selection of MEP (Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing) and HVAC (Heating,
Ventilation and Air Conditioning) is crucial in determination of the overall cost of the
design process. However, high quality systems can make a building costs much lower as
compared to low quality systems. The following should be considered in the selection of
such systems.
• System should have an efficiency of more than 90%
• Ensure no energy is wasted by choosing the right size
• Adaptability of the system to future extensions, choose a system that is adaptable

3.2 Review preliminary designs to determine elements that can be reduced or replaced
as per design standards
This is referred to as design optimization technique which simply means using available
resources to obtain maximum benefit. Factors to be considered while doing optimization
include;
• Model of structure
• Dimensionality of structure
• Choice of design variable.

Problems encountered also include;

• Sizing optimization-boundary and connectivity
• Shape optimization - area
• Topology optimization.

The main components of optimization include;

• Design parameters- specify the geometry and topology of the structure and also
the physical parameter of the structural elements like area etc.
• Constraints which includes stress, buckling, deflection etc
• Object functions which merit the structure; if the fiction is something like
weight of the structure then it is to be minimized, if its energy or thermal
requirement then it is to be maximized if both then it will need balance. This
equation is solved mathematically.

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered cost saving design methods.

Further Reading

Read on:
1. Cost saving design methods
2. Structure and design [Link]
solutions/

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. From below, choose the odd on out
a) Topology optimization
b) Constraints
c) Design parameters
d) Object function
2. The following are factors which influence design optimization except one, which one?
a) Design variable choice
b) Structure type
c) Dimensionality of structure
d) Shape
3. The following are design constraints except which one
a) Deflection
b) Weight
c) Buckling
d) Stress
4. Evaluate alternative cost saving design methods and materials based on site conditions.
5. Summarize the problems encountered during design optimization.
6. Summarize the factors that contribute to design optimization.

Essay questions
Design optimization is a complicated process. Elabourated.

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Oral Assessment
Why do you think design optimization is important in structural design?

Case Study Assessment

A proposed structural design was found to be very expensive compared to the normal
average design of such a building during engineers review meeting. If you are awarded
with the duty to optimize the design. Outline the factors you will consider and the modules
you will maximize or minimize during the process.

Oral Assessment
Of the fundamental modules of design optimization, explain what design parameters
represent

Practical Assessment
Your class is to visit a nearby construction sites and recognize the cost saving design
methods and materials based on site conditions present in the site.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• Computers
• Printers
• Measurement tools
• Survey instruments

Materials
• CAD software
• Stationery
• Workstations
• Civil Engineering labouratories
• Legal documents (Engineers Act)
• Civil Engineers Code of Practice

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[Link] References

Thanedar, P. B., & Vanderplaats, G. N. (2005). Survey of discrete variable optimization

for structural design. Journal of Structural Engineering, 121(2), 301-306.
Koski, J. (2000). Multicriterion optimization in structural design. TAMPERE UNIV OF
TECHNOLOGY (FINLAND).
.

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14.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Modify Structural Designs
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Modify Structural Designs
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Modify preliminary designs to suite site • Demonstration by trainer

conditions • Practical work by trainee
4.2 Retest preliminary hypotheses for practicality to • Demonstration videos
site conditions • Projects
4.3 Establish new hypotheses to support new designs • Group discussions
and reflect site conditions

[Link] Information Sheet No14/LO4: Modify Structural Designs

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with modification of preliminary designs to suite site
conditions, retesting of hypotheses for practicability to site conditions with the
establishments of new hypotheses to support new designs.

Definition of key terms

Preliminary design: Gerson Sunyé - University of Nantes Definition of Preliminary
Design is the first step of software design. During this phase, a high-level design concept
that meets the requirement specification is created. The concept is expressed as a set of
components with clear interfaces. The preliminary design fills up the void between
conception of the design and the detailed design.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Modify preliminary designs to suite site conditions as per code of practice
standards.
The Preliminary design stage is the most low-cost and applicable stage to make design
changes such as modifying design variables. These changes therefore should conform to
the code of practice standards and suite the site conditions provided. Modification of these
preliminary designs may be influenced by either internal or external factors of the project
at hand.
Some of the internal factors influencing such changes include:

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Factors from the client:
• Client’s wish to modify or change the design.
• Additional work.
• Omission of work.
• Financial difficulties from the client.
• Errors due to incorrect information.

Factors from the design consultant:

• Insufficient information in the drawings.
• Alterations made as per the consultant’s request.
• Presence of conflicts that may arise due to the contract.
• Illogical period of project completion.
• Significant variations in the structural and architectural plans.

Factors from the managing consultant:

• Miscommunications between members I the project.
• Lack of accurate resolutions.
• Lack rapid formulation and execution of resolutions.
• Improper checking of planning documentation.

Factors from the contractor:

• Illogical construction schedule from the contractor.
• Correction of construction and structural mistakes.
• Alterations made as per the contractor’s request.
• Inadequate project management by the contractor.
• Quality improvement change by the contractor.

Some of the external factors influencing such changes include:

Factors due to the environment:
• Unexpected conditions in the ground.
• Lack of enough data about the geological composition of the site.
• Natural occurrences disasters.
• Unpredicted weather changes.

Economic and political factors:

• Lack of enough tools and materials.
• Changes in material pricing due to fluctuation.
• Changes in the original use of the project.
• A change in policy.

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Factors due to third party:
• Alterations made as per the end user request.
• Grievance from the vicinity.
• Alterations made as per the regulation bodies request.
• Alterations made as per the new investor’s request.

4.2 Retest preliminary hypotheses for practicality to site conditions as per design
standards.
Retesting of the preliminary hypotheses is quite critical in the design process for many
various reasons and therefore the hypothesis should be practical to the site conditions and
as per the design standards.

Some of the importance of testing include:

• It enables one to determine whether the hypotheses being tested are true.
• It enables to determine whether the proposed solution will achieve the goals
targeted.
• It enables the enhancement of the design process.
• To determine whether the hypothesis will guarantee an improvement for further
progress.

During the process of retesting of hypotheses, some of the steps involved will include:
• Stating of the hypotheses including both null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis.
• Formulation of the analysis plan that will include both the test method and the
significance levels.
• Analyzing of the sample data.
• Interpreting of the results to draw conclusion.

4.3 Establish new hypotheses to support new designs and reflect site conditions as per
the required conditions.
In order to establish a new hypothesis one can follow the steps below:
• Coming up with a question that is specific and is within the constraints of the
project.
• Conduct preliminary research that will lead to a conceptual framework.
• Formulate and refine the hypothesis according the relevant variables of the
project and the predicted outcome.
• Phrase the hypothesis in three ways.
• Write a null hypothesis

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Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the modification of preliminary designs to suite site
conditions and the application of hypothesis to test the practicability of the site conditions.

Further Reading

Refer to Admin, How to Write a Hypnosis, [Link]

process/hypotheses/, last accessed 24th June 2020. For further reading on how to write a
hypothesis.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. In which stage of a project is the modification of structural designs relevant.
a) Project conception
b) Construction stage
c) Detailed design stage
d) Preliminary design stage
2. Explain the preliminary design stage in the most low-cost and relevant stage in the
modification of structural designs.
3. Modification of preliminary designs to suite site conditions should conform to?
a) An educated guess
b) Code of practice standards
c) Profits of the project
d) Personal interest only
4. Explain the term hypothesis?
5. Explain the term preliminary design?
6. Explain the different components found in a preliminary design.
7. Summarize on the importance of retesting of a preliminary hypothesis.
8. Summarize on the steps taken to test a hypothesis.

Oral Assessment
Outline the need to modify structural designs.

604
Practical Assessment
Given the project of the construction of a single storage room, with initial site conditions
and preliminary design of your choice. Modify the preliminary design given that the site
conditions change due to a 50% reduction in the available land for the construction of the
project.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• Computers
• Printers
• Measurement tools
• Survey instruments

Materials
• CAD software
• Stationery
• Workstations
• Civil Engineering labouratories
• Legal documents (Engineers Act)
• Civil Engineers Code of Practice

[Link] References

Admin, How to Write a Hypnosis, [Link]

process/hypotheses/last accessed 24th June 2020.
Bang, Anne & Krogh, Peter & Ludvigsen, Martin & Markussen, Thomas. (2012). The Role
of Hypothesis in Constructive Design Research.
Admin, How to Test Hypotheses, [Link]
[Link], last accessed 24th June 2020.

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 CHAPTER 15: BUILDING DRAWINGS

15.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

In this unit, the aspects of building design that involve preparation and interpratation of
engineering drawings, including architectural drawings, structural and civil
drawings,plumbing layouts, as well as electrical and mechanical, will be addressed based
on principles of engineering design.

15.2 Performance Standard

Interpret architectural drawings, prepare structural and civil drawings, interpret electrical
drawings, design plumbing layout, and interpret mechanical drawings according to the size
of the proposed site, construction regulations, planning requirements and client
specifications, architectural code of design, building code, and local authority by laws,
regulatory requirements.

15.3 Learning Outcomes

15.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Interpret architectural drawings
b) Prepare structural and civil drawings
c) Interpret electrical drawings
d) Design plumbing layout
e) Interpret mechanical drawings

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15.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Interpret Architectural Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Interpret Architectural Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Identify Construction dimensions • CAD Software

1.2 Interpret architectural drawings integration
• GPS mapping
• Reference codes

[Link] Information Sheet No15/LO1 Interpret Architectural Drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

Before implementing a project, the architect has to prepare architectural impression of what
is to be built. This impression must have dimensions in SI units of length. The design must
also conform to the set international standards of practice like the BS code, Euro codes and
other local standards.

Definition of key terms

Project plan – A project plan is a document that displays the objectives and relays the
scope, in a time frame, of all the activities that will be undertaken in a given project.

Building code – A building code is a set of regulations that govern and designate the
standards for the construction of buildings/structures.

Site investigation – A site investigation is a process of collecting relevant information

from a given site, analyzing and processing the information for the purposes of highlighting
the unknown potential problem that lies underneath the site.

607
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Identify Construction dimensions according to the size of the proposed site,
construction regulations, planning requirements and client specifications,
(vertical dimensions, horizontal dimensions)
Construction dimensions are numerical values expressed in an appropriate unit of measure
and are indicated on drawings along with lines, arrows, symbols, and notes to define the
size and specification of an object. Vertical dimensions are all dimensions that have their
alignment at a right angle to a horizontal plane such that their top is directly above their
bottom. Horizontal dimensions are all dimensions that have their alignment at a right angle
to a vertical plane such that they are parallel to the horizon.
There are two standardized forms of dimensioning named:
• Linear dimensioning which involves displaying of dimensions along the X-Y axis.
This form of dimensioning is made up of a dimension line, which is in between,
and perpendicular to extension lines.
• Ordinate dimensioning is a form of dimensioning that displays the length along the
X-Y axis with the use of a leader line.
Radial dimensions use leader lines to measure ellipses, circles and arcs.

Figure 151: Different types of dimensions and diagram

Source: [Link]

1.2 Interpret architectural drawings in accordance with the architectural code of

design, building code, local authority by laws, regulatory requirements and client
specification, (BS 8110, Eurocodes, Kenya Building Codes, 1968 Civil engineering
codes).
An architectural drawing is a specialized drawing that shows the views, sections and
elevations of a structure/building. These drawings should conform to the mechanisms,
design guidelines and standards put in place as a guideline in the production of architectural
drawings.

608
Such mechanism exists as documents including the architectural code of design and the
building code: BS 8110, Eurocodes, Kenya Building Codes, 1968 Civil engineering codes
that provide regulations that govern and designate the standards for the drawing and
construction of buildings/structures. Interpreting of Architectural plans requires one to be
systematic and organized in order not to miss any piece of information provided. Here are
some of the few guidelines one can adopt:
a) Start with the interpretation of the drawings from the upper left corner and hovering
meticulously towards the right lower corner.
b) Read through the plan cover sheet since it contains a lot of information regarding
the plans such as the projects information, architect, date, etc.
c) Forms of reference points such as structural references and a grid system may be
used between sets of drawings and different professionals.
d) Review the plan index, which provides a list of all plan sheets.1
e) Begin with the site plan, which provides information on the plot boundary details
and orientation.
f) You should be quite familiar with the symbol legend so that you may have a deeper
interpretation on the plans through the symbols provided.
g) Before reading the actual architectural sheets always read the notes that
communicate the design details via text to acquire a deeper interpretation.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered the basic aspects on how to interpret architectural
drawings

Further Reading

Refer to Admin, (2011). Understanding Dimensions,

[Link] last accessed 23th
June 2020. For further reading on construction dimensions and architectural drawings.

609
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of these is the SI Unit of length __________
a) Centimetre
b) Foot
c) Inches
d) Meter
2. Choose the term that best describes architectural drawings.
a) Artistic
b) Technical
3. State the different components found in an architectural drawing.
4. Differentiate between vertical and horizontal dimensions.
5. State the different codes one should observe when producing an architectural drawing.
6. Discuss the different types of building codes and their importance in the interpretation
of architectural drawings.

Oral Assessment
Why are site investigations important?

Practical Assessment
Using the CAD software prepare the plan of a single room store with dimensions of your
choice and clearly show the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the drawing.

Oral Assessment
What was observed as the difference in horizontal and vertical dimensions in the
architectural drawing?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Measuring and drawing tools
• Computers/internet
• Cad software
• Printers/plotting device

610
[Link] References

Admin, (2011).Understanding
dimensions,[Link]
dimensions/last accessed 23th June 2020.
Akboy-Ilk, S. (2016). THE NATURE OF DRAWING IN THE CHANGING
CULTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL DOCUMENTATION. Journal of
Architectural and Planning Research, 33(1), 29-44. Retrieved June 23,
2020, from [Link]/stable/44113126
BAUER, C., & Penner, B. (2020). ARCHITECTURE. In Modern Housing (pp. 212-
223). Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press.
doi:10.5749/j.ctv11vcff7.23

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15.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Prepare Structural and Civil Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Prepare Structural and Civil Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Design Structural elements • Reiterative allocation of

2.2 Draw detailed plans and sections of designed rebar
elements • Designing to standard codes
2.3 Bar bending schedule is prepared of practice
2.4 Structural drawings are produced

[Link] Information Sheet No15/LO2 Prepare Structural and Civil Drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

Loading analysis - Loading analysis is performed in accordance with standard of practice,
to come up with the reinforcement bar criteria and later on a bar bending schedule is
prepared.

Structural detailing - Structural detailing is done to allocate the design rebar on to the
structural drawing in accordance with the code of practice

Definition of key terms

Bar bending schedule – A list of reinforcement bars presented in form of a table that
contains the details of the bars such as the diameter of the bar, the length of each bar,
straight portions, angles of bending, shape of bending and the number of each type of bar.

Detailed plan – A technical drawing representing the layout of a structure, usually to scale,
using set symbols where necessary to represents certain parts and showing specifications
of precise dimensions.

Structural – Having structure or involving the mechanics of construction.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Design Structural elements according to the codes of practice (Slabs, Beams,
Columns, Foundation, Stairs)
Slab design procedure:
i. Determine the condition of exposure of slab and assign nominal cover as per
code of practice.
ii. Calculate the Design load, F.
iii. Calculate the ultimate bending moment, Mu.
iv. Calculate the lever arm, z, and Area of tension reinforcement As
v. Calculate the shear stress and check that it does not exceed design shear
concrete stress.
vi. Check deflection and cracking requirements.
vii. Determine the diameter and spacing of links (reinforcement).

Beam design procedure:

i. Select concrete strength class, longitudinal & shear reinforcement grade,
minimum member size and thickness of concrete cover.
ii. Estimate loads (dead & imposed) and calculate ultimate loads.
iii. Calculate design moment, M and design shear force.
iv. Estimate effective depth and width of beam.
v. Calculate ultimate moment of resistance, Mu
vi. Determine whether singly-reinforced or doubly- reinforced and design shear
reinforcement accordingly.
vii. Check deflection
viii. Produce reinforcement details (diameter and spacing of links).

Column design procedure

i. Determine effective height of column.
ii. Determine whether short or slender.
iii. Calculate axial loading and check for buckling & compression failure.
iv. Produce reinforcement details.

Stairs design procedure

i. Determine thickness of concrete cover.
ii. Calculate design load & ultimate bending moment.
iii. Produce reinforcement details.
iv. Check for shear, deflection & cracking.

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Foundation design procedure
i. Determine the design axial load, N.
ii. Determine plan area and dimensions of base.
iii. Determine self-weight of the foundation.
iv. Determine total ultimate load, W and Earth pressure ρs = W/Plan Area of base.
ρs L2
v. Calculate maximum design moment, M = 2
vi. Calculate ultimate moment Mu and determine whether compression
reinforcement is required (Mu > M).
vii. Determine lever arm, z, and area of reinforcement, As.
viii. Calculate: punching shear, face shear and transverse shear.
ix. Produce reinforcement details.

2.2 Draw detailed plans and sections of designed elements as per dimensions and
relevant standards
Once the design of the structural element is complete, a detailed drawing of the layout of
the element must be produced on paper either manually or with the aid of Computer Aided
Design software. Examples of these detailed plans are as follows:
✓ Slab.
The example below shows reinforcement details of an interior solid slab spanning 5000
mm, having a width of 175 mm and 20 mm nominal cover.

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Figure 152: Designed elements as per dimensions and relevant standards
Source: Higgins, J.B. and Rogers, B.R., Designed and detailed (BS 8110: 1997),
Crowthorne, British Cement Association, 1998.
✓ Beam.
The diagram below represents shows detailed plan of a two-way spanning flanged beam

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Figure 153: Detailed plan of a two-way spanning flanged beam
Source: Higgins, J.B. and Rogers, B.R., Designed and detailed (BS 8110: 1997),
Crowthorne, British Cement Association, 1998.

✓ Column.
The schematic below shows sections in their relative positions adjacent to their vertical
reinforcements. The tabular presentation adapts to element repetition.

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Figure 154: Relative positions adjacent to their vertical reinforcements
Source: Higgins, J.B. and Rogers, B.R., Designed and detailed (BS 8110: 1997),
Crowthorne, British Cement Association, 1998.

✓ Staircase.
The following sketch shows the reinforcement details of an end-span continuous slab
(staircase) with 20mm nominal cover.

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Figure 155: Reinforcement details of an end-span continuous slab (staircase) with 20mm
nominal cover
Source: Higgins, J.B. and Rogers, B.R., Designed and detailed (BS 8110: 1997),
Crowthorne, British Cement Association, 1998.

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 ✓ Foundation.
The following is a 2750 × 600 reinforced pad footing.

Figure 156: 2750 × 600 reinforced pad footing

Source: Higgins, J.B. and Rogers, B.R., Designed and detailed (BS 8110: 1997),
Crowthorne, British Cement Association, 1998.

2.3 Prepare Bar bending schedule as per the code of practice

Bars should be grouped together for each structural element.
Bar Bending Schedule contains the following basic items: the member, description, bar
No., spacing, bar shape, No. of bars, cut length, total length, No. of items and total weight
as indicated in the example shown below:

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Table 35: The member, description, bar No., spacing, bar shape, No. of bars, cut length,
total length

Source: [Link]

2.4 Produce Structural drawings in accordance with building code, local authority by
laws, regulatory requirements and client specification
The structural drawings can be produced manually or with the aid of computer softwares
such as AutoCAD, Inventor, ArchiCAD, etc. Once produced, they must be approved by
the county planning department before a building is erected. This ensures that the building
is constructed in line with certain requirements such as public health, the environment, land
rates etc. all the relevant departments must approve the drawings before onset of
construction.

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Conclusion
This learning outcome encompassed the details on how to prepare structural and civil
drawings including: how designs should be done in line with codes of practice, how
detailed plans should be drawn, preparation of bar bending schedules and approval of
structural drawings by relevant departments.

Further Reading

Bond, A.J. et al., How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2, The Concrete
Centre, 2006
Read on bar bending schedule step by step preparation at [Link] or on
[Link].

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1 The following are structural elements except?
a) Slab.
b) Plan.
c) Column.
2. Structural elements can either be vertical or horizontal. Among the following, which
is the vertical element?
a) Beam.
b) Slab.
c) Column.
3. Explain Cutting length, bending angle and bar shape in a bar bending schedule. Justify
4. Elabourate how structural drawings should be produced
5. Some of the codes of practice used in Kenya are listed below. Which one is false?
a) BS 8110 for reinforced concrete.
b) BS 5950 for steel work.
c) BS 5950 for unreinforced masonry.
6. For a building to be approved, the drawings must satisfy the requirements of the
following departments EXCEPT?
a) Planning.
b) Agriculture.
c) Public health.

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7. Differentiate beam and a slab in their structural element whereas a column and retaining
walls are vertical elements

Essay questions
Summarize the procedure of designing a beam.
Summarize the differences between British Standards and Eurocodes as codes of practice
used in the design of structural elements.

Oral Assessment
Explain the procedure of designing a slab.
Summarize some of the basic items that are provided in a bending schedule.

Practical Assessment
Prepare a one-page bar bending schedule for a two-storey building to be done in your
local area.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Measuring and drawing tools
• Computers/internet
• Printers/plotting device
• Cad tools

[Link] References

Allen, E. & Iano, J., (2013). Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and
Methods, 6th edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.
Arya, C., (2009). Design of structural elements: Concrete, Steelwork, Masonry and Timber
Designs to British Standards and Eurocodes, third edition. New York: Taylor &
Francis.
Geren, R., (2016). Applying the Building Code: Step-by- Step Guidance for Design and
Building Professionals (Building Codes Illustrated), 1st edition. Hoboken, New
Jersey: Wiley.

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15.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Interpret Electrical Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Interpret Electrical Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Sketch Electrical circuits drawings • Network modeling

3.2 Draw Electrical connection layout software
• Demonstration by
trainer
• Filed trip

[Link] Information Sheet No15/LO3 Interpret Electrical Drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

In this section, the architectural drawing is still used in conjunction with the electrical code
to come up with the electrical circuit diagrams.

Definition of key terms

Circuit diagram- This is simply a graphical representation of an electrical circuit.

Layout- This is a diagram that makes use of electrical symbols and shapes to represent
electrical devices and shows the entire wiring system of a structure such as housing unit.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1. Sketch Electrical circuits drawings in accordance with the electrical code of
practice and the architectural layout
• To be able to sketch electrical drawings, one must first get familiar with standard
electrical symbols used in electrical engineering. This makes understanding of the
circuitry easier.
• There are numerous electrical symbols in use today. These symbols may vary from
one region to another.
• One electrical device may have several different representations.
• Some of the most commonly used electrical devices, their functionality and
symbols are shown below.

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Table 36: Electrical devices
Device symbol Alternative symbol Functionality
Lamp Produces light when electrical
current flows through it.
Battery Provide source of current.
Resistor Reduces current flow.

Fuse Stops flow of current when the

intensity of current exceeds set
value thus protecting electrical
circuits.
Diode Allows current flow in one
direction
Ground/ Earth Electrical shock protection and
zero potential reference point.
Surge Protects a circuit from a spike /
protector surge in voltage.

Antenna Marks a device, rod, or wire

designed to capture radio and
electromagnet waves into
electrical signals and vice versa.
Circuit breaker Protects an electrical circuit
against damage caused by
overload or short circuit.
Oscillator Produces a repetitive electronic
signal i.e. sine wave or square
wave.
Thermocouple Converts temperature difference
at junction terminals to a voltage
Switch Disconnects the current when
open.
Capacitor Stores electrical charge.
Used with a resistor in timing
circuits.

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 Inductor / coil Stores energy in a magnetic field
or flux.

• The example shown below illustrates a simple Surface installation of one lamp
controlled by two, two- way switches.

Figure 157: a simple Surface installation of one lamp controlled by two, two- way switches

3.2. Draw Electrical connection layout in accordance with the electrical code of
practice
• After understanding all the symbols used in electrical circuitry, one may then draw
a layout diagram easily.
• The diagram is provided with a legend/ key listing all the symbols used in drawing
the layout to be able to assist one in interpreting the circuit.
• See the following example of a circuit diagram:

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Figure 158: Circuit diagram
Source: [Link]
✓ The following example illustrates a simple Surface installation of a ring socket. A
ring socket outlet is an arrangement of sockets such that a ring of wires from a
consumer unit go through all the sockets, each at a time, then back to the consumer
unit. The ring is usually fed from a protective device located in the consumer unit,
usually a fuse or a circuit breaker of rating about 32A. Wiring is done using a
2.5mm2 cable.

Figure 159: Simple Surface installation of a ring socket

626
Conclusion
This learning outcome reviews the basics on how to interpret electrical drawings which
revolve around being able to identify every distinct electrical device and its interconnection
with other devices in the circuit.

Further Reading

How to Read Electrical drawing – Edraw ( [Link] ).

Typical Electrical Drawing Symbols and Conventions – NRC ([Link]
Alexander, C.K. & Sadiku, N.M., (2013). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 5th edition.
New York, USA: MacGraw-Hill Companies Inc.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1 Arrowheads placed on circuit line generally represent?
a) Indicates the room in which the circuit is installed
b) Indicates the circuit to be controlled by a wall switch
c) Indicates the direction of current flow
2. Explain the electrical circuits diagrams bellow?
a) Schematics and Pictorials
b) Architectural diagrams
3. Electrical symbols are represented using?
a) Pictorials
b) Schematics
c) Graphics
4. Identify the electrical device that is incorrectly matched with its functionality?
a) Push button – momentarily allows current flow when button is pushed in, breaks
current when released
b) Antenna – Used for protection
5. The work of a Surge protector is to?
a) Change AC voltage from high to low and vice versa
b) Store electric charge and generate constant voltage
c) Protect a circuit from a spike in voltage

627
6. Explain the work of a Diode is to?
7. The following symbol represents which electrical device?

a) Fluorescent fixture.
b) Flood Light.
8. Evaluate the various symbols used to indicate a fuse.
9. Color plays an important role in electrical code of practice, explain briefly?
10. Differentiate between an electrical circuit and a circuit diagram.
11. Differentiate between a lamp and a flood light by their symbols?

Essay questions
Draw and label at least fifty electrical symbols used in code of practice.
Draw a circuit diagram with two outlets that require separate circuits for a fridge and a
dishwasher that go directly back to panel?

Oral Assessment
Differentiate between an electrical circuit and a circuit diagram.
Differentiate between a thermostat and rheostat?

Practical Assessment
Design a wiring diagram from a switch box running two lights. Include a Legend.

Project Assessment
Visit a nearby factory, study the electrical wiring diagram of the factory plant and see
whether you understand it completely. Consult the Factory Engineer where necessary and
try reproducing the same diagram in CAD, having understood it.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Codes of practice
• Mechanical conventions,
• Workstation
• CAD & GIS Software

628
[Link] References

Alexander, C.K. & Sadiku, N.M., (2013). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 5th edition.
New York, USA: MacGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Robertson, C.R., (2008). Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Principles, 3rd edition.
Oxford: Elsevier.
How to Read Electrical drawings; Retrieved from [Link]
Typical Electrical Drawing Symbols and Conventions Retrieved from
([Link]
Standard electrical symbols for electrical schematic diagrams; Retrieved from
[Link]

629
15.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Design Plumbing Layout
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Design Plumbing Layout
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Identify building dimensions • Sketch up software

4.2 Determine pipe sizes are • Mathematical models
4.3 Determine pipe types and • Practical exercise
• Demonstration by trainer

[Link] Information Sheet No15/LO4 Design Plumbing Layout

Introduction to learning outcome

The plumbing layout will portray the orientation of the various pipe sections as they may
appear superimposed on to the architectural drawing and structural drawings. The
components are sized depending on the water demand of the building with respect to the
consumptive use and future projections of population.

Definition of key terms

Building dimensions- is a numerical value defined in appropriate units and used to express
the size, location, orientation, form or geometric properties of any part of a building.

Pipe– is a hollow tube with circular cross section for transportation of fluids (gases and
liquids).

630
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Identify Building dimensions as per the architectural drawings, structural and
electrical drawings.
There are several standard forms of dimensions:
i. Linear dimensions;
Measures the distance between points especially those in a line.
These are used for measuring and displaying length along the horizontal or vertical
axis.
Are axial measurements either Y or X direction.
ii. Radial Dimensions
Measures the radius of circular dimensions and displaying them with a leader line.
This dimension is designated using an R followed by the value.
iii. Ordinate dimension- axial measurements are displayed as text using a leader..
Dimensions is composed of two parts; nominal value and a componential value which
varies either higher or lower than the nominal value.

Figure 160: Ordinate dimension- axial measurements are displayed as text using a leader
Source: [Link]

631
4.2 Determine Pipe sizes are as per consumption (PVC, GI pipes, Mild steel, PPR)
Pipe sizing is used to determine the amount of fluid that can be supplied at a given rate.
There are several ways of calculating pipe sizes for example determining friction head
loss, sizing from velocity, determining pipe sizes arithmetically and many more.
Calculation of pipe size arithmetically
Information required include;

Figure 161: Calculation of pipe size arithmetically

Source;[Link]/learn-about-steam/steam-distribution/pipes-and-pipe-sizing.

Example

Figure 162: Example of Calculation of pipe size arithmetically

Source; [Link]/learn-about-steam/steam-distribution/pipes-and-pipe-sizing

632
Alternative pipe sizing methods
Procedure for sizing pipes.
i. A favorable diameter is assumed.
ii. An assumed size is always determined and proven to contain the expected flow.
iii. A flow rate is determined with considerations.
iv. Instead of maximum flow, it is designed for peak flows based on probability theory.
v. Use of charging units;
• A charging unit is a number given to an appliance relating flow rate to the
length of time while being used and probable usage.
vi. In case of continuity in flow
• Automatic reservoirs must be considered as continuous flow instead of
applying probability theory. For such appliances the full design flow rate
for the outlet fitting must be used.
vii. Obtain the intended flow rate by adding (a) and (b).
• The intended flow rate is the summation of the flow rate determined from
charging units and the continuous flows.
viii. Effective pipe length determination
ix. Measured pipe length is determined;
x. Work out the pipe length for fittings that is equivalent;
• Resistances to flow in fittings are conveyed in terms of length of pipe
having similar resistance to flow as that of the fitting.
xi. Equivalent pipe length for draw for draw-offs is determined;
xii. By adding (d), (e) and (f), you obtain the effective pipe length.
• Summation of the pipe length measured (d) and the equivalent pipe lengths
for fittings (e) and draw-offs (f) gives effective pipe length.
xiii. Acceptable or permissible head loss is worked out:

xiv. (h) Available head is determined from the previous data and workings:
xv. Head loss per meter runs through pipes is determined;
xvi. (j) Determine the head loss through fittings;
xvii. (k) Followed by calculation of head loss through fittings on the pipe.
• Permissible head loss= (m/m run)

xviii. Pipe diameter is then determined:

xix. Check whether the pipe size will give the intended flow rate in ( C) without
excess head loss.
• PVC
They are different types depending on wall thickness: Low, Medium and high
grade.

633
 • PVC schedule
Is the thickness of the PVC pipe wall, mostly are 40 and 80. As the schedule gets larger the
wall gets thicker from outside.
• Galvanised Iron pipes
For corrosion protection, it is dipped into zinc and is used for water pipe lines.
Used for distribution treated or raw water in rural or urban areas. These are
cheaper, lightweight and easy to handle.
• Mild steel pipes
These type of pipes are made of low carbon steel and due to this they do not harden
and are usually easy to use. These type of pipes are strong in tension hence can
withstand high pressure but not heavy loading as pumping main.
Their major applications include supply of drinking water, fire fighting and HVAC
systems.

• PPR
This type of pipes refer to those made of Polypropylene Random Copolymer. They
are usually made for hot and cold water supply and other heating applications.
They have their uses varying from civil buildings such as hospitals, apartments,
schools etc., commercial buildings such as hotels, restaurants, offices etc., to
industrial buildings such as factories, air conditioning etc.
The common outer diameter specifications of PPR water pipes are 20mm, 25mm,

Conclusion
Under this study the methods explored were centered on how to Design plumbing layout.

Further Reading

Explore additional ways of determining pipe sizes

Practice reading metric pipe schedule.

634
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which is not a characteristic of plumbing application pipes.
a) Pressure rating (Psi)
b) NPS
c) Length of pipe
d) Manufacturers brand name
2. What is the most likely risk of injury when cutting large diameter pipes?
a) You may damage your muscle due to continued use
b) You may cut yourself
c) Trapping of fingers
d) A sharp metal may fly off and cause damage
3. State the safest mode of transportation of PPR pipes and Mild steel pipes based on their
sizes and specifications.
4. Explain type of pipe is used below and above the ground?

Essay question
Students have been asked to determine pipe sizes of certain pipes provided. Use one
method and describe the procedure.

Oral Assessment
1. Explain what scheduling entails
2. Explain how does poor pipe sizing affect building
3. Students have been asked to join plastic soil pipes in the space of a building using a
strong hazardous solvent yet they’ve not been provided with Respiratory Protective
equipment, what should you do

Project Assessment
Design a two-bedroom house so as to appreciate various building dimensions.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Codes of practice
• mechanical conventions,
• workstation
• CAD & GIS Software

635
[Link] References

Jim J. Williams, Labouratory plumbing 101. Basharkhah Engineering, Inc

William p. Spence, (2000) Architectural working drawings. North Carolina: Wiley

636
15.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Interpret Mechanical Drawings
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Interpret Mechanical Drawings
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Obtain Mechanical component dimensions • Open source

5.2 Identify Mechanical components modeling software
5.3 Interpret Mechanical drawings • Numerical analysis

[Link] Information Sheet No15/LO7 Interpret Mechanical Drawings

Introduction to learning outcome

In this review the design of mechanical components starts with the identification and sizing
of the components in accordance with the provided architectural and structural drawings,
while making relevant referencing from the design codes of practice.

Definition of key terms

Mechanical drawing: Is a drawing of mechanical or architectural structures drawn to scale
and with the use of precision instruments.

Specifications: Are information which describe the products, materials and work required
by a construction contract.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Obtain Mechanical component dimensions as per structural and architectural
drawings
Mechanical component refers to any single part of a machine (not programmable/ not
digital) that is visible and when subjected to forces runs a machine.
Examples of mechanical components are;
• Bearing
• Shafts
• Bolts
• Nails
• Blades
• Cover
• Rods
• Gears

637
 • Pulleys
• Chains

There exist conventions that that both a drafter and the interpreter of architectural and
structural drawings.
The following therefore should be taken into consideration;
• Feet and inches both need to be shown for example 5 ft, 5 inch; even if the
dimensions have no value, the 0 remains part of designation.
• The lines of dimensions are continuous with the number being placed at
the center or placed slightly above the line or broken at the center and the
number placed.
• Inches are used when the dimensions are too small.
• Dots, arrowheads or slashes are put at end of the dimension lines to show
the extent of dimension.
• Irrespective of the scale used, dimension lines indicate actual building
sizes.
• Dimension of doors is also shown in the floor plan symbol or represented
by the door symbol.
• On plan views, dimension giving location are provided at the centerlines
of both openings.
• To eliminate confusion with other dimension lines curves are used.

638
Figure 163: Dimensions
Source: [Link]

Mechanical components include various categories as follows:

i. Fasteners
The diameter is typically measured on the outside of the threads.
They include nuts and bolts, screws, pins and rivets.
Size; for most consists of three parts i.e. diameter, length and thread count.
ii. Nuts and washers.
Their sizes are the same the diameter of the fastener they are meant to work with.
Hence a 0.5inch washer fits 0.5inch bolt/ screw.
iii. Bolt
Is a form of a threaded fastener with external male thread. Strength and
circumstance determine material selection for bolts.
Example of bolts include blind bolts, hex bolts, anchor bolts, carriage bolts and
double end bolts.
iv. Joints -a section of a machine which is used to connect one or more mechanical
parts to another. Integral joints include seams, shrink-fits and crimps.

639
5.2 Identify Mechanical components as per architectural and structural drawings
(Union, Bends)
1. Union- Connects two pipes and allows for future disconnection for maintenance.
Used in pipe systems to link straight sections of pipe or tube and are flexible to
accommodate different sizes or shapes and fluid flow regulation.
Consists of three parts: a nut, female and a male end.

Figure 164: UNION

Source:[Link]
VooU7uuVweHEizBErqw3E&height=194

2. Bends- is a device shaped with a bending to retain fluid. Traps are usually U, S, Q or J
shaped. Bend is an offset or change in direction of in pipe networks.

Figure 165: BENDS

Source:[Link]
dZWCTmffcw&height=255

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5.3 Interpret Mechanical drawings as per specifications
Interpretation of mechanical drawings depicts the major mechanical and electrical
components in a building system or any kind of system, the links and the sensors placed
for collection of data and monitoring of operation process. The components have an input
and output which are sampled by the sensors and instruments so as to evaluate performance
of the component to be evaluated and to determine adjustments needed. The components
are represented symbolically and flow paths are usually depicted using distinctive line
convention.
• For interpretation, conversion of mechanical drawings to CAD (Computer Aided
Design) must be enabled and thus the following are required:
i. Accuracy
Converted information must be compatible to the input system.
ii. Ability to recognize complex entities
iii. Use of all properties.
• Reasoning on blocks
The drawing is divided into various blocks whose relative position to one another
has a technological meaning.
• Correction and conversion to CAD

Conclusion
The mechanical components to be constructed have been subjected to rigorous and
ingenious process that starts with learning how to interpret mechanical drawings

Further Reading

How to obtain size of various mechanical components based on mechanical drawings.

Numerical analysis

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What is the first step in a mechanical drawing process
a) Brainstorm solutions
b) Prepare rough sketches
c) Prepare a budget

641
2. Identify Critical issue drafters need to pay attention to
a) Size of the sheet
b) Designers intentions
c) Scale of drawing
3. The size (diameter) of the hole in which the split pin is to be put is when D is the
diameter of the hole.
a) 0.1D
b) 0.12D
c) 0.4D
d) 0.3D
4. Evaluate different types of mechanical components
5. Differentiate between mechanical drawing and fine art

Essay questions
Evaluate the process of interpretation of engineering drawing

Project Assessment
Perform a mechanical drawing of pip networks

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Codes of practice
• mechanical conventions,
• workstation
• CAD & GIS Software

[Link] References

Moubray, J. (2001). Reliability-centered maintenance. Industrial Press Inc.

Hillier, S., Grimmer-Somers, K., Merlin, T., Middleton, P., Salisbury, J., Tooher, R., &
Weston, A. (2011). FORM: an Australian method for formulating and grading
recommendations in evidence-based clinical guidelines. BMC medical research
methodology, 11(1), 23.
Kilgarriff, A., Baisa, V., Bušta, J., Jakubíček, M., Kovář, V., Michelfeit, J., & Suchomel,
V. (2014). The Sketch Engine: ten years on. Lexicography, 1(1), 7-36.

642
 CHAPTER 16: BUILDING WORKS

16.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit describes competencies required to carry out building works. It involves
executing site preliminary works, building temporary works, substructure works,
superstructure works, building finishes and external works.

16.2 Performance Standard

Execute site preliminary works, building temporary works, substructure works,
superstructure works, building finishes, and external works as per standard construction
procedures.

16.3 Learning Outcomes

16.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Execute site preliminary works
b) Execute building temporary works
c) Execute substructure works
d) Execute superstructure works
e) Execute building finishes
f) Execute building external works

643
16.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Execute Site Preliminary Works
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Execute Site Preliminary Works
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Survey the building site • Be able to

1.2 Determine site boundary demonstrate how to
1.3 Hoard/screen building site prepare a site
1.4 Demolish unwanted structures preliminary report
1.5 Clear building site • Conduct required
1.6 Prepare site layout practical works on
1.7 Prepare site preliminary report site
1.8 Identify site utilities
1.9 Construct storage facilities

[Link] Information Sheet No16/LO1: Execute Site Preliminary Works

Introduction to learning outcome

Building works need to follow a certain procedure of which site preliminary works forms
the first step. This is crucial because if not undertaken then the success of building works
is compromised.

Definition of key terms

Site utilities – These are services provided during construction that are essential for the
normal functioning of the society. They include among others water, electricity and sewer
system.

Surveying methods - These are techniques used to determine the relative position of
objects on the earth surface for construction site investigation. These methods include plane
surveying and geodetic surveying

Site installation - This is the erection of equipment and infrastructure such as power
network equipment on site.

644
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Survey the building site as per standard construction procedures
Surveying a building site is a process which comprises of assessing the suitability of the
area of land for the building construction or other civil inferring works. The process
involves taking note on key factors affecting the design of the building and security of the
surrounding land. The main objective of the survey is to establish if the proposed building
is feasible in technical terms and evaluate its economic benefits. In civil and construction
works, surveying is done by making measurements relative to known or assumed datum
for location, design and construction of civil engineering projects.
Other objectives include identifying different factors which cause difficulties in
construction to aid in coming up with the best strategy and aid in coming up with a
satisfying and economical building design.

Commonly used surveying instruments are;

• Theodolite
• Measuring tape
• Dumpy level
• Rod
• Electronic distance measurement
• Total station
• Automatic level

Procedure of surveying a building site

i. Carry out reconnaissance- involves examining the survey area to know the best
possible ways of carrying out surveying, establish a system of horizontal controls
and make a sketch showing the permanent features including the north line.
ii. Field measurements- the surveyor uses the surveying instruments to make linear
and angular measurements.
iii. Field record- al the measurements are recorded systematically on a field book. the
records maybe numerical value, written notes or even sketches.
iv. Office work- the surveyor carries out drafting, computing and designing using the
values recorded.

1.2 Determine site boundary as per standard construction procedures

A site boundary is a temporally line, limit or a margin erected to define the perimeter of a
construction site which is used to manage the public risk in a construction site.

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The following factors are considered in site boundary identification and sizing;
• Population density of the area- in an area where the labour forces is scarce, there
would be a need for more living facilities in the site. Also, in areas where the
happening far from the industrial centers, there would be a need for more space for
equipment maintenance and storage area.
• Project size - a project taking a lesser period would need less site space compared
to a project taking a period of 10 years which would need a temporally structure of
a permanent nature.
• Nature of the project - an industrial plant project would need more space for
mechanical and electrical works compared to a highway project.
• Nature of the site – the land scape and existence of another site before

1.3 Hoard/screen building site as per standard construction procedures

This is an area marked by a boundary that is used to keep the members of the public from
construction site hazards.
Some of the holding materials include the following;
• Wood
• Steel
• Aluminum
• Chain- link

Importance of holding and screening building site

• To separate the public and the work site
• To protect the public from hazards like falling objects
• To keep the building floors protected during site visits and before handing over the
project

1.4 Demolish unwanted structures as per standard construction procedures

This is to bring down a structure to pave way for a future installation.
There are various methods of demolition of unwanted structures. They are as follows;
• Manual method
• Demolition by use of a machine from top to down
• Demolition by implosion
• Demolition of floor slabs
• Demolition by crane and a wrecking ball

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 Safety considerations during demolition of unwanted structures
a) Each employee should the equipped with the safety boots and helmets during
demolition for their safety.
b) The building should be inspected before demolition to ensure that no single person
is left in the building during demolition and also assign someone to guard the area
from entrance by unauthorized persons.
c) Ensure the employees taking part in demolition are trained and experienced in the
field.
d) After demolition is complete, clean up the debris which could the harmful to the
safety and health of the public

1.5 Clear building site as per standard construction procedure

Clearing a building site includes removal of trees, unwanted infrastructure and of obstacles
that may hinder construction of an infrastructure.

Tools and equipment used in clearing a building site are as follows;

• Tractors
• Bulldozers
• Backhoe
• Axe
• Wheelbarrow
• Rakes

Steps followed in clearing a building site

i. Clear the undergrowth vegetation for example; grass
ii. Cut down trees
iii. Remove tall stumps by use of machinery
iv. Remove the roots
v. Remove and relocate large stones
vi. Destroy the animal burrow by digging them out and fill them with clay
vii. Clear the vegetation near the surrounding of the building site

1.6 Prepare site layout as per standard construction procedures

Site layout is the detailing of the site by sizing and erecting temporary facilities for efficient
flow of materials. A good site layout should increase the output and ensure safety and
maximize the area used for temporary constructions.

Procedure of preparing a site layout plan

i. Gather information on site facilities to be required
ii. Get the measurements of the infrastructures to be constructed

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 iii. Determine how the different facilities in the site are inter- related
iv. Maximize the use of the site area

1.7 Prepare site preliminary report as per standard construction procedures

The following steps show the steps in preparing a site preliminary report;
i. Describe the project components which include the nature of the project.
ii. Verify the project components
iii. Prepare a site layout plan
iv. Conduct a feasibility study of the site
v. Identify the mode of payment of the project
vi. Determine the number of construction contracts needed
vii. Give a detailed opinion of the engineer

1.8 Identify Site utilities (Temporary washrooms, Source of water, Storage, Site
office) as per standard construction procedures
Site utilities are- These are services provided during construction that are essential for the
normal functioning of the society.
Temporary washrooms- number of toilets is better to be not less than the ratio of 25
people per toilet and reasonable allocation should consider the male to female ratio in
construction area (Yang, 2017)

Source of water- water systems are highly regulated in building industry. All components
of water used in construction must meet the requirement6s of building codes.

Storage- there should be adequate space, protection and control for materials and
equipment that are to be kept in a construction site. Storage facilities will depend on the
type of materials and equipment and their size.

Site office-office accommodation arrangements are a matter of choice for each individual
contractor. Separate offices can be provided for site agents, clerk, administrative staff, site
surveyor, secretary among others.

1.9 Construct storage facilities are as per standard construction procedures

Storage facilities in site provide adequate space for protection of materials, equipment and
other valuable objects on site a good storage facility should be secure, affordable, and has
enough space for storage.

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The storage area can be calculated using the formula below;
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
Storage area A= ( )/𝑄𝑛
𝐼𝑚
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Qmax= qdaily × t ×k, qdaily = 𝑇
Qmax: Maximum estimated quantity in storage space; Im: Utilization index for materials;
qn: quantity of materials can be stored per m2;
Total: Total quantity of materials required for the project;
qdaily: estimated quantity required per day;
T: construction period (not total project duration);
t: Average stock (days);
k: Fluctuation factor

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the competency of executing preliminary works that are
required in building works.

Further Reading

Watch various videos on how various tools and equipment are used in site clearing.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Three of the following instruments are used in surveying, which one is old one out?
a) Dumpy level
b) Rod
c) Tractor
d) Measuring
2. Explain the term utility giving examples
3. Select the old one out
a) Tractor
b) Backhoe
c) Bulldoze
d) Theodolite

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4. There are various methods of demolition of unwanted structures. Which one of the
following is among them?
a) House demolition method
b) Down to tot demolition method
c) Explosive demolition method
d) Manual demolition method
5. Among the following, which material is used for holding?
a) Paper
b) Wool
c) Glass
d) Wood
6. Define the term utilities
7. Explain the word surveying and give three instruments used in surveying
8. You have qualified to be the site engineer in a construction of a health care facility in
your county. Give the main steps that you will use in preparing a site preliminary report.

Oral Assessment
Outline the various site clearing tools

Project Assessment
You are entitled to be in charge of a government project in your area, prepare a site layout
plan for the project.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• measuring and drawing tools
• computers/internet
• printers/plotting device
• calculator

Materials and supplies

• Codes of practice
• mechanical conventions,
• site office
• standard manuals and guidelines

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• dust coat
• First aid kits

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[Link] References

Paul, R., & Whyte, W. (2012). Basic surveying. Routledge.

Rathi, S. O., & Khandve, P. V. (2014). Demolition of Buildings–An Overview.

International Journal of Advance Engineering and Research Development, 1(6).

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16.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Execute Building Temporary Works
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Execute Building Temporary Works
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Construct and dismantle trench timbering • Undertake the

2.2 Construct and dismantle building formwork/shuttering project of building
2.3 Erect and dismantle building scaffold temporary works as
2.4 Erect and dismantle building shores required by the
standard
construction
procedures

[Link] Information Sheet No16/LO2: Execute Building Temporary Works

Introduction to learning outcome

This section involves execution of frameworks that will guide the actual substructure
works. It involves the general skeleton of what is expected after building works are
completed.

Definition of key terms

Formwork – This is a temporary or a permanent structure in which fresh concrete is poured
to construct structural elements which achieve its shape. Formwork can be classified into;
engineered formwork, timber formwork and insulated formwork.

Scaffold – this is a temporary platform that is erected before commencement of

construction or repair of a structure to ensure safety of workers, provide support on heights
and also provide material during construction.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Construct and dismantle trench timbering according to standard construction
procedures
A trench timbering is a process of providing boards and struts when the trench is large or
the subsoil is loose to offer temporal support on the sides of the trench.

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Timbering process
The timbering is made by placing vertical polling boards opposite each other against the
walls of the trench and holding them in position by use of one or two rows of struts.

Figure 166: Timber vertical polling boards

Source: Building construction (punmia et al, 1987)

Dismantling process
Dismantling of a trench timbering is done under a supervision of a competent person to
avoid the structure from collapsing. The trench timbering are dismantled step by step from
below in a reverse order in which they were installed

Importance of trench timbering

a) To support the trench when;
• The soil is loose
• The trench is large
b) For the security of the workers

2.2 Construct and dismantle building formwork/shuttering according to standard

construction procedures
A formwork is a process of creating temporary molds into which fresh concrete is poured
and formed to make designated shapes. Formwork can be made of steel, wood or even fiber
glass.

Steps in construction of formwork are as follow;

i. Using measuring tools such as a measuring tape measure and indicate
borders of concrete slabs
ii. Guided by a string, frame the area
iii. Lay gravel at the base of the formwork
iv. Pour concrete inside the formwork
The formwork is dismantled only when the concrete has gained sufficient strength. Also,
ensure stability of the remaining formwork during removal.

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Steps followed in removing formwork are as follows;
i. Ensure that the concrete had dried before removing the formwork
ii. The forms are removed starting at the top of the sloping slabs
iii. Remove the stakes by use of a stake puller to avoid damaging the slab
iv. Use a little force to pull the forms away from the sides of the concrete

2.3 Erect and dismantle building scaffold according to standard construction

procedures
Scaffold is a temporary platform that is erected before commencement of construction or
repair of a structure to ensure safety of workers, provide support on heights and also
provide material during construction

Recommended steps in making a scaffold

i. Ensure that the foundation to the scaffold is secure to avoid settling of the scaffold
ii. Assemble the scaffold frame and place the planks
iii. Make an access to the scaffold
iv. Attach guardrails to the scaffold
v. Ensure that the scaffold is safe to work with
Dismantling of a scaffold is trained by a competent person.

Importance of scaffolds in building construction

• Ensure safety of workers
• Easy access of different parts of the building like the ceiling
• Provide a working area for workers

2.4 Erect and dismantle building shores according to standard construction

procedures.
Shores are made to offer support to an infrastructure which is at a risk of collapsing. Shores
maybe made angled, horizontal of vertical. Shores carry vertical loads from the walls.

Types of building shores and how they are made

Raking shores-made by joining one or more timbers connecting the ground and the
surface of the structure to be supported

Hydraulic shoring- a hydraulic piston is pumped outwards until it presses against the
face of the structure to be supported

Flying shoring- in this technique, horizontal strut is placed between the wall plates
and is supported by a system of needle and cleats.

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 Dead shoring- The dead shore consists of an arrangement of beams and posts which
are required to support the weight of the superstructure and transfer same to the
substructure

Shores should be dismantled by a trained person. The shores are removed when the
concrete has gained enough strength to support itself

Importance of shoring in construction

Safety- ensure safety of the work site by holding the earthen wall up

Lower cost-reduce the possibility of collapsed excavations

Save time- if trench collapsed, more time would be spend in digging it out again, therefore
avoiding the collapse saves more time

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the building of temporary works that form the basis of the
actual building works of erection and dismantling of support systems in construction.

Further Reading

Read more on process of execution of superstructure works in a building

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Among the following, which one is the old one out?
a) Raking shores
b) Flying shores
c) Dead shores
d) Live shores
2. Formwork can be classified into various classes. Which one of the following is not?
a) Engineered formwork
b) Timber formwork
c) Insulated formwork.
d) Concrete formwork

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3. Which among the following is not a step in construction of formwork?
a) Using measuring tools such as a measuring tape measure and indicate borders
of concrete slabs
b) Guided by a string, frame the area
c) Lay gravel at the base of the formwork
d) Pour water on the gravel
4. Evaluate how formworks are made.
5. What is the difference between scaffold and shores?
6. Evaluate three types of shores
7. Illustrate steps of constructing a formwork

Oral Assessment
Describe the importance of scaffolding

Project Assessment
Design a trench timbering to support the trench in your area.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• Measuring and drawing tools
• Computers/internet
• Printers/plotting device
• Calculator

Materials and supplies

• Codes of practice
• Mechanical conventions,
• 5site office
• Standard manuals and guidelines

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Dust coat
• First aid kits

656
[Link] References

Chen, W. F., & Mosallam, K. H. (2000). Concrete buildings analysis for safe construction
(Vol. 2). CRC Press.
Rupasinghe, R., & Nolan, E. (2007). Formwork for modern, efficient concrete
construction. Publication of BRE. Garston, Watford. UK 978-1-86081-975-9

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16.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Execute Substructure Works
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Execute Substructure Works
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Excavate building foundation • Conduct setting out

3.2 Set out the building procedure and
3.3 Lay the building foundation provide the
3.4 Erect foundation walls necessary tools and
3.5 Construct solid ground floor equipment
• Perform soil
analysis

[Link] Information Sheet No16/LO3: Execute Substructure Works

Introduction to learning outcome

This involves the building of structures below the earth surface on site as guided by the
standard construction procedures. These structures include the foundation or footings.

Definition of key terms

Foundation: This is an engineered system that transfers to and into the beneath soil or rock
the loads supported by the foundation and its self-weight

Setting Out: this is a term referring to marks and line formation in order to define the
position of the elements and their levels for the building works so that works may proceed
with reference to them.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Excavate building foundation according to standard construction procedure
Excavation: refers to the process of removing soil, rock and other non-decomposing
materials with tools, equipment or explosives. Excavation is used in building works to
create foundations for structures. Excavation of building foundation involves several
activities. These activities include:
Clearing the site before excavation, setting out of foundation layout before excavation and
carrying out an actual excavation

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 • How Excavation for foundation is carried out
Excavation is carried out manually using the available tools like the spades, pick axes etc.
in small building works. In the case of big constructions and deep excavations, mechanical
earth moving machines like excavators and back hoes can be used.

3.2 Set out the building according to standard construction procedures

Setting out of a building is done in order to clearly define the outline of the excavation and
the Centre line of the walls so that the construction can be carried out exactly according to
the plan. Building setting out methods include
• Pegging method
• Blocks method
Setting out using pegging: this is done after obtaining the architectural building plan and
the site has been cleared.

STEPS (according to the contractor website)

i. Initially, consider all the corners where the proposed columns or pillars will be
situated and establish the corners relative to the dimension of the building floor plan
and peg it.
ii. Hit nails at the middle – top of each peg and run a rope round all the pegs.
Considering just one, measure the setback from back of the fence to the end of the
building lines in that particular angle, then come to the front and measure the
setback also as given in your drawing plan.
iii. Then use the back or the front as a reference depending on which setback is more
important to you. Measure the setback from fence and establish these two points
with pegs then put a rope to cross both pegs. Ensure they form a right angle or 90
degrees. To determine if your rope are at right angle, put a checker popularly called
‘square’ by bricklayers, this will tell you whether you need to shift the other rope
that can be varied since one is already fixed to form a base mark.
iv. Next step is to ensure that your measurement correspond to the measurements on
the drawing plan and then establish the other two points using the square.
v. Nail pegs at an interval of 3m round below the rope that marks your building line,
then join the tie rods by nailing (flat thin wood) on top around the entire area.
vi. Institute the individual rooms measurements by nails (4 nails are required at each
measurement) two will establish the two sides of the blocks one is going to
excavate, the length of this is usually three times the width of the block that is being
used.
vii. In accordance with the details in the plan, mark with line the width to be excavated
with pegs at appropriate positions. The excavation width is marked using lime or
by furrow with spade.

659
 viii. The depth dug depends on the foundation type as recommended by your structural
engineer.
ix. Cast the concrete bed/base
x. The next step is to determine where your blocks will follow by using the nails on
your profile board. Set blocks 3-4 or more courses or partitions in reference to the
topography of the site.
xi. All the trenches on the surface should be filled and then backfilled.
xii. Cast the solid floor slab for the ground or the oversite floor.

3.3 Lay the building foundation according to standard construction procedures

Steps for laying a foundation of a building
i. Select the type of foundation to build. The choice will depend on the type of
superstructure it will support and the type of soil among many others.
ii. Set your footings 2 feet (0.61.) (60.96cm) crosswise. Add 2 feet on either side. This
will ensure that the formwork is properly spaced and allows one to get the space
they need for foundation laying.
iii. Arrange your 2inch wide by 10-inch-long (5.08cm wide by 25.4cm long) boards to
make the footings formwork. Position and lay down the boards in the planned
foundation shape and size.
iv. Straighten and level the form. The forms cannot be adjusted after the concrete is
poured. Since the concrete is very weighty, make sure your formwork is strong and
firmly in place.
v. Form the concrete by adding all the mixtures in proper ratio and mix thoroughly to
come up with a uniform mixture.
vi. Pour the already made concrete in the form to make concrete foundation and then
level using a trowel.
vii. Finish your concrete by letting it dry and carry out curing

660
Figure 167: Concrete by letting it dry and carry out curing
Source: Design [Link] – foundation construction building site.

3.4 Erect foundation walls according to standard construction procedures

Several materials exist for making the walls for foundation. These materials can be rocks,
concrete blocks, sand – cement, or stabilized earth materials. The choice of all the above-
mentioned materials will depend on the availability of these material, the client’s budget,
and whether or not earthquakes or severe weather conditions will require reinforcement in
the foundation.

How to erect foundation walls

i. Lay the blinding and cast the foundation
ii. Lay an impermeable material/layer on the predetermined positions
iii. Allow the combination to cure
iv. Cut the blocks and lay the subsequent course blocks
v. Add the reinforcements
vi. Finish the joints
vii. Lay the cap blocks

3.5 Construct solid ground floor according to standard construction procedures

The formation method of a solid concrete slab involves the construction of formwork,
placing and reinforcement of the floor.

661
 Construction steps
i. The first step is to combine and put up formwork.
ii. The second step is to put in order and place the reinforcements as directed by
the structural engineer.
iii. The third step is to pour, compact and finish the concrete.
iv. The final step is curing and removal of formwork.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the execution of foundation building and construction of
ground floor as per standard construction procedures.

Further Reading

Read on the types of foundations, the block method of setting out and the circumstances
under which all the foundation types are used.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following is not a shallow foundation?
a) Spread
b) Strap
c) Pile
d) Combine
2. The following are not substructure element in building works, which one is?
a) Foundation
b) Roof
c) Beams
d) Columns
3. which one of the following is a not a deep foundation
a) Pile
b) pier
c) strip
d) caissons

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4. The following activities are carried out during the construction of substructures. Which
one is not
a) Dewatering
b) excavation
c) setting out
d) Finishing
5. In what circumstances are shallow foundations preferred?
a) In case the client orders that a shallow foundation should be used
b) When the construction cost is high and using a shallow foundation will cut the
cost
c) When the soil surface is hard and stable
d) When the contractor is only perfect in construction of a shallow foundation
6. under what circumstances do we use deep foundations
a) In case the structural engineer specifies so
b) When the soil is stable and hard
c) When the construction equipment is available
d) When the contractor prefers deep foundation over shallow foundation
7. Why should the surface be excavated before the foundation is laid?
a) To show that construction is yet to begin
b) To remove top humus soil that are not favorable for laying of foundation
c) To get soil used for construction
d) To increase the number of construction days in order to increase the labour cost
8. Classify and evaluate the four types of foundations
9. Evaluate three equipment and tools used in excavation process
10. Distinguish the methods used to set out the building
11. Differentiate between the shallow and deep foundation
12. Explain the methods used to control termite in the site during the construction of
substructure

Essay questions
1. Summarize the different activities that are carried out during excavation process
2. Discuss some of the tools that are used in the construction of substructure of a building.
3. Distinguish the circumstances under which dewatering is recommended and evaluate
its importance.

Oral Assessment
1. Distinguish the role of an engineer in the construction of a substructure?
2. Explain the factors considered during the construction of a substructure?
3. Evaluate the importance of dewatering during the excavation process?
4. Why is it necessary to compact the ground after excavation?

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5. What are the requirements to be met before walling begins?
6. What are the failure signs in the substructure?
7. Evaluate causes failure of the substructure?

Case Study Assessment

The county government of Siaya is planning to set up a training institute at ganja town.
The site has been identified and from the soil study analysis, the site is underlain by
expansive clay soul to a depth of 20 cm deep resting on a hard rock surface. Adjacent to
the site is a water logged plot. As a fresh graduate from the institution, you have been
selected by the county engineer to assist in the construction and supervision of the
substructure of the administration building. You are tasked with the excavation works,
setting out and laying of the foundation. How will you ensure that these works are
successfully executed?

• During curing of a pad foundations of a two bedroomed house, you notice that the
levels of the reinforcement bars are not equal, as a trainee technician, what action
you should take. What could have caused this scenario?

Project Assessment
Your school has decided to construct a new female house. It is a two storey building.
Both the architectural and structural drawings are available and the contractor is ready to
start the construction work. As a student, you are tasked to visit the site and carry out
some studies. Afterwards, you are tasked with coming up with a detailed report of the
stepwise activities that were carried out at the site until the substructure of the building
was complete.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• Measuring and drawing tools
• Computers/internet
• Printers/plotting device
• Calculator
Materials and supplies
• Codes of practice
• Mechanical conventions,
• Site office
• Standard manuals and guidelines
Personal protective equipment (PPEs)
• Dust coat
• First aid kits

664
[Link] References

Cao, J., Wang, W., Wang, J., & Wang, R. (2016). Excavation equipment recognition
based on novel acoustic statistical features. IEEE transactions on
cybernetics, 47(12), 4392-4404.
Wang, J., Feng, B., Yu, H., Guo, T., Yang, G., & Tang, J. (2013). Numerical study of
dewatering in a large deep foundation pit. Environmental Earth
Sciences, 69(3), 863-872.

665
16.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Execute Superstructure Works
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Execute Superstructure Works
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Set out and construct superstructure columns • Ensure the setting
4.2 Set out and erect superstructure walling out procedure is
4.3 Set out and construct superstructure beams, stairs and based on the
upper floors construction method
4.4 Set out and erect building roof used.
4.5 Construct the fire place
4.6 Fixtures (electric sockets, light fixtures, plumbing
installations, security and fire alarm systems) and
fittings (furniture, hand driers, soap dispensers, towel
hangers, cabinets) are installed

[Link] Information Sheet No16/LO4: Execute Superstructure Works

Introduction to learning outcome

This involves setting out, erecting and constructing the superstructure’s columns, walls,
beams, roof among other structures.

Definition of key terms

Fixtures: these are permanent equipment that are installed in a building to enhance
client’s satisfaction. They include the installation of sockets, water plumbing lines, alarm
systems among many others

Fittings: are the temporary equipment that are brought in a building to enhance comfort.
They include the furniture, electrical appliances, curtains etc.

666
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Set out and construct superstructure columns based on the construction method
Column are compressional members that supports the loads from the beam or the slabs. In
some cases they support moments as well. Columns are set out in accordance to the
specification by the structural engineer. Before casting the columns, form work is first
done. The forms will ensure that the lean concrete is held place. The already mixed concrete
is then dispensed and compacted in order to avoid void formation as the concrete dries.

Steps for constructing a column.

i. Column layout work- the location is done essentially in the construction site by
laying a rope as per the grid lines shown in the structural drawing plan
ii. Reinforcement of column work - when column marking is done, then the column
location is done. However the reinforcement is done according to structural
drawing
iii. Formwork for the column- it is used to grip the poured concrete in place
iv. Pouring of concrete- can be done manually or using machine or pump

4.2 Set out and erect superstructure walling based on the construction method
Several materials exist for the construction of walls. These materials are; glasses, masonry
blocks, bricks and stones. The choice of these materials depend on the client’s preference,
the design specifications and the availability of materials. The walls are constructed in
accordance to the specifications of both the structural engineer and the architecture. The
mixtures must comply with the mix ratio design.

Steps for constructing masonry block wall

i. After the foundation has cured, lay the first course block
ii. Cut the blocks and lay the subsequent course blocks
iii. Add the reinforcements
iv. Finish the joints
v. Lay the cap blocks

667
Figure 168: Constructing masonry block wall
Source: The contractor website – reinforced concrete masonry wall

4.3 Set out and construct superstructure beams, stairs and upper floors based on the
construction method
Beams are structural members that carry the axial compression loads as well as the
moments and torsion. They carry weight from the slabs and transfer them to the columns.
They are set out in places pre identified by the structural engineer. They are constructed
according to the structural engineer’s specifications. The reinforcements are first laid
followed by form work then pouring of the already prepared concrete then vibration of the
same. Stairs are meant to carry the lateral loads like wind and earthquake. Upper floors
transits their dead loads and imposed loads (total loads) to the beams then to the columns
and finally to the foundations.

Steps for setting out and constructing beams

i. Preparation and excavation of the ground for the beam in case the beam is located
below the ground surface.
ii. Formwork installation for the beam
iii. Beam reinforcement as per the structural engineer specification
iv. Pouring of concrete into the formwork

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Figure 169: Pouring of concrete into the formwork
Source: YouTube – tie beam fitted on foundation to construct a home

Steps for laying solid upper floors

a) Assemble and Erect Formwork- this will provide a base for laying the
reinforcements
b) Prepare and Place Reinforcement- this should be done according to the
specifications by a structural engineer
c) Pour, Compact and Finish Concrete- this will ensure that the thickness of the solid
slab is uniform
d) Curing Concrete and Remove Formwork- curing increases the compressive
strength of the concrete

Figure 170: Curing Concrete

Source: slide share – section of solid ground floors

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4.4 Set out and erect building roof according to standard construction procedures
Roof is the top most structure in a building. It can be made of tiles, iron sheets or concrete.
The choice depends on the design, available materials and the client’s preference. The roof
is designed by the structural engineer and the dimensions given to the contractor. The type
of the roof chosen depends on the design of the building

Steps for iron sheet roof construction

i. Preparation of trusses according to the drawing
ii. Preparation and joining of ties
iii. Joining of trusses to the ties and other members according to the drawing
specifications
iv. Nailing of the iron sheets

Figure 171: Erect building roof according to standard construction procedures

Source: Carpentry tips and tricks

4.5 Construct the fire place according to standard construction procedures

A fire place is specially designed and set aside for the purpose of heating the house and
keeping it worm during cold seasons. It is constructed with high heat resistant concrete and
it must be well ventilated.

Steps for constructing a concrete fire place

i. Assemble and erect formwork- this will provide a base for laying the
reinforcements
ii. Prepare and place reinforcement- this should be done according to the
specifications by a structural engineer
iii. Pour, compact and finish concrete- this will ensure that the thickness of the solid
slab is uniform

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 iv. Curing concrete and remove formwork- curing increases the compressive
strength of the concrete
v. Construct the walling and provide for ventilation.

4.6 Fixtures which are the permanently installed equipment in a building are installed
according to standard construction procedures.
Process of installing electricity on an already built house
i. Assembling of the pipes and conduits
ii. Aligning the positions that the conduits will follow
iii. Mark the lines where the pipes will follow
iv. Dig the marked line positions
v. Insert the pipes and the wires as directed by the electrician
vi. Hide the pipes by plastering them.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the setting out and construction of the superstructure works
and installation of required fixtures and fittings as per the standard construction procedures.

Further Reading

Read further on the types of staircases, the types of fittings and on the factors controlling
the design and construction of the superstructure.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The following are superstructures except one. Which one is it?
a) Beams
b) Columns
c) walls
d) Footings
2. The following are compression members except one. Which one is it?
a) Masonry wall
b) column
c) Beam
d) Ties

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3. What is the main function of form work in the construction of superstructure?
a) To add on the strength
b) To ease curing process
c) To hold the lean concrete
d) To make the work look more structural
4. Which of the following materials listed below is not suitable for the construction of a
wall?
a) Concrete blocks
b) masonry blocks
c) bricks
d) synthesized cotton
5. Which one of the listed materials is not suitable for roof construction?
a) Corrugated iron sheets
b) tiles
c) concrete
d) plastics
6. Differentiate between fixtures and fittings
7. Explain the circumstances under which the column carry loads from the slab
8. Explain the conditions should be met during the construction of a fire place
9. Discuss the advantages of curing
10. Classify all the superstructure elements
11. Explain the term super structure

Essay questions
Discuss all the structural members in the super structure outlining their functions
Discuss all the factors that determines the choice of each of the materials used in all the
super structures.

Oral Assessment
Differentiate between a sub structure and a super structure
Distinguish all the structural elements in each case.

Case Study Assessment

The Nairobi city council has decided to renovate their offices to make them look more
modernized. The contractor whom you are working under has been tasked with the same.
As his most trusted employee, he sends you to access the condition of the superstructure
and list down all the fixtures and fittings that should be included. As a loyal employer,
give a detailed report on the same to your employer

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Practical Assessment
In your school vicinity, identify all the super structure structural elements and give their
functions.

Project Assessment
Come up with a model showing all the substructure and superstructure elements. Indicate
the materials they are made of and show how the loads are transferred.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• Measuring and drawing tools
• Computers/internet
• Printers/plotting device
• Calculator

Materials and supplies

• Codes Of Practice
• Mechanical Conventions,
• Site Office
• Standard Manuals And Guidelines

Personal protective equipment (PPEs)

• Dust coat
• First aid kits

[Link] References

Malley, J. O. (2007). AISC Seismic Design Manual: Moment Frames. In New Horizons
and Better Practices (pp. 1-3)
David, F. (2007). Essentials of soil mechanics and foundations basic geotechnics. Pearson
Education, Upper Saddle River.
Mosley, W. H., Hulse, R., & Bungey, J. H. (2012). Reinforced concrete design: to
Eurocode 2. Macmillan International Higher Education.

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16.3.6 Learning Outcome No.5: Execute Building Finishes
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Execute building finishes
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Apply Floor finishes • Attach

5.2 Paint building surfaces demonstration
5.3 Apply building facings videos on how
5.4 Apply Wall finishes ( finishes are
5.5 Apply Ceiling finishes ( executed in
5.6 Carry out pointing and jointing building works.
5.7 Perform building rough casting

[Link] Information Sheet No.16/LO5: Execute building finishes

Introduction to learning outcome

This unit focuses on building finishes that involves building surfaces and facings; floor,
wall and ceiling finishes, as well as rough castings as per standard construction procedures.

Definition of key terms

Floor finishes-This is usually a permanent film applied to a floor in order to extend its life
and act a protection. The covering also serves to provide an attractive appearance and
friction preventing slipperiness.

Wall finishes-It’s a film or a layer applied to the wall to enhance its look as it provides a
decorative look either on the interior or exterior of a given structure.

Ceiling finishes- It’s a layer to provide an embellishing skin to hide the components that
have been used in building including structural members, wires, pipes, insulations and
ductworks.

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Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Apply Floor finishes (tiles, cement sand screed, terrazzo, wood parquets, and
carpets) according to standard construction procedures.
Floor finishes are permanent films applied to a floor usually to extend its life and act as a
protection. They also prevent slipperiness and appealing to the eye. Applying floor finishes
in accordance to the standard construction procedure varies according to the type of floor
finish. The following are the various standard procedures for applying the various floor
finishes. Procedures;

i. Tiles
The type of tiles to be selected depends on the functional use and location. Substrate surface
should be clean to ensure good bonding. Screed should be given ample time for curing by
air according to the manufactures instructions. Provide level pegs before screeding then
apply a slurry bond then the screed is laid immediately then levelled. Moisture content of
the substrate is checked by the relative humidity method. The cement-sand render should
also be allowed to air cure for at least 7 days.

Figure 172: Installation process of ceramic tiles flooring

Source; [Link]
160714013425/95/[Link]?cb=1468460102

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 ii. Cement Sand Screed
Check for the screed specification which should be according to the BS code of the practice
requirements and ensure that the data sheets tally with the BS8000 and BS820. Inspect for
the levels of base substrate for the attainment of the maximum or minimum screed
thickness. Check for screed mix; required mixing proportion for normal cement and sand
screed is 1:3 to 1:5. Check for batching and mixing requirements i.e. water and cement
content and grading of the aggregate. Laying and compacting is followed by curing of
screed, protection and testing.

i. Terrazzo
The materials should be thoroughly mixed for a uniform look (appearance). Uniform panels
of not more than 2 sqm in neither area nor 2m long for the inner areas while for exposed
areas it shouldn’t be more than 1.25m long.2kg of cement slurry should be applied for
every sqm before the under layer is laid over the cement concrete. Strips of specific
thickness can be used as required. It’s then laid when the under layer is hard, this is in order
to stop the cement that might travel to the top surface. The figures below show the
procedure for laying terrazzo over the ground and over a structural slab;

Figure 173: Installation process of terrazzo

Source;[Link]
[Link]

676
 ii. Wood parquet
The first step is to carry out moisture content test of the underlying concrete slab. A film
of 6-mil polyethylene is placed over the slab without mastic bonding. Then the plywood is
then laid over the above film with the reinforcement of actuated nails made of concrete.
Each panel takes about 9 nails of concrete. The arrangement of the panels is such that the
end joints are staggered at 4 ft. The following illustrates the various patterns employed
when installing wood parquet;

Figure 174: Wood parquet

Source; [Link]

iii. Carpets
Broadloom Carpet entails various procedures as stated here; Carpet seaming that should be
done according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, trimming i.e. the seams, sealing
the edges/seams, edge sealing. There’s also the stretch-in installation that entails installing
the carpet under tension using tack strips.

5.2 Paint building surfaces according to standard construction procedures.

Paint building of surfaces is done to bring colour, give a good texture and protect the
surfaces. The painting of buildings should be in accordance with the British Standard codes
that give for design considerations, selection of coating systems, special conditions and
requirements, preparation and coating systems, surface preparations. Painting of plastered
surfaces can be troublesome due to presence of moisture levels in the material of plaster.
Painting entails 5 steps;
1. Primer application
2. Wall putty application
3. Second putty application
4. The selected paint is the applied according to the type of surface
5. Then a repeat application of the paint

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5.3 Apply building facings according to standard construction procedures
Building facings entails building a wall in a manner to be called a facing of any of two wall
faces. The bricks used are usually hard enough to safely carry loads. The procedure for
obtaining a facing is usually by joining bricks together except that other substitute materials
can be used e.g. tiles. It’s a range of bricks hard-burned to be able to support normal loads
and be able to withstand adverse climatic conditions.

5.4 Apply Wall finishes (wall mastering, wall lining, and clad building walls)
according to standard construction procedures
These finishes are for protection and aesthetic and can either be interior or exterior finishes.
The procedures for good wall finishes require; that they are straight and plumb, smooth
surfaces and the combustible free. Finishes are selected according to the functional use and
availability. The following are the steps for carrying out the various types of finishes;
i. Give time for brick to cure depending on type of construction material then
allow the masonry brick to also cure
ii. Get the mortar ratio i.e. of cement and sand
iii. Next is to plaster the wall and give time to cure
iv. Surface preparation by rubbing by a wall plaster
v. Then the specific type of finish is applied

5.5 Apply Ceiling finishes (boards, T and G, gypsum board, acoustic ceilings)
according to standard construction procedures
Ceiling finishes- It’s a layer to provide an embellishing skin to hide the components that
have been used in building including structural members, wires, pipes, insulations and
ductworks. These are to be applied according to the manufacturer’s instructions and
detailing. The procedure for ceiling finishing involves the stated steps;
i. The ceiling is first chipped
ii. Its then washed by water which is then covered by cement grabbed
iii. The grabbing cement is covered by a mortar and the specific type of ceiling applied

5.6 Carry out pointing and jointing according to standard construction procedures
Jointing is defining the mortar joints finish between bricks in order to bring a about a neat
joint. Flush joints are mostly used for brickworks for uniform bricks with surfaces that are
smooth. Pointing is an operation that entails filing a joint with a material that has been
uniquely selected for authenticity or protection against adverse weather conditions.

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The process of jointing involves;
i. Cutting a cross joint
ii. Filling the cross joints first, and then the pointing mortar pressed firmly to
compaction
The process of pointing is rarely done on brick layers and it involves first clearing of loose
debris and then the place wetted before pointing.

5.7 Perform building rough casting according to standard construction procedures

Rough casting refers to applying a spatter dash finish to a building. Small pebbles and
gravel or other materials are usually mixed into the concrete to create a rough finish. The
finish is applied in a thickness equal to that of the board by pressing out. The following is
the procedure for rough casting manually;
i. The wall is first cleaned and repaired if need be
ii. The wall is then dampened in preparation for the first mix
iii. Cement is chosen i.e. general cement or white cement
iv. Selection of gravel or stone to be used and sand then mixed
v. Water proofer and plasticiser is added to the mix then base coast applied
vi. Base coat is scratched then the second and final coat is applied.
vii. The sprayer is filled with the mixer then finally is clean up

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the application of finishes such as floor, wall and ceiling
finishes as per the construction procedures.

[Link] Further reading

Read more on:

1. Slide share on Wall finishes by Swapnika Reddy
2. Building Finishes, Fittings and Domestic Service by Chudley,R, R

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a type of floor finish?
a) Tiles
b) Wood parquets
c) Terrazzo
d) Boards
2. Finishes fall in 2 categories except?
a) Self-finish and wet finish
b) Slippery finish and dry finish
3. The following are examples of wet finishes except?
a) Plaster
b) Paint
c) Wallpaper
d) Wood
4. The following are factors that affect the choice of floor finishes except?
a) Type of Base
b) Room usage
c) Cost
d) Colour
5. Floor finishes can be considered under the following 3 main heading. Which is not?
a) In situ
b) Applied
c) Timber
d) Gypsum
6. Explain the various methods of application of wood parquets?
7. Distinguish two types of floor finishes?
8. Differentiate between pointing and jointing?

Essay questions
Categorize various types of finishes
Describe the application of the terrazzo finish according to standard construction
procedures.

Oral Assessment
What is a finish?
State the various types of finishes done on a building?

680
Case Study Assessment
A case study on the durability of terrazzo finishes over cement sand screed in buildings in
Nairobi CBD

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and equipment
• Computers/internet
• Printers
• Calculator
• Measuring tools
• Trowels
• Rollers
• Jointer tool
• Polishers

Materials and supplies

• Codes of practice
• Site office
• Standard manuals
• Guidelines

PPE (Personal protective equipment);

• Overalls
• Reflectors
• Helmet
• First Aid Kits

References

Wheeler, G.E. (2005) Alkoxysilane and the Consolidation of Stone. Getty Trust
Publications, Santa Monica, CA.
EN 12004:2007 Adhesives for tiles – Definitions and specifications
BS 5385-5 (2011) Wall and floor tilling. Design and installation of terrazzo, natural stone
and agglomeration stone tile and slab flooring. Code of practice

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16.3.7 Learning Outcome No. 6: Execute Building External Works
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Execute Building External Works
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Lay external paving • Carry out group

6.2 Perform soft landscaping discussions on
6.3 Construct drainage system various external
6.4 Construct fences and gates works
• Carry out a project
on external works

[Link] Information Sheet No16/LO6: Execute Building External Works

Introduction to learning outcome

This involves learning the external works from design interpretation, measurements to the
actual building.

Definition of Key terms

Fence: It’s a structure that serves as wall except that it doesn’t have a solid foundation
throughout its length. It encloses a given perimeter most of the cases outdoors and can
either be a temporary or permanent structure.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Lay external paving based on the mode of construction
Laying of external paving basically entails laying pavements which is an outside floor that
can be made of a variety of materials like concrete, asphalt, variety of stones and in some
cases wood. Whether one is planning to install a brick, concrete or stone pavers, the
following paver installation steps should help. The following are the steps that should be
followed as briefly discussed;

a) Planning and layout

Decide whether your pavers will go and determine if there is enough space for them. Your
plan can be drawn out and measured using graph paper.

682
 b) Number of pavers required
The dimensions (length and width of the area) then calculate the area which is the square
footage. Give an allowance of 5%

c) Excavation
Estimate the height the slabs should reach. After excavation temporary border is to be
established.

d) Laying of the base material

This should be laid to a thickness that’s tallies with the use planned for the pavers. The
materials consists of crushed rocks of diverse sizes then compacted.

e) Jointing by sand
Basically involves sweeping sand over the pavers so as to fill the in between joints.

f) Sealing
The area after paving is first cleaned then sealed with a sand binding sealant preventing the
sand from disappearing. Sealing also prevents stains and allows for easy cleaning.

g) The final step is maintenance that includes re-sealing, sweeping, regular

cleaning.
The following figure demonstrates how to lay external pavers;

Figure 175: how to lay external pavers

Source; [Link]

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6.2 Perform soft landscaping based on the mode of construction
Soft landscaping involves operations on elements of landscape which are not construction
related. Soft landscaping could involve working on trees, grasses, shrubs. Performing soft
landscaping includes the following elements;
a) Top soiling preparation; Subsoil should be properly compacted and thoroughly
broken down.
b) After soil preparation is cultivation to a depth of at least 100mm, weeding and
cleaning of the area is also done at this stage.
c) Turf should be specifically provided by the contractor as proposed and should
comply with the BS 3969
d) Planting whereby all the plants should comply with BS 3936 specifications
e) Mulching is done to provide a hedge around the planted grasses or trees
f) Protection of the grasses and trees at the hedges
g) Trimming of the grass at intervals as it grows and maintained at certain prescribed
level.

6.3 Construct drainage system based on the mode of construction

A drainage system is the artificial or natural removal of water either from surface or sub
surface of an area that has excess water. Construction of a drainage system based on the
mode of construction involves the following steps;
i. Along the outside of the footing, a trench is dug that is at least 2 ft. wide. Depth can
vary up to 6ft or as shallow as 2 ft.
ii. The pipe is the laid on the undisturbed soil i.e. with the grade sloping away from the
house to allow for the water to flow away by gravity
iii. The pipe should then be covered by washed gravel (at least 12 inches)
iv. A filter is then laid over to prevent clogging of the pipe
v. The top soil is back- filled to its original grade height.
Below is a schematic of a drainage system;

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Figure 176: Schematic of a drainage system
Source; [Link]
[Link]?cb=1471597169

6.4 Construct fences (masonry walls, live fence, reinforced concrete walling, wooden
post and chain link/barbed wire, steel post and chain link, concrete post and chain
link) and gates based on the mode of construction
A fence is a structure that serves as wall except that it doesn’t have a solid foundation
throughout its length. It encloses a given perimeter most of the cases outdoors and can
either be a temporary or permanent structure.
Gate –is an entrance to a space that is fenced.
Construction of fences despite the various types of materials used must be homogeneous
in terms of colour and design. Fences should be constructed in a manner to portray the
completed side the fence to the lot adjoining or of any abutting. In residential areas the
fence shouldn’t exceed 3 ft. height unless for open mesh screening cases. The following
are guidelines of constructing the above type of fences;
a) The Construction Specification 92 should be applied
b) The material specifications 591 that’s compatible to Specification 92
c) The items to be included in contact specifications and drawings includes; the plan,
fence dimensions, details of the speciality materials, assemblies and posts details,
the details of the gates is also included and the type/kind of fencing and the
protective coatings and finishes if need be.

685
The construction of gates shall include the following steps;
i. Erection at the place of manufacturing whereby it should first be assembled fully
and inspected
ii. Erection of the metalwork complying with BS 449 part 5 and comply with the
recommendations of BS 5531
iii. The gate is then tested after erection by the contractor to ensure it satisfies the
clients’ needs

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered external works such as paving, landscaping, drainage
systems and fence and fence and gate construction.

Further Reading

Read more on;

1. Foundations, basement and external works by H W Harrison and P M Trot man
2. External works, Roads and Drainage by Phil Pitman

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The following are types of construction fences except one?
a) Masonry wall
b) Live fences
c) Moving fences
d) Chain link
2. Distinguish the various types of drainage systems.
3. Which of the following is not a step in the construction of a drainage system?
a) The outside of the footing, a trench is dug that is at least 2 ft. wide. Depth can
vary up to 6ft or as shallow as 2 ft.
b) The pipe is the laid on the undisturbed soil i.e. with the grade sloping away from
the house to allow for the water to flow away by gravity
c) The pipe should then be covered by washed gravel (at least 12 inches)
d) A concrete slab is laid over the pipe

686
4. Laying of external paving basically entails laying pavements which is an outside floor
that can be made of a variety of the following materials except?
a) Concrete
b) Asphalt
c) Stones
d) Marble
5. The following are elements of soft landscaping except?
a) Top soiling preparation; Subsoil should be properly compacted and thoroughly
broken down.
b) After soil preparation is cultivation to a depth of at least 100mm, weeding and
cleaning of the area is also done at this stage.
c) Turf should be specifically provided by the contractor as proposed and should
comply with the BS 3969
d) Planting whereby all the plants should comply with BS 5531 specifications

Short answer questions

Briefly explain the parts of a drainage system?
Differentiate between a wall and a fence?

Essay questions
Explain the steps of laying an external paving based on the mode of construction
Describe 5 elements of soft landscaping

Oral Assessment
How can one identify a soft landscape?
What is the difference between surface and subsurface drainage system?

Practical Assessment
Conduct a visit to KICC and document all elements of external building works employed
in its design

Tools, equipment, supplies and Materials

• Survey tools
• Landscaping tools
• Design and rendering software
• Measuring and drawing tools
• Computers/internet
• Calculator

687
Personal protective equipment (PPEs)
• Overall
• Dustcoat
• Helmet
• Workshop Boots
• First Aid Kits

[Link] References

Xiu Hwei (2012).Water Drainage Engineering. China Architecture and Building Press
Yan Xushi, Liu Suiqing (2014).Water Supply and Drainage Engineering. China
Architecture and Building Press

688
 CIVIL CHAPTER 17: WATER RESOURCE QUALITY MANAGEMENT

17.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit covers the competencies required to manage water resources quality. It involves
monitoring, managing water resources quality, managing groundwater quality, managing
wastewater quality and treating and disposing of wastewater.

17.2 Performance Standard

Monitor water resources’ quality, surface water quality management, ground water quality
management, and manage waste water quality based on the need, reconnaissance survey,
SOPs, monitoring protocol, and best practice.

17.3 Learning Outcomes

17.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Monitor water resources quality
b) Surface Water quality management
c) Ground Water quality management
d) Manage wastewater quality

689
17.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Monitor Water Resources Quality
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Monitor Water Resources Quality
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Carry out water quality reconnaissance survey • Detailed labouratory

1.2 Identify environmental water sampling sites and water tests.
water resource quality indicators • Use of customized
1.3 Identify matrices (Sediments) for water resource computer software for
quality monitoring data analysis
1.4 Identify tools and equipment (GPS receiver, water • Field Trips
quality testing instruments: UV-Vis) • Demonstration by the
1.5 Operate and maintain tools and equipment trainer
1.6 Prepare water quality monitoring protocol
1.7 Implement water quality monitoring schedules
1.8 To prepare and submit water quality monitoring
report

[Link] Information Sheet No17/LO1: Monitor Water Resources Quality

Introduction to learning outcome

This section deals with the processes of ensuring a high degree of water quality. The quality
that to be assessed is that of the receiving water on the surface including rivers, streams, or
ocean, and that at the subsurface level that includes underground springs, and aquifers.

Definition of key terms

Environmental water sampling sites: - Refers to those specific locations at which surface
water and subsurface water can be collected and preserved awaiting quality assurance.

Water resource quality indicators: - This is parameters that determine water quality

Matrices: - This are tables that indicate stages of water analysis relative to the parameters
being investigated and their removal efficiencies

690
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Carry out water quality reconnaissance survey (upstream, hot spots, effluent
discharge points) based on the need.
The aim of this survey is to obtain water quality of the receiving water that includes surface
water and subsurface water. Representative samples are obtained at points that represent
conditions at the most unfavorable or at points of contamination.

Water quality monitoring process

1. Physical monitoring
Physical characteristics of the water are visually inspected or deductions made by sensory
observation to ascertain its quality. This includes algae, sediment, suspended solids, odor,
and stream bank. The channel geometry characteristics also can be instrumental in deciding
which methods to employ.

2. Chemical monitoring
This is conducted as a microbial analysis measure to a rational health-based perspective to
quality monitoring. The parameters include pH, chloride, phosphate, turbidity, and nitrates.

3. Biological monitoring
A sampling of micro-invertebrates (bugs) at points or sections of a stream. The
microinvertebrates are grouped according to sensitivity levels to pollution

1.1 Identify environmental water sampling sites (boreholes, wells) and water resource
quality indicators based on the reconnaissance survey
Environmental water sampling sites are the locations at which samples are picked. They
are normally pointing of the source. The points selected should yield samples that represent
the whole system. Automatic samplers collect samples on an hourly basis however manual
sampling is also required especially at locations where automatic systems cannot be
installed. Boreholes and wells are used to monitor contaminant flow in aquifer formations
by introducing a tracer dye in the well upstream and then observe its path which represents
the way dissolved pollutants move. The use of underground water quality modeling like
Phreeq has enabled easier preparation of water quality matrices
Water resource quality indicators are the aspects of physical, chemical, and biological
nature that depict the level of contamination or pollution. The table below shows the
biological indicator commonly tested.

691
Table 37: The biological indicator commonly tested.
Physical Chemical Biological
Turbidity Dissolved oxygen Bacteria
Electric conductivity Pesticide content Parasites
Viscosity Salts, phosphates, nitrates, Viruses
Temperature heavy metals Protozoa
pH

1.2 Identify matrices for water resource quality monitoring based on the
reconnaissance survey
Water quality monitoring matrices are correlations used to determine water quality status
by testing water quality parameters using surrogate relations.
The correlation is between two or more parameters that have been tested, for example, the
relationship between TSS might have a high or low correlation with BOD, NO3, COD, and
turbidity. The chemicals which should never be discharged into the receiving water
include: calcium carbonate, chloroform, Condensing water, Degreasing solvents, and
color. WASREB has laid down the criteria for wastewater treatment, discharge, and reuse.

Water quality parameters correlation matrix

Figure 177: Water quality parameters correlation matrix

Source: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Water quality status of Yamuna River,
Parivesh Bhawan, Delhi, 1999–2000.

692
1.3 Identify tools and equipment (GPS receiver, water quality testing instruments:
UV-Vis) based on the need.
The tools and equipments are the aids for monitoring. GPS tools can be used to monitor
pollutant movement from the point of generation and the path it follows as it flows along
the stream. The pollutant can be classified in arc map and identified in a particular color.
Water quality instruments are used to test and indicate water quality parameters either real
time or over a certain period. They include pH meters, BOD manometers, thermometers,
and jar test equipment. The manometric method is used to test the sample for
microbiological contaminants. Other instruments include multi-parameter water quality
sonde, which is an automatic sampler that allows for discrete sampling of water quality
parameters.

1.4 Operate and maintain tools and equipment based on standard operating
procedures.
The equipment that requires operation and maintenance includes labouratory testing
equipment, automatic samplers, analytical balance, glassware, fume hoods, ovens, and
refrigerators. The Kenya Bureau of standards outlines the operational and maintenance
standards required for such equipment. Automatic samplers are maintained and calibrated
following the YSI user's manual.

1.5 Prepare water quality monitoring protocol (Surveillance, Pollution control) based
on need
Monitoring aims to regulate and prohibit the discharge of effluent into the aquatic
environment. The water quality guidelines as stipulated in the WHO guidelines on effluent
monitoring, (2008), stipulates the conditions for discharge into surface water or injection
or leaching into groundwater aquifers. The surveillance mechanisms include scheduled
monitoring, unscheduled monitoring, self-monitoring, and demand monitoring.

Monitoring Protocol for pollution control

• Determination of water-course system standard conditions
• Detection of a decline in water quality
• Identify inflow streams that do not meet standards
• Identify the point and non-point sources for either surface or groundwater
• Determine the extent of contamination
• Estimate the pollution load transported to surface systems and groundwater
• Develop the water quality guidelines for specific use
• Develop sustainable quality assurance and quality control processes
• Develop a water pollution control protocol

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1.6 Implement water quality monitoring schedules (Monthly, Quarterly, Annually)
based on the monitoring protocol
Quarterly schedule on Water and Effluent Monitoring
Table 38: Quarterly schedule on Water and Effluent Monitoring
Issue Status
Issue Status Water production to town [m3]
Number of WSPs
Number of separate networks
Number of registered effluent dischargers
Number of overflowing/broken sewers
including a period of overflow
Number of bacteriological tests within norm
Summary of major deviations
Guidelines on Water Quality and Effluent Monitoring, (2017)

Table 39: Annual Water and Effluent Monitoring schedule

Issue Status
Water production to town [m3]
Number of WSPs
Number of separate networks
Number of registered effluent dischargers
Name (s) of labouratories where the analysis
was carried out
Number of tests conducted
Other activities are undertaken to improve
water and effluent quality
Source: Guidelines on Water Quality and Effluent Monitoring, (2017)

1.7 Prepare and submit water quality monitoring report based on best practice
Table 40: System Description
Amount of effluent discharge (m3/yr)
Number of separate networks
Effluent discharge through network
1(m3/yr)
Effluent discharge through network 2(m3/yr
Guidelines on Water Quality and Effluent Monitoring

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Table 41: Test reports
Network 1 No of Tests per No of tests No of tests within
year conduct KS
BOD5
COD
pH
Suspended solids
Ammonia, NH4,
Nitrate NO3, Nitrite
NO
Total Dissolved
Solids

[Link]

Network 2 No of Tests per No of tests No of tests within

year conduct KS
BOD5
COD
pH
Suspended solids
Ammonia, NH4,
Nitrate NO3, Nitrite
NO
Total Dissolved Solids
Guidelines on Water Quality and Effluent Monitoring (2017)

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the quality of water resources. Water is a very important
natural resource in our daily lives

Further Reading

1. Changing trends in sampling methods

2. How to allocate monitoring wells in a potentially contaminated network
3. Wastewater treatment plant design

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[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. After samples are collected from the source, how much time is allowed before the
samples are tested.
a) 12 hours – 1 day
b) – 4 days
c) – 24 hours
d) 48 – 72 hours
2. When preparing water quality assessment parameters, which one is allowed to
discharge freely into receiving water?
a) Cyanide
b) 30 mg/L BOD
c) 5 mg/L Chromium V
d) 100 mg/L COD
3. Identify the one which is not a criterion for water sampling frequency
a) source of the water
b) The volume produced and population
c) Number of tests to be conducted
d) Aquatic life population in the water
4. Evaluate the matrix concerning Nairobi River and compare with WHO or NEMA
standards.
5. Summarize the roles of local authorities in control of pollution of water.
6. Distinguish the organizations responsible for water quality monitoring in Kenya.
7. Explain environmental management plan
8. Differentiate between point and non- point sources
9. Based on your knowledge of water resources explain the source of pollutants, their
removal method, and mitigation measures to minimize their discharge into water bodies
10. Differentiate the stages of the non-conventional wastewater treatment process using
well-labelled diagrams indicating the contaminants removed at each stage.

Practical Assessment
1. In a wastewater treatment plant evaluate the critical areas where sampling must be done
2. Determine BOD5 using samples obtained from your Kitchen water following the
monitoring protocol

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Oral Assessment
Prepare six slides on monitoring technologies adaptation in water sampling to be presented
in class.

Project Assessment
By applying WHO and NEMA standards determine water quality parameters for a borehole
in your vicinity and prepare a water quality correlation matrix.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• water sampling kit (manual, automated)
• sampling equipment ( sampling bottles, boats)
• Standard operating procedures
• Portable water quality test kits ( with Thermometers, pH, EC, turbidity, DO meters,
• Microbial test kits for resent/absent etc.)
• GIS Software
• Digital cameras
• GPS
• Glass ware
• Marking devices

[Link] References

Cotruvo, J. A. (2017). 2017 WHO guidelines for drinking water quality: first addendum to
the fourth edition. Journal‐American Water Works Association, 109(7), 44-51.
James, C. A., Miller-Schulze, J. P., Ultican, S., Gipe, A. D., & Baker, J. E. (2016).
Evaluating contaminants of emerging concern as tracers of wastewater from septic
systems. Water Research, 101, 241-251.
Behmel, S., Damour, M., Ludwig, R., & Rodriguez, M. J. (2016). Water quality monitoring
strategies—A review and future perspectives. Science of the Total
Environment, 571, 1312-1329.

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17.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Surface Water Quality Management
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Surface Water Quality Management
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Identify surface water quality challenges and issues • Surface water
2.2 Characterize surface water resources quality collection
2.3 Develop surface water quality management plan • Trainer
2.4 Implement surface water quality management plan demonstration
• Detailed lab
experiments
• Use of standard
equipment for
testing

[Link] Information Sheet No17/LO2 Surface Water Quality Management

Introduction to learning outcome

Surface water forms a large percentage of water that is readily available for human
consumption. Its quality should, therefore, be of great concern and the challenges and
issues that arise be addressed.

Definition of key terms

Water quality challenges and issues – these are problems facing the efforts put in place
by relevant stakeholders in ensuring there is the availability of clean water in accordance
to the set standards.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Identify surface water quality challenges and issues based on management need
Challenges faced by stakeholders in the management of surface water quality are:
• Human Ambitions and Earth's Limits – humans have continued to modify the
planet, and at some point, there is ignorance in conserving the surface water bodies
which many at times are used as disposal points.
• Research needs and directions – even with the availability of improved technology
over time, research on newer methods of conserving water quality is still slow as
compared to the rate of pollution and contamination

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 • Urban and industrial water demands – water is an essential need for any livelihood,
the high demand of such a commodity forces all lives(both human and wildlife) to
tamper with the source risking and in most cases polluting them.

Surface water includes streams, rivers, lakes, dams, oceans, seas, and all visible water
bodies on land. The main challenge facing the quality of water in these bodies is
pollution which can be in different ways as shown in the table below:

Table 42: Quality of water

PROCESS TYPE MAJOR PROCESS BRIEF EXPLANATION
WITHIN WATER BODY
Hydrological Dilution Occurs when water is
saturated by a soluble
pollutant
Suspension and settling of None soluble pollutants in
particles surface water
Physical diffusion If one point of a surface water
is polluted, it spreads onto the
whole water body
Chemical Photodegradation A reaction where chemical
compounds in water are
broken down by photons
Acid-base reaction The reaction of alkaline
compounds with acids in
water
Biological Decomposition of organic The dead organic substance
matter in water bodies when broken
down release bacterial
pollutants in the water body
Bioaccumulation An organism accumulates a
substance from water or a
suspended particle
Biomagnification Increase in concentration of a
substance within a food chain

All of the above processes may as a result of human activities that discharge waste into the
surface water bodies and also from natural causes.

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2.1 Characterize surface water resources quality based on challenges and issues
identified
Table 43: Surface Water Recourses
SURFACE WATER RECOURCES CHALLENGES FACED
Lakes and reservoirs Stratification. This is caused by a
difference in solute concentration
(discharged as waste from human
activities) causing the water to split in two
different layers due to differences in
densities causing difference in quality of
water in the two layers.
Rivers and streams Nonsoluble sediments suspended in water.
Can be from industrial, agricultural or
municipal waste
Oceans and seas Oil spills, dumping of plastic waste, and
garbage patches are challenges facing the
quality of water in the ocean and seas.
Dams and manmade water resources Dumping of garbage.

2.2 Develop surface water quality management plan based on challenges and issues
identified
Water quality management plan can be developed by the following steps
i. Examine current understanding
ii. Define community values and management goals
iii. Define relevant indicators
iv. Determine water quality guideline values
v. Define draft water quality objectives
vi. Assess if water quality objectives are met
vii. Consider additional indicators or refine water quality objectives
viii. Consider alternative management strategies
ix. Assess if water quality objectives are achievable
x. Implement agreed management strategy

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Table 44: Example of a water quality management plan
TARGETED STRATEGIES WATER MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVES MANAGEMENT PLAN.
TO ADDRESSED SOLUTIONS AND
RISKS MECHANISMS
Reduce the Create an area for Dump all garbage at Garbage area plan
dumping of dumping garbage the dumping site
garbage to water where they can be
bodies recycled
Stop discharge of Develop a Direct all domestic Wastewater
domestic wastewater wastewater into the treatment plan
wastewater into treatment site for treatment site
water bodies domestic
wastewater

2.3 Implement surface water quality management plan based on challenges and issues
identified
Based on the challenges and issues, the water quality management plan is implemented
practically.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the creation of a quality management plan for surface water

Further Reading

Forms of surface water quality control for future changes in quality parameters

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a surface water resource?
a) Rivers
b) Lakes
c) Aquifers
d) Dams

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2. Choose a chemical process within a water body
a) Dilution
b) Decomposition
c) Biomagnification
d) Photodegradation
3. Evaluate the challenges facing the quality of surface water resources
4. Compare 4 surface water resources
5. Summarize the steps to follow when developing a water quality management plan
6. Explain how stratification occurs on water body.
7. Explain how the following affect water quality
a) Human ambition and earth limits
b) Urban and industrial water demands
c) Research needs and directions

Oral Assessment
Explain biological processes that face water quality.

Case Study Assessment

In your residential area, how has the water quality situation been handled?

Performance-Based Evidence
Oral Assessment
Come up with a water quality management plan for your residential area

Practical Assessment
Visit a nearby water source and check the quality in terms of insoluble solutes and
sediments.

Project Assessment
Visit a nearby water treatment plant and write a report on methods the use to improve water
quality

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Water sampling kit (manual, automated)
• Sampling equipment ( sampling bottles, boats)
• Standard operating procedures
• Portable water quality test kits ( with Thermometers, ph, EC, turbidity, DO
meters,

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 • Microbial test kits for resent/absent etc.)
• GIS Software
• Digital cameras
• GPS

[Link] References

Water Quality: An Introduction (2019) By Claude E. Boyd.

Hydrodynamics and Water Quality: Modeling Rivers, Lakes, and Estuaries (2017) By
Zhen-Gang Ji.
Surface Water Quality: Have the Laws Been Successful? (2014) By Ruth Patrick, Faith
Douglass, Drew M. Palavage, Paul M. Stewart.

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17.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Ground Water Quality Management
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Ground Water Quality Management
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify groundwater quality challenges and issues • Conduct borehole

3.2 Characterize groundwater resources quality drilling tests
3.3 Develop a groundwater quality management plan • Conduct ionic
3.4 Implement a groundwater quality management plan balance charge
analysis

[Link] Information Sheet No17/LO3 Ground Water Quality Management

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers the identification of ground water, quality challenges and
issues, characterization of ground water resources, development of groundwater quality
management plan and implementation of groundwater quality management plan.

Definition of key terms

Groundwater quality challenges and issues - these are problems facing the efforts put in
place by relevant stakeholders in ensuring groundwater is maintained as pure as possible.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Identify groundwater quality challenges and issues (Over-abstraction and
groundwater pollution) based on management need.
Groundwater refers to the water below the earth surface, an example of around water are
aquifers.
Ground water challenges and issues
1. Contamination – agricultural chemicals that leach into the soil may contaminate
groundwater other contaminants are from industrial and municipal wastes
2. Poor quality of the water source- groundwater mainly comes from percolation of
surface water or when streams and rivers reach a point where they get into the ground,
if these streams and rivers are polluted the quality of groundwater will be affected
3. Poor site selection or protection of where the groundwater exists

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3.2 Characterize groundwater resources quality based on challenges and issues
identified
Quality of groundwater is based on features such as temperature, ph., color, and smell
when these characteristics cause the challenges faced by the quality of groundwater.

Table 45: Quality of groundwater is based on features

CHARACTERISTICS CHALLENGES
Temperature This should be equal to mean air
temperature above the surface, this can
be altered by poor site selection.
Colour Quality groundwater should be
colourless, contamination by chemicals
and leaching may alter this
Ph. Should be neutral
Odour/smell Quality groundwater should be
odourless, this can be altered by
contamination.

3.3 Develop a groundwater quality management plan based on challenges and issues
identified.
This is similar to surface water quality management planning, the only change is
strategies
Table 46: Example of a water quality management plan
TARGETED STRATEGIES WATER MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVES MANAGEMENT PLAN.
TO ADDRESSED SOLUTIONS AND
RISKS MECHANISMS
Reduce the Create an area for Dump all garbage at Garbage area plan
dumping of dumping garbage the dumping site
garbage to water where they can be
bodies recycled
Stop discharge of Develop a Direct all domestic Waste water
domestic wastewater wastewater into the treatment plan
wastewater into treatment site for treatment site
water bodies domestic
wastewater

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3.4 Implement a groundwater quality management plan based on challenges and
issues identified.
Based on the challenges and issues, the water quality management plan is implemented
practically.

Conclusion
Groundwater quality is therefore vital as has been covered above. Our aquifers have to be
protected against over-abstraction and pollution as they are a great source of groundwater.

Further Reading

How to conduct groundwater monitoring using PhreeQ software

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Categorize types of groundwater resources
2. Compare and contrast between physical and chemical characteristics of groundwater,
3. Which of the following is not a groundwater challenge?
a) Contamination
b) Poor site selection
c) Dumping of garbage
d) Poor water source
4. Evaluate how contamination of groundwater occur?
5. How does temperature affect the quality of groundwater
6. Briefly explain the term groundwater
7. Summarize how does following affect the quality of groundwater
a) Temperature
b) Ph7 multiple-choice questions
c) Smell
d) Color

Case Study Assessment

Research on how geological location affects the quality of groundwater

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Practical Assessment
Using data from a known source of groundwater, check on the required standard of
groundwater.

Oral Assessment
Explain 3 groundwater challenges and issues

Project Assessment
In groups discuss how standards of groundwater can be reached

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Water sampling kit (manual, automated)
• Sampling equipment (sampling bottles, boats)
• Standard operating procedures
• Portable water quality test kits (with Thermometers, ph, EC, turbidity, DO
meters,
• Microbial test kits for resent/absent etc.)
• GIS Software
• Digital cameras
• GPS

17.3.4.5References

Septic Tank System Effects on Ground Water Quality (2017) ByCanter.

Artificial Recharge of Groundwater (2016) edited by Takashi Asano.
Groundwater around the World: A Geographic Synopsis (2013) By Jean Margat, Jac van
der Gun.

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17.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Manage Wastewater Quality
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Manage wastewater quality
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Identify sources of wastewater • Proper wastewater

4.2 Assess wastewater quality collection
4.3 Prepare wastewater quality assessment report • Proper wastewater
4.4 Treat and dispose of wastewater treatment
4.5 Interpret wastewater quality assessment report • Compliance with the
4.6 Submit wastewater quality assessment report wastewater quality
treatment standards

[Link] Information Sheet No17/LO4 Manage Wastewater Quality

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers the identification of sources of wastewater, assessing
wastewater quality, preparation of wastewater quality assessment report, treating and
disposing of waste water interpretation of waste water quality report and the submission of
the waste water quality report.

Definition of key terms

Wastewater quality- These include indicators or labouratory tests done to wastewater to
assess its suitability for disposal or future re-use. The indicators measure the physical,
chemical, or even biological characteristics of wastewater.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Identify sources of wastewater based on characteristics
Table 47: Sources of wastewater based on characteristics
SOURCE CHARACTERISTIC
Domestic/residential Mainly greywater due to detergents for
washing
Commercial Used in garages, salons, etc.
Industrial Chemical: Presence of heavy metals
Stormwater and runoff Physical; Brown, High turbidity.

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 4.2 Assess wastewater quality based on selected parameters
The important characteristics measured in wastewater include:
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) [100-300 mg/L as O2]
• Suspended solids (SS) [100 – 350 mg/L]
• Settleable solids [5-20 mL/L]
• Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) [20-80 mg/L]
• Total Phosphorus [5-20 mg/L as P]
A typical solids analysis of wastewater, of the total solids, 50% is dissolved, 50%
suspended. Of the suspended solids, 50% will settle.
Industrial activity changes the composition of wastewater, often introducing toxic
substances such as chromium and cadmium from plating operations

4.3 Prepare wastewater quality assessment report based on monitoring sites

Analysis of the influent and effluent of wastewater in a treatment plant in India produced
the following data on wastewater quality;

Table 48: Wastewater quality assessment report based on monitoring sites

PARAMETER INFLUENT EFFLUENT
pH 7.75 7.8
TSS (mg/l) 251.5 81.5
COD (mg/l) 415.6 129.2
BOD (mg/l) 211.8 82.3
DO (mg/l) 6.6 4.4
The effluent concentrations of the above data exceeded the effluent standards indicating
failure to meet quality standards set.
This could be due to operational problems in the biological treatment stage.

4.4 Treat and dispose of wastewater as per the environmental standards.

How is Wastewater Treated?
Wastewater treatment involves two major steps:
1. Gravity settling of solids (called primary treatment)
2. Microbial transformation of organics and ammonia to reduce BOD (called
secondary treatment).
A typical treatment train in a wastewater treatment plant involves:
1. Bar racks to remove large debris
2. Primary treatment where Type II sedimentation for flocculated particles. The SOR
ranges from 25-60 m/d, td ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 hours.
3. Secondary treatment involving the use of microorganisms to remove BOD of any
solids that pass primary treatment. Oxygen is limited and must be supplied. The most
common secondary treatment process is activated sludge.

709
 4. Secondary sedimentation to remove microorganisms from secondary treatment.
5. Disinfection to kill pathogens using chlorine (typically HOCl)
Effluent standards are concentration pollutants expressed in terms of parts per million of
wastewater discharged through outfall pipes
The following is a table showing wastewater parameter concentrations before and after
treatment
Table 49: Wastewater parameter concentrations before and after treatment
PARAMETER INFLUENT EFFLUENT
pH 7.75 7.8
TSS (mg/l) 251.5 81.5
COD (mg/l) 415.6 129.2
BOD (mg/l) 211.8 82.3
DO (mg/l) 6.6 4.4

(Minimum) Goals of wastewater treatment plants include;

• Less than 30mg/l of BOD5
• Less than 30mg/l of suspended solids
• Less than 200CFU/ 100ml of fecal coliforms
Anything greater than these values is disposed of.

4.5 Interpret the wastewater quality assessment report based on the monitoring plan
Table 50: Wastewater quality assessment report based on the monitoring plan
PARAMETER INFLUENT EFFLUENT
pH 7.75 7.8
TSS (mg/l) 251.5 81.5
COD (mg/l) 415.6 129.2
BOD (mg/l) 211.8 82.3
DO (mg/l) 6.6 4.4

From the above table one can deduce that;

The wastewater quality parameters reduce in volume after treatment. Thus, a well-
functioning treatment plant meets the required standards on the parameter volumes during
discharge i.e.
(Minimum) Goals of wastewater treatment plants include;
• Less than 30mg/l of BOD5
• Less than 30mg/l of suspended solids
• Less than 200CFU/ 100ml of fecal coliforms

710
4.6 Submit the wastewater quality assessment report based on best practices
Best practices on wastewater quality assessment report include;
1. Sustainability -The treatment practices should meet the needs of today without
compromising the future.
2. Finance and efficiency- Should be affordable to reduce billing charges levied on
the users.
3. Reliability-The system should be dependable and robust in the execution of its
duties
4. Security of service- Should have a proportional and secure design.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered ways of proper management of wastewater before being
discharged into water bodies

Further Reading

Read further on water quality modelling using remote sensing

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one is not a parameter of water quality?
a) BOD
b) COD
c) Ph
d) density
2. Which of the following is not a best practice on wastewater quality assessment.
a) Sustainability
b) Service quality
c) Reliability
d) Toxicology report
3. Which of the following is not part of a wastewater treatment plant.
a) Bar racks
b) Primary treatment chamber
c) Secondary treatment chamber
d) Tertiary chamber

711
4. Summarize waste water quality in terms of BOD and COD.
5. Categorize the sources of wastewater based on characteristics
6. Interpret wastewater quality assessment report based on monitoring plan

Essay Questions
1. Best practices in waste water quality is a concern. Discuss
2. Denmark is a pioneer in best water practices. Elabourate
3. Discuss the scenario of African economies in terms of wastewater quality and
treatment.

Case Study Assessment

Basing on the Nairobi waste water treatment plant, discuss the shortcomings on waste
water quality.

Oral assessments
Based on the experiment below, what are the observations?
What conclusions can be drawn?

Practical Assessment
Set up an experiment to measure the parameters in wastewater.

Project Assessment
Compare the effluents of the wastewater treatment plant nearby with the ideal environment
standards and tabulate your findings.
Case Study Assessment
Basing on the Nairobi wastewater treatment plant, discuss the shortcomings of wastewater
quality.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Water sampling kit (manual, automated)
• Sampling equipment ( sampling bottles, boats)
• Standard operating procedures
• Portable water quality test kits ( with thermometers, ph, ec, turbidity, do meters,
• Microbial test kits for resent/absent etc.)
• Gis software
• Digital cameras
• Gps

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17.3.5.5References

Gray, N. (2017). Water technology. CRC Press.

Rahmasary, A. N., Robert, S., Chang, I. S., Jing, W., Park, J., Bluemling, B., ... & van
Leeuwen, K. (2019). Overcoming the challenges of water, waste and climate
change in Asian cities. Environmental Management, 63(4), 520-5Katko, T. S.,
Kurki, V. O., Juuti, P. S., Rajala,
Salgot, M., & Folch, M. (2018). Wastewater treatment and water reuse. Current Opinion
in Environmental Science & Health, 2, 64-74..

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 CHAPTER 18: DESIGN OF WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND TREATMENT
INFRASTRUCTURE

18.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit covers the competencies required to design wastewater collection and treatment
infrastructure. It involves the collection of wastewater infrastructure design data, analysis of
wastewater infrastructure design data, and calculation of wastewater infrastructure design
parameters, drawing wastewater infrastructure units, and compiling wastewater infrastructure
design reports. This standard applies to Water Industry.

18.2 Performance Standard

Apply hydraulic engineering principles, analyze structural elements, design structural elements,
collect wastewater infrastructure design data, analyse wastewater infrastructure design data,
calculate waste water infrastructure design parameters, draw wastewater infrastructure units,
compile a wastewater infrastructure report based on standards and fluid properties.

18.3 Learning Outcomes

18.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Apply hydraulic engineering principles
b) Analyze structural elements
c) Design structural elements
d) Collect wastewater infrastructure design data
e) Analyze wastewater infrastructure design data
f) Calculate wastewater infrastructure design parameters
g) Draw wastewater infrastructure units
h) Compile a wastewater infrastructure design report

714
18.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Hydraulic Engineering Principles
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Apply Hydraulic Engineering Principles
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Identify properties of fluids • Group discussions

1.2 Identify tools and equipment for measurement of • Demonstration by
pressure, velocity, and discharge trainer
1.3 Apply hydraulic principles • Online videos
• Powerpoint
presentation
• Exercises by
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 18/LO1: Apply Hydraulic Engineering Principles

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers fluid properties, fluid pressure measurement, discharge and
velocity measurement, head losses in pipes, and simple channel sections.

Definition of key terms

Pascal’s law- A pressure change at any point in a confined incompressible liquid is
transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same change occurs everywhere.

Area of the flow-The region through which a fluid flows

Rate of flow-the the volume of fluid that flows per unit time.

715
 Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Identify properties of fluids (Density, Surface Tension, Viscosity, Specific Weight,
Specific Gravity, Compressibility, Capillarity, Specific Mass) based on standards
Table 51: Properties of fluids
Density Mass per unit volume
Surface tension The tendency a liquid surface to behave like a thin stretched elastic
material.
Viscosity Friction in fluids
Specific weight Weight per unit volume of a material
Specific gravity The ratio of density of a given substance to the density of a reference
material
Compressibility The measure of the relative-volume change of a fluid in reaction to
pressure variation
Capillary The capability of a liquid to flow in thin spaces without the aid of external
forces

1.2 Identify tools and equipment for measurement of pressure, velocity, and
discharge based on fluid properties
Table 52: Tools and equipment
tool Equipment/Tool role Use
Manometer Measures gas pressure
Venturi meter Increase the velocity of flow thus reducing the pressure to deduce
flowrate
Orifice meter Measures the flow rate of steam
Pitot tube Measures fluid flow velocity
Weirs Control the flow rate of a river
Notches Regulate the flow of fluid
Mouthpiece Tube opening for fluid discharge
Orifice Hole opening for fluid discharge
Hydrostatic bench Bench used for a wide range of fluid experiments
Open channel Simulation for fluid flow in open channels
models

Apply hydraulic principles based on the types of fluids

Hydraulic principles is an application of Pascal's law.
Types of fluids include;
1. Ideal fluid- Has no viscosity and is incompressible hence not affected by Pascals
principles
2. Real fluid- has viscosity hence hydraulic principles applicable
3. Newtonian fluid-Refers to a real fluid that conforms to newton’s law of viscosity

716
 4. Non-Newtonian fluid- A real fluid that does not obey the newtons law of viscosity
5. Ideal plastic fluid-shear stress is proportional to its shear strain

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered fluid properties, fluid pressure measurement, discharge and
velocity measurement, head losses in pipes, and simple channel sections.
Further Reading

Read a book on introduction to fluid mechanics

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Select the odd one out in the fluid types listed.
a) Ideal
b) Real
c) Newtonian
d) Elastic
2. Which equipment measures gas pressures?
a) Venturi meter
b) Manometer
c) Orifice
d) Weir
3. The ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume is called
a) Capillary
b) Specific mass
c) Specific gravity
d) Specific weight
4. Which one is not a variable considered in fluid mechanics.
a) Pascal’s pressure law
b) rate of flow
c) Area of flow
d) Couple coplanar forces
5. Derive Pascal’s law from first principles.
6. Summarize the types of fluids

717
7. Evaluate the functions of the following
a) Weir
b) notch
c) mouthpiece
d) orifice
e) venture meter
f) manometer
8. Distinguish between specific weight and specific gravity
9. Explain the properties of a real fluid
10. Highlight the applications of surface tension in real life
11. Differentiate between a notch and a weir
12. Discuss the benefits of understanding fluid mechanics to an engineer.
13. There exist no ideal fluids. Discuss

Oral Assessment
1. Based on the pressure law experiment.
2. What are the observations made from the experiment?
3. What conclusion can be made based on the above observations?

Practical Assessment
Set up an experiment to demonstrate Pascal’s pressure law.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

718
 [Link] References

Singh, V. P. (2016). Review of Fundamentals of Open Channel Flow by Glenn E. Moglen.

Abdulrahman, A. (2017). Numerical Solution of Manning's Equation in Rectangular
Channels. International Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 11(6), 740-743.
Castro-Orgaz, O., & Hager, W. H. (2019). Computation of Steady Transcritical Open
Channel Flows. In Shallow Water Hydraulics (pp. 183-200). Springer, Cham.

719
18.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Analyse Structural Elements
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Analyse Structural Elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Identify Properties of materials • Group discussions

2.2 Analyse Section properties • Demonstration by
2.3 Analyse structural elements trainer
• Online videos
• Powerpoint
presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 18/LO2: Analyse structural elements

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers the theory of simple bending, forces in frames, deflection in
beams, section properties, properties of materials, and moments in beams.

Definition of key terms

Stress: This is defined as the intensity of the force acting on a member

Strain: This is a measure of the deformation of a material.

Mohr’s theorem: Mohr’s theorem is an engineering tool utilized to calculate maximum

and minimum principal stresses and shear stresses.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2 .1Identify Properties of materials (Stress, Strain, Elasticity, Plasticity, Stiffness,
Young’s modulus) based on the job requirements.
The properties of materials are a key consideration for which the material is considered
suitable for a specific need. The common physical and mechanical properties include some
of the following:
i) Elasticity- This is defined as a material’s ability to return to its original configuration
when the twisting force is removed, which is the opposite of plasticity.
ii) Stress- Repeated stresses can lead to fatigue which can lead to fracture. Therefore
higher repeated stresses will accelerate the time to failure.

720
iii) Strain- The ability of a material to deform and return to its original shape determines
the point the material will no longer return to its original shape after being loaded.
iv) Plasticity- This determines the ability of a material to hold a new shape when subjected
to a distortional force.
v) Stiffness- This refers to the ability of a material to resist deformation in response to a
distortional force.
vi) Young’s modulus- This is the relationship between the force applied and the resulting
deformation. This is a key determination for applications where a high degree of
stiffness is required under load.

2 .2Analyse Section properties (Centre of gravity, Centroids, 1st moment of area, 2nd,
Section modulus, moment of area, Radius of gyration) based on the materials,
loading, and sizes.
Section properties refer to the mathematical properties of structural shapes and they are
applied to a great extent in structural analysis and design.
i) Centroids- This defined as the center of the moment of the area of a cross-section of
material. Therefore, the centroid of a material is the geometric center of the material.
Materials, therefore, have a different location of the centroids based on their shape.
ii) Center of gravity- This is the point from which the entire weight of an object is
considered to act.

Figure 178: Center of gravity

Source: [Link]

iii) 1st moment of the area- This describes the distribution of an area about either its x or
y-axes. It is determined as the summation of the product of each area and its distance
from the axis.
iv) 2nd moment of the area- This is also known as moment of inertia and it measures the
capability of a material to resist bending about a certain axis. As a result, structural
elements with a higher moment of inertia have a higher capacity to resist bending.
v) Section modulus- It is defined as the proportion of the total moment countered by the
section to the stress in the extreme fibre which is equal to yield stress.
vi) The radius of gyration- This the root mean square distance of the particles of a
structural element about an axis of rotation.

721
2.3 Analyze structural elements (Stress, Strain, General slope and deflection formula,
Double integration, McCauley’s method, Mohr’s theorems) based on material and
loadings.
Structural analysis is the method(s) by which we find out the effects of loads on physical
structures and internal forces. Structural analysis is a mandatory precursor to structural
design. The science of structural analysis is so extensive that it would require several books
to describe all the methods sufficiently.
i) Stress- This the internal resistance that the member to balance the effect of externally
applied loads.
ii) Strain-This is the ratio between the changes in the length of the structural member to
the original length as a result of an externally applied load.
iii) General slope and deflection formula- This formula expresses that the deflection can
be computed by taking the double integral of the bending moment equation. It is used
to compute deflection in beams.
iv) Macaulay's method- is referred to as the double integration method and to find
expressions for the deflection of loaded beams. It is very efficient when applied to
discrete loading.
v) Mohr's theorems- This a method to determine the rotation, slope, and deflection of
beams and frames. It is also known as the moment area theorems. It is also used to
calculate deflection in beams.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the theory of simple bending, forces in frames, deflection
in beams, section properties, properties of materials, and moments in beams.

Further Reading

Read more on:

1. Structural analysis 8th edition by R.C Hibbeler.
2. Structural analysis by Gregory Mikaelson.(Youtube)

722
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a property of a material considered during job
requirements?
a) Ductility
b) Toughness
c) Plasticity
d) Centroid
2. Which of the following are all structural analysis methods?
a) Double integration method
b) Slope and deflection formula
c) Mohr’s theorems
d) 1st moment of area
3. Elabourate with examples why structural analysis is a mandatory precursor to structural
design.
4. The following are all section properties except?
a) Center of gravity
b) Moment of inertia
c) Section modulus
d) Stress
5. Differentiate between structural determinate and indeterminate methods.
6. From first principles, derive the Mohr’s circle state of stress.
7. Describe what is a continuous beam?
8. Describe what structural analysis software packages exist in the market and their
features.
9. Most structures encountered in real life are indeterminate structures. From the
foregoing, write an essay describing the various structural analysis methods that exist
for indeterminate structures.

Project Assessment
Analyse an example of a continuous beam use Prokon software (obtained from either a
textbook or the internet) and compare your manual solution with the solution obtained from
the software.

Oral Assessment
1. How did your solution in the project assessment above compare with that of the
software?
2. What indeterminate structural analysis methods work best for you?
723
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

John Case, Lord Chilver, and Carl Ross. (2003). Strength of materials and structures. John
Wiley and Sons Inc. New York.

724
18.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Design Structural Elements
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Design Structural Elements
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify structural elements • Group discussions

3.2 Design structural elements are designed • Demonstration by
3.3 Produce structural drawings trainer
• Online videos
• PowerPoint presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 18/LO3: Design Structural Elements

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers identifying structural elements, designing of structural
elements and the production of structural drawing based on the design.

Definition of key terms

McCauley’s method: Refers to the double integration method used to find expressions for
the deflection of loaded beams.

General slope formula: This formula expresses that the deflection can be computed by
taking the double integral of the bending moment equation.

Deflection formula: This calculated by integrating the function that describes the slope of
the member.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Identify structural elements based on the requirements
Structural elements have to do with the part of the building that is concerned with
preserving the physical integrity (ensuring the structure satisfies the ultimate limit state and
the serviceability limit state requirements) and continues to exist in the world as a physical
object. Understanding the structure of a building requires an intuitive ability which depends
on the knowledge of the functional requirements of the structure and the ability to
differentiate between the non-structural and structural parts of a building.

725
 The following are some of the structural elements:
i. Foundations – The foundation is a structural element that transmits load to the
underlying soil or rock, the loads supported by the foundation and its self-weight
in such a way that the soil is not overstressed or excessive settlement occurs.
ii. Columns- These are vertical members that majorly resist axial compressive loads.
iii. Beams- These are horizontal members that primarily carry vertical loads and resist
failure in bending.
iv. Walls- A wall is a structure that demarcates the different spaces in a building as
well as the external boundary. Some walls are load-bearing and carry the structural
loads of the building.
v. Ties-This is a slender structural element that carries the loads in tension.
vi. Struts- This a structural member that carries the loads in compression only.
vii. Trusses-This a structure that is composed of a series of struts and is used to carry
loads in compression.
viii. Frames- This type of structure is composed of beams and columns that are either
pin or fixed connected.
ix. Slabs-This are horizontal structures built to provide a flat surface in buildings.

3.2 Design structural elements based on design codes

The design of members refers to the sizing of members to ensure they fit functional
requirements during the ultimate limit state as well as the serviceability limit state. Design
of structures in Kenya is the preserve of registered and licensed professional engineers,
according to the Engineers Act (2011), however, graduate engineers and technologists
(diploma holders) have an opportunity to contribute during the design phase under the
guidance of the professional engineer.
The design of members is guided by design codes upon which reference is made during
the design process. The following are some of the design codes currently in use in Kenya:
i. Design of reinforced concrete structures- BS 8110
ii. Design of steel-framed buildings- BS 5950
iii. Design of timber structures- BS 5628
iv. Design code on the occupancy load requirements of a building- BS 6399 Part 1.

The following is the procedure followed in the design of a beam according to BS 5950:
i. Determine the loading condition of the beam.
ii. Calculate the design load of the beam.
iii. Perform structural analysis to determine the design moment and the design shear.
iv. Perform a strength classification and section classification.
v. Choose a section based on its moment capacity equation.
vi. Perform a moment capacity check.
vii. Perform a shear capacity check.

726
 [Link] whether it’s a low or high shear load.
ix. Perform a deflection limits check.
x. Perform a web bearing check.
xi. Perform a web buckling check.

3.3 Produce structural drawings based on the design.

Structural drawings have to be produced as the design process evolves since the drawings
are required in the construction of the structure. Production of structural drawings takes
place as follows:
i. The schematic architectural drawings are obtained from the architect. (Conceptual
design phase)
ii. The engineer determines the loadings applied to the structure based on the drawings
and performs design to size the members according to the forces applied to the
building. (Developed design phase)
iii. As the design process evolves the engineer produces more detailed drawings, bar
bending schedules, notes, specifications, details, and at the end of this stage we have
construction ready documents. (Technical design phase)
iv. The drawings are included in a tender pack to be tendered together with drawings
from other disciplines during the bidding and tendering process.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the structural elements of a building, design of steel, and
production of structural drawings.

Further Reading

British Standards Institute. (2002). Design of reinforced concrete structures-BS 8810. BSI.
British Standards Institute. (2002). Design of steel structures-BS 5950. BSI.
British Standards Institute. (2002). Design of timber structures-BS 5628. BSI.

727
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Compare and contrast the following types of foundation
a) Mat
b) Isolated footing
c) Combined footing
2. Which of the following is not a check done during the design of a reinforced concrete
beam?
a) Shear capacity check.
b) Moment capacity check.
c) Web buckling check.
d) Deflection check
3. Which of the following is not a phase during the design of structures?
a) Technical design
b) Developed design
c) Conceptual design
d) Handover
4. Which of the following is not a structural element?
a) Ties
b) None
c) Trusses
d) Joists
5. Design a reinforced concrete beam of your choice according to the design code BS
8110.
6. Describe the various type of foundations and when should be used.
7. Describe the design principles that should guide an engineer during the design process.
8. Describe the main design theories.
9. Write an essay describing how an engineer with poor communication skills can lead to
poor quality construction.

Project Assessment
Using a BIM software application of your choice obtain architectural drawings from the
internet and develop a corresponding structural model.

728
Oral Assessment
Describe how you as a student pursuing a diploma of civil engineering can develop shop
drawings for fabrication of steel members when requested by the professional engineer.
What skills have you gained as a result of performing the project assessment described
above?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Drawing sheets
• Software
• Projectors
• Calculators
• Internet

[Link] References

W.H Mosley, R. Hulse, J.H Bungey (2012). Reinforced Concrete Design. Red Globe Press,
New York.
N. Subramanian (2010). Steel structures design and practice. Oxford university press, New
Delhi.
Abdy Kermani (2008) Structural timber design. Blackwell Science, London.

729
18.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Collect Wastewater Infrastructure Design Data
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Collect Wastewater Infrastructure Design Data
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Map out areas to be surveyed • Group discussions

4.2 Prepare tools for data collection • Demonstration by
4.3 Collect data and information trainer
• Online videos
• Powerpoint
presentation
• Exercises by
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 18/LO4: Collect Wastewater Infrastructure Design

Data

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers mapping out an area in preparation for wastewater data
collection, tools, and methods to collect relevant data preparation and determination of
relevant amounts and types of data to be collected from an area to better the wastewater
management of the area.

Definition of key terms

Stabilization pond- These are large man-made water bodies that use natural processes in
treating domestic water, sewage, and sludge as well as animal or industrial waste.

Detention time- this defines the time required for a known amount of wastewater to go
through a tank at a set flow rate.

Scour Velocity- the speed of water that is required to dislodge settled solids from the
stream bed.

730
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Map out areas to be surveyed based on job requirements/specifications.
Wastewater management map is essential and assists in identifying where current
wastewater servicing exits and where it is planned and also shows where servicing should
be avoided. We can also use the map for supporting policies in the development plan, for
example, when a plan needs new developments for connection to services where they are
available, this can be shown on the map, it identifies how and where the development will
connect and determines cost implications of accommodating development in areas with
specific services. From a map, we can identify areas where ejectors and disposal fields are
not allowed due to factors such as public health issues, soil limitations, environmental
issues, policies or other reasons. The layering of wastewater system maps over land use
designation maps will help integrate land use with wastewater management planning.

To map out an area for surveying we consider our topic which is wastewater and identify
the various factors that we consider. These factors mainly focus on drainage and
conservation of the environment. The main factors can be
• Infrastructure – in terms of crowding of buildings
• Population – population density is a major factor since a large amount of wastewater is
expected
• Nearness to water bodies (rivers and streams) – conservation of the environment is
important hence disposal of wastewater into them should be limited.
• Wildlife such as fish in water bodies
• Relocation plans for people living in areas where the wastewater treatment plant is
expected to be developed.

4.2 Prepare tools for data collection (Stopwatch, Checklists, Questionnaires,

Stationery, and Sampling equipment) based on information required.
In accordance with the study, we will use research methodologies to collect data on the
area we have mapped out. Since water is a human resource we mainly focus on the
population in terms of policies and essential needs by them. We are going to depend mainly
on primary and qualitative data.
Primary data involves obtaining data directly from individuals and qualitative data is data
we use for description without measurement.
Our data would be got by the following methods:
• Sample surveys
• In-person interviewing
• Telephone interviewing
• Mailed questionnaire
• Observations
• Case studies

731
4.3 Collect data and information (Population size and flow rate) based on tools
prepared.
The data and information required in wastewater normally focus on the environmental and
health issues, the goal is to better the hygiene of the general population and to ensure clean
water is available for use by the population.
From the data tools and methodologies, we are expected to obtain the following
information:
• The general population in the area
• What amount of the population have access to clean water
• Are there any rampant waterborne diseases in the mapped out area and if there are
specify
• Understand and research the wastewater drainage system in the area.
• Public opinion in accordance with wastewater management in the area.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered mapping the area, tools preparation, and quantity of
wastewater data collection.

Further Reading

Read further
On wastewater infrastructure and data collection on
[Link]

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Summarize the reasons for mapping out an area.
2. From a map, we can identify where ejectors and disposal points can be placed, choose
a factor that is not used to identify areas for disposal points and ejectors.
a) Policies
b) Soil limitation
c) Health issues
d) Water cleanliness

732
3. Which of the following is not a method of obtaining data
a) using questionnaires
b) sampling
c) counting
d) case studies
4. Predict the goal of data collection for wastewater treatment among the following
a) To better hygiene of the public.
b) To come up with systems
c) Identifying new infrastructure
5. Explain the importance of mapping
6. Summarize the factors that can be used to identify disposal fields for wastewater
treatment?
7. Outline the various method of data collection to obtain data which is helpful in
wastewater treatment?
8. Explain the various methods of data collection?
9. Describe the types of information obtained for wastewater treatment?

Oral Assessment
1. Differentiate between primary and secondary data
2. Elaborate the term qualitative data?

Case Study Assessment

Briefly explain the impact of wastewater treatment in the area you currently stay in.

Oral Assessment
Construct questions that can be used to obtain data by using face to face interaction as a
method of obtaining data?

Practical Assessment
In groups, use the questions you came up with to role play and practice on the face to face
method of collecting data.

Project Assessment
Compose a questionnaire and hand them over to the public around your area then analyze
and interpret the data obtained.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras

733
 • Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

Water, Wastewater, and Stormwater Infrastructure Management, Second Edition (2012):

Neil S. Grigg
Wastewater Irrigation and Health: Assessing and Mitigating Risk in Low (2010): ...edited
by Pay Drechsel, Christopher A. Scott, Liqa Raschid-Sally, Mark Redwood, Akica
Bahr
Strategic Asset Management of Water Supply and Wastewater Infrastructures (2009):
edited by Helena Alegre, Maria do Ceu Almeida

734
18.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Analyse Wastewater Infrastructure Design Data
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Analyse Wastewater Infrastructure Design Data
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Arrange data and information • Group discussions

5.2 Clean data • Demonstration by trainer
5.3 Present data • Online videos
• Powerpoint presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 18/LO5: Analyse Wastewater Infrastructure Design

Data

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers categorizing population into various classes, analyzing and
cleaning climatic and hydrological data, and producing topographical maps and ground
profiles from survey data.

Definition of key terms

Hydrostatic bench- is a self-contained bench that is equipped with all apparatus needed
for a comprehensive range of experiments on properties of fluids and hydrostatics.

Open Channel-defined as a design of flow enclosed in a conduit with a free surface

commonly known as a channel.

Weirs- simply defined as a barrier across the width if a river to alter its flow.

735
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Arrange data and information based on various themes.
In the middle of qualitative data analysis, we have another job of identifying themes, this
can be done by reviewing literature and come from the phenomena being studied, already
agreed-upon professional definitions, local common-sense constructs, and researchers.
Data can be arranged using various techniques, in modern trends and computing data is
mostly arranged in Microsoft Excel for easier and faster interpretation and analysis.
Apart from Excel sheets data can also be grouped using;
• Pie charts
• Graphs
• Flow charts
• Tabulations

5.2 Clean data as per best practice.

After collecting and arranging data there is a need for it to be cleaned by a process known
as data cleansing, this can be defined as a process of detecting and correcting inaccurate
data from the database arranged. We shall focus on the quality of data, the quality can be
assessed by the following factors:
• Validity
• Accuracy
• Completeness
• Uniformity
• Consistency
• Uniformity

Data cleansing also involves several processes i.e.

i. Data auditing by use of statistical methods
ii. Workflow specifications by removing anomalies
iii. Workflow execution where correctness is verified after the specification
iv. Post-processing and controlling by inspection of the results.

736
 5.3 Present data based on various themes
Table 53: Data based on various themes
THEMES PARAMETERS OF CALCULATION
Wastewater contamination Data can be sorted into 3 main categories as municipal,
extent agricultural, or industrial wastewater.
Geological data Focusing on the vegetation in terms of infiltration and
soil conditions.
Discharge requirements Policies are a tool that can be used to come up with
wastewater data this is based on requirements by bodies
such as NEEMA and KEBS
Sizing of components Here data is sorted as Primary, secondary and tertiary

Data presentation should be clear and easy to interpret it can be done by a graphical format
or tabular, data can be in figures or textual.
The following are methods of presenting data
• Bar graph – used mainly for comparison
• Pie chart – shows percentages
• Line graph – useful in displaying data that changes over time
• Pictographs- uses small identical or figures of objects called isotopes in making
comparisons.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered categorizing population into various classes, analyzing and
cleaning climatic and hydrological data, and producing topographical maps and ground
profiles from survey data.

Further Reading

Read further areas:

[Link]

737
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Data processing is a process of Quality of data can be assessed through the following
except which one
a) Completeness
b) Validity
c) Uniformity
d) Presentation
2. Which of the following is not a method of presenting data?
a) pie chart
b) line graph
c) creating models
d) bar graphs
3. Explain the term data cleansing
4. Evaluate the sue of the hydrostatic bench.
5. Explain ways in which themes can be identified from a database?
6. explain various methods of data arrangements
7. Classify the modern techniques of arranging data

Oral Assessment
Explain the following processes:
a) Data auditing
b) Workflow specification

Case Study Assessment

Using hydrological data from your area, tabulate and interpret the data then present it

Oral Assessment
Briefly explain the following methods of data presentation.
1. Pie charts
2. pictograms

Practical Assessment
Give an example of a pictogram using data provided,

738
Project Assessment
Using hydrological data from your area, arrange clean, and present the data using your
preferred method.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Software
• Pencils
• Ruler
• T-square
• Scale rule
• Eraser
• Set square
• Drawing board

[Link] References

Analyzing, completing, and generating data for WWTP modeling: a critical review
(2014). : CristinaMartinabPeter [Link]
Measuring the efficiency of wastewater services through data envelopment analysis
(2015): A. Guerrini; G. Romano; C. Leardini; M. Martini
Water & Wastewater Infrastructure: Energy Efficiency and Sustainability (2013): Frank
R. Spellman

739
18.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Calculate Wastewater Infrastructure Design
Parameters
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Calculate Wastewater Infrastructure Design
Parameters
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Identify design Parameters to be calculated • Group discussions

6.2 Identify tools for parameter calculation • Demonstration by
6.3 Calculate various wastewater infrastructure design trainer
parameters • Online videos
• Powerpoint
presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 18/LO6: Calculate Wastewater Infrastructure Design

Parameters

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Sizing of the pipes, Hydraulic flow in pipes, Depth of flow,
Gradient, and Sizing of treatment units. Pipe sizing is a process in which various pipes are
made concerning its diameter. The difference in pipe sizes affects the pressure and the
velocities of the fluid flowing within the pipes. Narrow pipes result in higher velocities of
flow.

Definition of key terms

BOD: (biochemical oxygen demand). This is the quantity of oxygen dissolved required
by anaerobes to digest organic material in the water at a given temperature over a specified
duration of time.

TSS :( total suspended solids). This is the dry mass of undissolved suspended particles in
a given water sample that can be trapped and filtered such as silt.

Gradient: This is the inclination nature of a slope (upward or downward)

740
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Identify design Parameters (Screening units, sedimentation tanks, grit chamber,
trickling filters, stabilization ponds, activated sludge system) to be calculated
based on the wastewater design manual.
There are many design parameters to be calculated based on the wastewater design manual.
They include;
• Hydraulic load- wastewater influent expressed in per person per day.
• Mass load-indicator of water quality and pollution level
• BOD - (biochemical oxygen demand).
• COD-chemical oxygen demand.
• The volume of suspended solids

6.2 Identify tools for parameter calculation (Theodolite, Dumpy level, GPS, Total
station, levelling staff, booking sheet, Soil sampler, Adequately equipped soil
mechanics labouratory, Flow Measuring structures, and devices, Stopwatch,
Questionnaires) based on the parameter to be calculated.
Tools used during the calculation of hydraulic load include; booking sheet, flow measuring
structures, and devices and a stopwatch. Tools used during the calculation of Mass load.
Mass load requires an adequately equipped soil mechanics lab to determine the pollution
level.
BOD is measured by BOD analyzers
Table 54: Tools used during the calculation of Mass load
Tool Name Description
Theodolite Measures horizontal and vertical angles
Dumpy level Measures points on the same horizontal plane
GPS Global positioning system
Booking sheet Tabulation of survey data
Stopwatch Performs accurate timing
Soil sampler Analyze soil samples

Pipe diameter size is required to determine the discharge and area of discharge at a given
time to calculate the hydraulic load.

6.3 Calculate various wastewater infrastructure design parameters based on design

codes.
How hydraulic load is obtained = (design flow in gal/day)/area in feet2.
Mass load= total water flow* conc. Of substance required in mg/l).
Below is an example of how mass load is calculated;

741
EXAMPLE 1
Mass loading calculations:
Given:
Average flow rate Q=300l/min
Washing Day = 10hours
Washing span = 60 days/year
Average total phosphorous concentration = 0.4 mg/L
1 kg = 1000000 mg
Total water flow (TWF)
TWF = Q × WD × WS
300 L/min * 60 min/hr *10 hrs/day*260days/yr
46800000
Mass loading of phosphorous
MLP = TWF*TP
46800000 L/yr*0.4 mg/L
18720000 mg/yr
Convert to kilograms
MLP = 18720000 MG/YR&* 1kg/1000000mg
18.72 Kg/yr

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered Sizing of the pipes, Hydraulic flow in pipes, Depth of flow,
Gradient, and Sizing of treatment units.
Further Reading

Read further on the measurement of BOD

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a design parameter in wastewater analysis?
a) Hydraulic load
b) Lateral wind load
c) suspended solids (TSS)
d) mass loading

742
2. The indicator of the water pollution level is known as.
a) Mass load
b) Hydraulic load
c) BOD
d) COD
3. Which instrument measures horizontal and vertical angles?
a) Theodolite
b) Stopwatch
c) Dumpy level
d) Soil sampler
4. Discuss the following terms as used in the waste water analysis
a) Design parameter
b) Hydraulic load
c) Mass load
5. Calculate the hydraulic loading rate given: design flow is 12860 gallons per day, the area
is 19.2m2
6. Discuss four parameters of wastewater analysis
7. Describe how suspended solids are removed in wastewater?
8. Discuss the effects of the variation of BOD in wastewater.
9. Sizing the pipe to be small is a necessary evil. Elabourate.

Oral Assessment
What were your observations during the visit to the nearby water treatment plant?
What conclusions can be made?

Practical Assessment
Experiment to determine the content of parameters in wastewater.
Illustrate the direction of the flow of wastewater in various stages.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Software
• Pencils
• Ruler
• T-square
• Scale rule
• Eraser
• Set square
• Drawing board

743
[Link] References

CPL Grady et al (2011), Biological wastewater treatment. New York

Marcos Von Sperling, (2007), Basic Principles of wastewater treatment. Berlin.

744
18.3.8 Learning Outcome No 7: Draw Wastewater Infrastructure Units
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7: Draw wastewater infrastructure units
Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1 Identify and gather drawing tools, equipment, supplies, • Group discussions
and materials • Demonstration by
7.2 Draw wastewater infrastructure units based on the trainer
design parameters Draw wastewater infrastructure • Online videos
units • Powerpoint
7.3 Submit wastewater infrastructure drawings for approval presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 18/LO7: Draw wastewater infrastructure units

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers drawing the different sections and profiles or different parts
of the wastewater treatment unit and legal requirements. It also equips the learner with the
knowledge of different chambers in the waste water treatment.

Definition of key terms

Equalization tank-A holding tank that ensures consistent flow and loading to subsequent
processes over a given period

Rotating biological contactors- is a type of secondary (Biological) treatment process

following the removal of grit sand and sediments that allows a biological film to come in
contact with the wastewater to remove pollutants before discharge to the environment. It
consists of a shaft with mounted rotating discs where biological degradation of pollutants
takes place

Oxidation ditch-A circular trough installed with aerators used to purify wastewater by
removal of pollutants via oxidation decomposition and adsorption

745
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1 Identify and gather drawing tools, equipment, supplies and materials
Table 55: Drawing tools, equipment, supplies and materials
TOOL FUNCTION
pencil Sketching elements in a wastewater treatment plant
ruler Draw straight lines
eraser Delete errors that have been sketched
Drawing board Provide a stable drawing surface
Masking tape Mount the paper into place
Set square Making right angles on the drawings

Identify and gather drawing tools, equipment, supplies and materials

The tools that are used in the technical drawing and design office include.
Software, Pencils, Ruler, T-square, Scale rule, Eraser, Set square, Drawing board,
Supplies: Masking tapes, Materials: Drawing paper, Photocopying /printing papers,
Equipment: Computer, Printer, Photocopiers) based on available resources and complexity
of the design.

b. Draw wastewater infrastructure units

Sewer, Screen, Grit chamber-horizontal, aerated/spiral, Sedimentation tanks,
Activated sludge system, Trickling filters(rock and plastic), Ponds, Oxidation ditch,
Aerated lagoons, Stormwater drains, Equalization tank, Sequential Batch Reactor,
Rotating biological contactors, Oil and grease trap) based on the design parameters.

Figure 179: Draw wastewater infrastructure units

746
Figure 180: Sewage treatment
Source: Biological wastewater treatment (2011)

Figure 181: Oxidation ditch

Source: Biological wastewater treatment (2011)

747
 Figure 182: Circular primary clarifier
Source: Biological wastewater treatment (2011)

Figure 183: wastewater treatment process

Source: Biological wastewater treatment (2011)

c. Submit wastewater infrastructure drawings for approval as per legal

requirements.
The various elements of a wastewater treatment plant work as follows;
1. Bar racks to remove large debris
2. Primary treatment were Type II sedimentation for flocculated particles. The SOR
ranges from 25-60 m/d, td ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 hours.

748
 3. Secondary treatment involving the use of microorganisms to remove BOD of any
solids that pass primary treatment. Oxygen is limited and must be supplied. The
most common secondary treatment process is activated sludge.
4. Secondary sedimentation to remove microorganisms from secondary treatment.
5. Disinfection to kill pathogens using chlorine (typically HOCl).

The legal requirements of wastewater infrastructure drawings must;

1. Be of sound engineering adhering to the technical standards put in place
2. Should be well planned to meet the future demands
3. The drawings must be approved by the relevant bodies to ensure it meets the
standards in place
4. Should exhibit knowledge of the regulatory frameworks in place.
5. Stakeholders involved should stick to their roles.
6. The drawing must be able to cater for the future demand of the infrastructure

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered drawing the different sections and profiles or different parts
of the wastewater treatment unit and legal requirements.
The legal requirements are contained in the water act of the constitution.
N/B Legal Requirements
Water quality Regulations, 2006

Further Reading

Read further on how wastewater treatment units can be made more efficient.
Read the water regulations act of 2006.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which chamber in a wastewater treatment plant traps solid material of sewage?
a) Primary storage.
b) Aeration zone
c) Sedimentation tank
d) Bar racks

749
 2. Which one is not a microorganism in wastewater?
a) Coliforms
b) Aerobes
c) Anaerobes
d) Symplistica pteridophyte
3. What is the role of microbes in wastewater treatment?
4. State the importance of activated sludge?
5. Compare the composition of the influent and effluents of a wastewater treatment plant?
6. Describe how wastewater is treated?
7. As an engineer, what improvements can you make to a storm drain to improve its role
and efficiency?
8. Describe the 3 main stages of wastewater treatment?
9. The activation chamber is the main section of treatment. Discuss.

Case Study Assessment

Given a city with a population of 50000 residents and a wet humid climate design a
wastewater treatment plant to meet the demand of the city.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Software
• Pencils
• Ruler
• T-square
• Scale rule
• Eraser
• Set square
• Drawing board

[Link] References

CPL Grady et al (2011), Biological wastewater treatment. New York.

Marcos Von Sperling, (2007), Basic Principles of wastewater treatment. Berlin.

750
18.3.9 Learning Outcome No 8: Compile Wastewater Infrastructure Design Report
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 8: Compile Wastewater Infrastructure Design Report
Learning Activities Special Instructions

8.1 Obtain design report format from the wastewater • Group discussions
design manual. • Demonstration by trainer
8.2 Prepare a design report • Online videos
8.3 Submit a design report to the client • Powerpoint presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 18/LO 8: Compile Wastewater Infrastructure Design

Report

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers technical report writing and legal requirements. The learner
is also equipped with knowledge on how to design report based on the format from the
waste water design manual.

Definition of key terms

Questionnaires: - Is an instrument used in research consisting of a series of questions
which are intended for gathering information

Discharge: - Is the volumetric flow rate transported through a given cross-section

Sludge: - These are bio-solids that can be reused after stabilization processes such as
composting and anaerobic digestion.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
8.1 Obtain design report format from the wastewater design manual.
Title Page
Declaration
Dedication
Acknowledgment
Abstract
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
751
 LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Objectives
1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study
1.5 Brief and Methodology
CHAPTER 2 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER 3 3.0 ROLE OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT
INFRASTRUCTURE
CHAPTER 4 4.0 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER 5 5.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS
CHAPTER 6 6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX II

8.2 Prepare a design report based on the identified format.

Abstract
To ensure that public health standards are upheld, it is imperative to dispose of human and
industrial effluents so that they do not damage the natural environment or pose a danger to
human health. Wastewater treatment process aims at removing contaminants from
wastewater which is then converted into an effluent that can be recycled back to the water
cycle rendering minimal impact on ecosystems.
Wastewater treatment technologies can be classified into mechanical systems, aquatic
(Lagoons), and terrestrial treatment systems.
The non-conventional treatment was adopted as was adopted in this particular report
because they are easily maintained, less energy-intensive, lower operational and
maintenance costs, and is environmentally friendly.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Wastewater includes water and wastes released to the environment and originating from a
variety of uses including commercial, residential, and industrial sources. Sewage is waste
expelled from domestic dwellings such as commercial, institutional and residential
establishments. The composition is expected to be organic because of the consistency of
carbon composites.

752
These contaminants are toxic and dangerous to the environment and human health and thus
should be treated prior to being released into the environment in the case when it is
discharged back into the watercourse.
The treatment process employs physical, chemical, and biological processes to treat
wastewater. The process occurs in a wastewater treatment infrastructure. The
infrastructural design is dictated by the wastewater characteristics whereby each stage of
treatment say mechanical treatment, biological and sludge treatment sections, are designed
based on the wastewater characteristics and the organic loading.

CHAPTER 2 DESIGN
Waste stabilization ponds consist of three stages of treatment, namely,
Table 56: Waste stabilization ponds stages
Primary Solids are separated
stage
Secondary Dissolved biological matter converted into a solid mass using water-borne
bacteria
Tertiary Biological solids are neutralized then disposed of and treated.
Chemical disinfection is conducted at this stage

2.1 DESIGN PROCESS

Table 57: Design process
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
RE CALCULATION REMAR
F KS
BAR SCREEN DESIGN
Screens are used for the removal of coarse solids. Their design applies
the following criteria.
Manual bar screens Mechanical bar screens
Bar spacing range between Bar spacing range between
2- 5cm 1.5 – 4 cm
Screen mounted at an angle of Screens mounted at an angle of 300 - 750
300 - 450
Bar thickness is 1cm thick, Bar thickness is 1cm thick, 2.5cm wide.
2.5cm wide.
The minimum approach velocity Min approach velocity in the bars is 0.45
is 0.45 m/s to avoid grit m/s to avoid a deposition.
deposition.
Max velocity is 0.9 m/s to Max velocity is 0.9 m/s to prevent
prevent washout of solids washout of solids through the bars.
through the bars.

753
 Empirically described by the following equation
𝑄 Head loss through the bar screen H.
Q = AV or A = ⁄𝑉
(𝑉 2 − 𝑉 ′2 ) × 0.7
Where
Q= design flow, m3/s 2𝑔
A = bar screens cross-section Where:
V = approach velocity of H = head loss
channel, m/s V = velocity through the openings (m/s)
V’= approach velocity, (m/s)
Adopt rectangular channels with g = acceleration due to gravity
depth to width ratio = 1.5 for
most efficient section
The typical head loss coefficient for a clean and clogged coarse screen
is 0.8 and 0.5 respectively.

PRIMARY TREATMENT
RE CALCULATION REMAR
F KS
The purpose of the primary stage is to remove sand and grit and other
settleable organic solids that settle at the bottom and keep suspended
organic matter in water.

Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, (1985).

Settling Theory

754
 (ῤ− 𝜌)𝑑 (ῤ−𝜌)𝑔𝑑
Vs = √4𝑔 Vh = √8𝛽
3𝐶𝜌 𝑓
Where: Where:
Vs = settling velocity Vh = scour velocity
ῤ = particle density Β = friction face-off particles
ρ = liquid density F = Darcy-weisbach friction
d = particle diameter factor
C = drag coefficient

Particle density (Kg/m3) Settling Vs, (m/s)

0.1 mm 0.2mm
sand 2650 25 74
Organic 1200 3.0 12
matter
Organic 1020 0.3 1.2
GRIT CHAMBER
REF CALCULATION REMAR
KS
The purpose of the grit chamber is to remove organic matter with a
higher density greater than 2000 Kg/m3 and particle size 0.1 – 0.2
mm to protect pumps from abrasion and to prevent clogging of
digesters.
𝑄 𝑉" 𝐻
𝐴=𝑊 ×𝐻 = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝐿

Where:
A = grit chamber area
H = Height of grit chamber
W = width of grit chamber
L = Length of grit chamber
V” = Velocity of scouring
V = settling velocity

SECONDARY TREATMENT
REF CALCULATION REMARKS
This stage is included to treat dissolved organic matter that forms
the degradable biological content. The mechanism works by
introducing micro-invertebrates into raw wastewater that aids in

755
the digestion of the organic matter. Three approaches exist in a
fixed-film system, suspended film system, and lagoon system.
The lagoons system is addressed in performing this design.
Lagoons work by holding water for several months to allow the
natural degradation of sewage.

Biological Treatment
The purpose of biological treatment is to capture solids that are
unable to settle. The solids are trapped into a biological floc or
biofilm.

2.2 LOADING
This describes the amount to be applied to the treatment process
1. Population Loading
The geometric growth model is used to determine the
population increase over a specified design period is
divided into three segments, initial year 5years, Basic year
(10 years), and Final year (25 years).

Pt = P0(1 + 𝑟)𝑡
Where:
P0 = initial population
Pt = population after t years

756
 SECONDARY TREATMENT
REF CALCULATION REMARKS

Waste Stabilization Ponds

The most important design parameters for WSP include:
Climate Temperature, Net radiation,
Solar insulation.

Flow Normally 85% of the in-house

water consumption.

BOD Measured based on a 24hour

flow weighted data.

Organic Loading
Biochemical oxygen Demand (BOD)
BOD loading is estimated from the following equation
𝐵
Li = 1000
𝑞
Where
Li = waste water BOD (mg/l)
B = BOD contribution (g/[Link]) Range (30-70g/[Link])
Q = wastewater flow (L/[Link])
Anaerobic Ponds
Continuous organic load of wastewater is received daily into the
first stage of biological treatment which is a basin that is 3 – 5 m
deep. The high wastewater loading depletes all oxygen and thus
anaerobic conditions prevail.
At the bottom of the pond solids, settle and anaerobic digestion of
sludge occurs

Anaerobic Pond Design

Designed based on volumetric loading λv, (g/m3/d)
Li𝑄
λv =
Va
Where:
Li = influent BOD (mg/l), Q = flow rate (m3/day)
Va = anaerobic pond volume

757
 SECONDARY TREATMENT
RE CALCULATION REMAR
F KS

The recommended influent BOD loading is in the range of (100 –

400g/[Link].
Hydraulic retention time is then calculated as,
Va
𝑡=
𝑄
Volumetric loading table
Temperature (℃) Volumetric Loading BOD removal (%)
(g/m3.d)
< 10 100 40
10-20 20T−100 2T+20
20-25 10T+100 2T+20
>25 350 70
Mara and Pearson, (1986).

Mid depth area

V1
A1 =
d1

Facultative Ponds Design

Allow shallow depths of basins (1.5 – 2m), to enable light penetration
and photosynthetic production of oxygen, so that microbial action of
decomposing organic material can be favored.
An anaerobic state exists at the bottom of the pond where settleable
solids are degraded.

758
 Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, (1985).

SECONDARY TREATMENT
REF CALCULATION REMARKS

Facultative pond design

Their design assumes they are completely mixed reactors in
which BOD5 removal, adheres to first-order kinetics.

Le 1
=
Li (1 + K1t)

(Le/ Li − 1)
t=
1/ K1

the mid area depth

𝑄𝑡
𝐴=
𝐷
Facultative ponds are designed on the based on surface
loading ,λs,
10Li Q
λs =
Af
where:
Li = the influent sewage concentration (mg/L)
Af = Facultative pond area (m2)
Surface loading value is given by: λs = 20T – 120
Retention time θf ,(days)

759
 AfD
θf =
Qm
Where:
Qm = mean flow, (m3/day)
D = pond depth usually 1.5m).

TERTIARY TREATMENT
RE CALCULATION REMAR
F KS

Maturation pond
The objective of maturation ponds is to remove pathogenic microbes
in the wastewater. The removal process occurs due to sunlight in the
water column. Basin depth ranges between (0.8 – 1.5m).

Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, (1985).

Design of Maturation Ponds

They are designed based on first-order kinetic models as in a
completely-mixed reactor.
Ni
Ne =
1 + KT θ
The maturation ponds are normally arranged in series
Ni
Ne =
[(1 + t1 KT)(1 + t2KT)(1 + t3 KT)n]

760
 KT = 2.6(1.19)𝑇−20

V3 = Q × t3

Mid area depth

V3
A3 =
d3

TERTIARY TREATMENT
REF CALCULATION REMARKS
Where:
Ne and Ni = number of faecal coliform per 100mlin the
effluent and influent
KT = first-order rate constant for faecal coliform removal
per day
Θ = retention time (day).

CONCLUSION
In non-conventional treatment design, the selection of
treatment processes depends on the wastewater quality. In
case the wastewater is found not to contain pathogenic
microorganisms then the engineer can decide the design for
only three stages of treatment say Preliminary, primary, and
secondary excluding maturation ponds. Other designers
may exclude preliminary treatment when the wastewater
has no or minimal, large objects.
The design methodology presented applies to all non-
conventional treatment system. Variations my occur only in
the selection of data to be used.

8.3 Submit a design report to the client as per best practice

The report is presented in the form of slides that explain the design process. The engineer
must be conversant with all the processes so that the slides only assist him to plan the
presentation.
The seven rule applies in preparing the slides that is seven slides, seven sentences and seven
words per sentence

761
 TITLE SLIDE
PROJECT TITLE
NAME
SPECIALITY

PROBLEM STATEMENT
• The need for the waste treatment plant
• Challenges in implementing the project
• Solutions to the above challenges
• Future changes in trends

METHODS AND MATERIALS

• Design criteria
• Materials required for design
• Tools, equipment, and machinery required

DATA COLLECTION
• Types of data
• Methods of collection of data
• Data transfer and storage

DATA ANALYSIS
• Empirical and numerical modeling
• Design codes referencing
• Design software applications

RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• Design report presented
• Sizes of infrastructure decided upon
• Approval of the project

CONCLUSIONS

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered technical report writing and legal requirements.

762
Further Reading

Arrhenius equation and its application

Linear growth models and exponential growth models

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. In characterizing wastewater which of the terms doesn't describe wastewater source.
a) Industrial sources
b) Underground sources
c) Residential sources
d) Commercial sources
2. Wastewater treatment process is grouped into three, mechanical treatment, biological
treatment, and chemical treatment, which of the following is not included in mechanical
treatment.
a) Removal of large objects
b) Removal of sand and grit
c) Primary sedimentation
d) Faecal coliform removal
3. Which of the following is true about detention time?
a) Oxidation pond detention time range = (3 – 5) days
b) Facultative pond detention time range = (25 – 180) days
c) Aerated pond detention time range = (7 – 20) days
d) Storage pond/HCR pond detention time range = (100 – 200)
4. Which one is the odd one out?
a) Activated sludge
b) Trickling filter
c) Rotating biological contactors
d) Grit chamber
5. Tertiary treatment is also called high-rate secondary treatment. Which one of the
following is not removed at this stage?
a) Nitrogen
b) Phosphorous
c) Refractory organics
d) Non dissolved solids

763
6. Why is it important to pre-treat industrial wastewater before releasing it to the treatment
plant?
7. Discuss the chemicals used in wastewater treatment
8. Which are the regulatory bodies which control the quality of effluent discharged into
the environment.
9. Describe the mechanism of treatment in an activated sludge system
10. Analyse the types and operational principles of conventional systems

Practical Assessment
In your university labouratory perform tests for BOD5 by conducting an experiment using
samples from your school kitchen.

Oral Assessment
Make a slide presentation describing the geotechnical procedures conducted on a proposed
wastewater treatment site and present to your class.

Project Assessment
Design a suspended growth system using OPENMDELICA software application

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Software
• Pencils
• Ruler
• T-square
• Scale rule
• Eraser
• Set square
• Drawing board

[Link] References

Spellman, F. R. (2013). Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations.

CRC press.
Vesilind, P. (Ed.). (2003). Wastewater treatment plant design (Vol. 2). IWA publishing.
Hakanen, J., Sahlstedt, K., & Miettinen, K. (2013). Wastewater treatment plant design and
operation under multiple conflicting objective functions. modeling &
software, 46, 240-249

764
 CHAPTER 19: CONSTRUCT WASTEWATER INFRASTRUCTURE

19.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit covers the competencies required to construct wastewater infrastructure. It
involves analysis of soil properties, construction of the wastewater infrastructure units,
organization of the construction site, and preparation of construction schedule
This standard applies in the water industry.

19.2 Performance Standard

Analyse soil properties, prepare construction schedule, organized the construction site,
construct the wastewater infrastructure based on available resources and the tests to be
conducted, standard procedures, soil classification, and results.

19.3 Learning Outcomes

19.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Analyse soil properties
b) Prepare construction schedule
c) Organize the construction site
d) construct the wastewater infrastructure

765
19.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Analyse Soil Properties
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Analyse Soil Properties
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Identify and gather soil analysis tools, supplies and • Use of Online
materials videos
1.2 Identify engineering properties of soils • Power point
1.3 Analyse properties of soils presentation
1.4 Prepare soil analysis report • Exercises by
trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 19/LO1: Analyse Soil Properties

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers analysis of soil properties based on standard procedures as
well as how to prepare a soil analysis report.

Definition of key terms

Moisture Content - Moisture content is the amount of water present in a given soil mass.

PI index - Plasticity index is a measure of the range of water in which the given soil
remains in plastic state

Sieve Analysis – Sieve analysis is a procedure for classifying soils using standard sieves
to determine the particle size distribution.

766
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Identify and gather soil analysis tools, supplies and materials (Sieve analysis, PI
index, Moisture content, CBR, Proctor, Triaxial test, Oedometer tests,
Casagrande, Cone penetrometer, Sand Replacement, California Bearing Ratio)
based on available resources and the tests to be conducted
The following explains the gathered soil analysis tools, supplies and materials based on
tests to be conducted:
• CBR Test- This refers to California Bearing Ratio which is a penetration test used
for classification of soil sub grade and base coarse materials especially for
design of flexible pavements and was developed by California State Highway
Department in U.S.A.
It shows the ratio of force per unit area needed to penetrate a given mass of soil at
a rate of 1.25mm/min, to the corresponding penetration of a standard material.
• Proctor Test- This is a compaction test that is carried out to determine the
optimum moisture content at which a given soil in question achieves maximum
dry density through air removal.
• Triaxial Test- This test is done to measure the mechanical properties such as shear
strength of soil hence it is often known as triaxial shear strength. It is performed
by subjecting stress on a given soil sample in a way that the resultant stress in one
direction is different in perpendicular direction.
• Oedometer Test- This test is done to determine consolidation which is an
engineering property of soil. This is determined by measuring the vertical
displacement of the soil being tested when it is subjected to vertical loading
• Casagrande Test- This is an atterberg limit test used to measure the liquid limit
of a given soil sample. The term casagrande is used because the test apparatus was
designed by Arthur Casagrande.
• Cone penetrometer- This is used in testing soil properties at the site because one
is able to map out the soil profiles and determine properties such as relative density
of soil.
• Sand Replacement Test- This test is used to determine the dry density of soil at
the site. One needs to dig a hole first then proceeds to fill it with sand of a known
density hence the term sand replacement. From this, one can determine the volume
of the hole.

767
1.2 Identify engineering properties of soils based on the soil classification
Engineering properties of soils are the characteristics that soils possess that make them
suitable for use in the engineering field. They range from one soil to another and in that
way soil has to be classified into different categories as shown below
a) AASHTO classification system
This system is based on the plastic characteristics and particle size of soil. The soil is
divided into seven categories and even further when considering the group index as shown
in the classification chart below:

Figure 184: AASHTO classification

Source: Bello, Afeez. (2013). Introductory Soil Mechanics I.

b) Unified soil classification system

This system classifies soil into three categories: Organic soils, Coarse grained and fine
grained soils. This is determined depending on how much soil passes standard sieve sizes.

768
 c) Grain size classification system
This system classifies soils based on the grain size only hence it is not very significant. The
soil can be classifies as either silt, sand or clay depending on the particle size.

d) Textural classification
This is an improved system from the grain size system because it considers the grain size
distribution as a percentage.
From the above classification systems, the following engineering properties can be
identified as shown:
• Shear Strength- This refers to soil resistance to deformation when subjected
to shear stress. It is important in geotechnical engineering because it helps in
determining the bearing capacity of foundation.
• Consolidation- This according to (Terzaghi & Peck, 2013), consolidation is
"any process which involves a decrease in water content of
saturated soil without replacement of water by air".
• Liquid Limit- This shows the amount of moisture present when a given soil
sample transitions from plastic state to liquid state such that the soil can flow.
This helps classify the soil in terms of how fine it is and it is important to an
engineer as they can calculate the allowable bearing capacity of foundation as
well as its settlement.
• Dry Density – This in simple terms is the density of soil when dry and is
calculated by subtracting the moisture content from the wet density. It is used
to give an idea of extent of compaction of soils whereby a high dry density
indicates an increased compaction.
• Relative Density- This property is dimensionless and shows how dense a
cohesionless soil is, that is the difference between void ratios when loose and
in natural state, compared to its maximum density i.e. the difference in void
ratio when loose and dense state.

1.3 Analyse properties of soils based on the standard procedures

The following standard procedures are used in analyzing engineering properties of soils:
They are divided into two main categories:
i. In-situ Testing Procedures: This involves field tests carried out at site of proposed
location and may include but not limited to:
a) Standard Penetration Test
This test is done in accordance to IS -2131:1963. A bore hole is drilled to a
desired depth after which a standard split spoon sampler is driven into the soil
using a dropping hammer weighing 63.5kg it is dropped at a rate of 30 blows
per minute over a height of 0.75m. The aim of this test is to determine the
relative density of soil.

769
 b) Sand Replacement Test.
This test aims at determining the dry density of the soil in question and it is
based on IS 2720 part 28. The in situ compacted soil is removed and replaced
with sand of known density to determine the volume of the hole after the weight
of sand needed to fill the hole is determined.

ii. Labouratory Tests: This cannot be done at site hence the soil sample is taken to the
labouratory for analysis. They include but not limited to:
a) Sieve Analysis
This test is used to determine the particle size distribution of soil using the
standard procedure outlined in ASTM C136 (AASHTO T-27). The sample soil
is passed through a number of standard sieves and the retained soil in each sieve
measured for analysis in determining the soil gradation.
b) Atterberg’s Limits Tests
This involves a number of tests that are carried out to determine the critical
water content in fine graded soils. The tests are carried out as outlined in
ASTM D4318 and include: liquid limit test, plastic limit test and shrinkage limit
test.

1.4 Prepare soil analysis report based on the results.

A soil analysis report is a report prepared by an engineer that shows the soil properties
of the area where an infrastructure is likely to be constructed showing whether the soil
conditions are suitable on not. It is important because it tells the viability of proposed
project before it is started.
The following is the procedure for preparing a soil analysis report:
i. One is first required to know the client’s expectations on the proposed
project for instance the location where they want the project to be among
others.
ii. The next step is carrying out both field and labouratory tests of the soil on
the chosen location to determine its engineering properties. The tests and
soil properties have been highlighted in 1.3 and 1.2 respectively.
iii. The results from the tests are the analysed to determine if the soil has
suitable engineering properties thus a decision can be made whether the site
is safe for engineering works.
iv. The Geotechnical engineer will then provide a detailed report of existing
conditions to the client as well as give recommendations where necessary
which helps in knowing if the proposed are safe and viable and what can be
done incase otherwise.

770
Conclusion
This learning outcome covered analysis of engineering soil properties in terms of what they
are, how they can be tested together with relevance in engineering field and how a soil
analysis report can be prepared.

Further Reading

Research more on how soil tests are done to determine whether they possess required
engineering properties by watching tutorials on You Tube.
[Link] use this link to
learn more on how to prepare a soil analysis report.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The following are labouratory tests in soil analysis except one:
a) Standard Proctor Test
b) Penetration test
c) Triaxial Test
d) Odometer Test
2. Soil analysis is important in engineering works. Which if the following is not an
engineering property of soil:Shear Strength
a) Plastic Limit
b) Consolidation
c) Water quality
3. What is an in-situ testing procedure? Give three examples of in-situ tests in soil
analysis
4. Elabourate 4 Atterbergs Limits
5. Discuss 4 engineering properties of soil
6. Compare and contrast between density of soil and relative density of soil?
7. Proctor test is used to determine the optimum moisture content of soil. Briefly explain
how the proctor test is done and its significance in the engineering field.

771
Case Study Assessment
Your sister was watching construction videos on you tube and came across the term Soil
Analysis Report. She approached you to explain what a soil analysis report is and why it
is crucial in the construction industry. What would you tell them?

Project Assessment
A client has approached you with the intention of consulting you on whether their preferred
location for their project is suitable or they need to switch to another area. Prepare a soil
analysis report that you will give them including your recommendations based on your
findings. Use soil samples from the school field.

Oral Assessment
What contents are you going to include in your Soil Analysis Report?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet

[Link] References

Terzaghi, K., & Peck, R. (2013). Soil mechanics in engineering practice. [England]: Read
Books Ltd.
Jamal, H. (2020). How to Write a Soil Investigation Report | Contents of a Geotechnical
Investigation. Retrieved 24 June 2020, from [Link]
[Link]
Carter, M., & Bentley, S. (2016). Soil Properties and their Correlations. Newark: Wiley.
Different Classification of Soils for Engineering Purpose. (2020). Retrieved 25 June 2020,
from [Link]

772
19.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Prepare Construction Schedule
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Prepare Construction Schedule
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Interpret engineering drawings • Demonstration by

2.2 Identify construction activities trainer
2.3 Prepare project management timelines • Power point
presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No 19/ Lo 2: Prepare Construction Schedule

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome applies to the Interpretation of work drawings, Construction
activities (Concrete works, Steel works, Earth work, Form works, site clearance, Trenching
and excavation, Backfilling) based on scope of work and Preparation of Project
management timelines based on project specifications.

Definition of key terms

Earthworks: Earthworks are operations that involves digging, transporting and
compacting the surface of the earth at a particular site.

Backfilling: Backfilling is the process of placing the soil back into a trench or base after
the excavation has been completed.

Trenching and excavations: according to Occupational Safety & Health Administration

(OSHA), excavation is defined as any human-made hole, cavity, or depression in the earth's
surface created by the removal of the soil, while the trench is defined as a narrow
underground excavation that is narrower than the wide one and is no longer than 15 feet
(4.5 meters) wide.

773
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Interpret engineering drawings based on the engineering codes
Engineering drawings are a rich and detailed outline that demonstrates all the details and
specifications required for the manufacture of an object or product. It's more than just
drawing, it's a graphical language that communicates ideas and details. Engineering
drawing provides far more detailed details and specifications, including: dimensions,
geometry, tolerances, material type, finish and hardware according to [Link].

An illustration of an engineering drawing

Figure 185: Illustration of an engineering drawing

Source: [Link].

2.2 Identify construction activities (Concrete works, Steel works, Earth work, Form
works, site clearance, Trenching and excavation, Backfilling) based on scope of
work.
Construction activities shall mean any clearing, grading, excavation, grubbing, filling or
other operation which results in the disturbnace of land.
Concrete works: Concrete works involves the following processes: preparation of the
concrete mixture; delivery of the mixture to the construction site; feeding, distribution and
compaction of the mixture in the formwork (molds); curing of the concrete while it is
hardening; and quality control of the concrete work.
Steel works: Steel works is the assembly of steel components into a frame on site. This is
achieved by lifting and placing components into position then connecting them together
through bolting or site welding.
Earth work: Earthwork includes the loosening, removal and handling of earth amounts in
the course of construction refer to a Guide to the Training of Supervisors-Trainees’
Manual/Part1 (ILO, 1981,269 p.)
774
Form works: Formworks are temporary molds used to shape the concrete structure. Refer
to the Building Construction Handbook by Roy Chudley & Roger Greeno.
Site clearance- According to Building Construction Handbook by Roy Chudley, site
clearance involves removal of vegetation, surface soil, and levelling and land preparation
for planned construction work.
Trenching and excavations: according to Occupational Safety & Health Administration
(OSHA), excavation is defined as any human-made hole, cavity, or depression in the earth's
surface created by the removal of the soil, while the trench is defined as a narrow
underground excavation that is narrower than the wide one and is no longer than 15 feet
(4.5 meters) wide
Backfilling: According to [Link]/geotechnical, backfilling is the process of
replacing or reusing the soil that is removed during construction to strengthen and support
the foundation of a structure or any other structural component.

2.3 Prepare project management timelines based on project specifications

Project management timetable is where you take all the details you have about your project,
including the start date, the deliverables, the end date, and how you're going to set a plan
for when everything is going to be finished.
5 key steps in developing a project schedule
i. Define activities
ii. Sequence activities
iii. Estimate activity resources
iv. Estimate activity durations
v. Develop schedule

An illustration of a construction work schedule

Table 58: Illustration of a construction work schedule
Activity 2019 2019 2019 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020

No. Name Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
1 Visitor center
2 Submitted
3 Site grading/ utilities
4 Foundations
5 Concrete walls
6 Steel
7 Envelop
8 Interior finish
9 Mech/Elec
10 Commissioning/final

775
Conclusion
This learning outcome has prepared the student to be able to Interpret work drawings,
Construction activities. Project planning and how to prepare a project management
timeline.

Further Reading

Read more on:

1. Steel works as illustrated by BS EN 1090-2:2018, Execution of steel structures and
aluminum structures. Technical requirements for steel structures, BSI.
2. Watch a video on excavation and backfilling in construction

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a construction material?
a) Tape measure
b) Steel
c) Cement
d) Blocks
2. The following are construction activities. Which one is not?
a) Concrete works
b) Earth works
c) CBR
d) Form works
3. Which of the following is not a pre-tender work?
a) Pre-tender program
b) Cost implication
c) Plant schedule
d) Security
4. Which of the following is not a construction tool?
a) Pipe wrenches
b) Hammer
c) Tape measure
d) Timber

776
5. The following are site infrastructures. Which one is not?
a) Site office
b) Site store
c) Ablution block
d) Proctor
6. The following are considerations that should be taken by the builder when tendering.
Which one is false?
a) Access to site
b) Labour
c) Services
d) Filling
7. Differentiate between trench and excavations.
8. Describe the process of backfilling.
9. Before any building work can commence, the area covered by the building must be
leveled. Discuss using illustrations, the methods used.

Oral Assessment
1. Project management important? Justify
2. Are you able to differentiate the various construction activities? Differentiate

Practical Assessment
Conduct a site visit and prepare a project schedule upon commencement of the
construction.

Oral Assessment
Why is it important to prepare a project schedule?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

777
[Link] References

Chudley, R. (2015). Advanced Construction Technology, 5th edition. Trans-Atlantic

Publications. ISBN-13:978-0435046835.
A, M. (2010). Project Schedule. Project Smart.
1090-2:, B. E. (2018). Execution of Steel Structures and aluminum structures. Technical
requirements for steel structures.

778
19.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Organize the Construction Site
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Organize the Construction Site
Learning Activities Special
Instructions

3.1 Clear and secure site • Group

3.2 Identify and mobilize human resources construction plant and discussions
equipment • Demonstration
3.3 Put in place site infrastructures by trainer
• Power point
presentation

[Link] Information Sheet No 19/ Lo 3: Organize the construction site

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers clearance of site based on the contract document, site layout
and organization, resource mobilization, contract documents site infrastructures (site
office, site store, ablution block, fence, signage/safety signs, hoarding) based on contract
document and legal requirements and legal requirements.

Definition of key terms

Ablution block: Ablution Block is a washroom built on site location.

Site Office: The site office is a temporary administrative center where the building project
operations are carried out.

Hoarding: Hoarding are closed boarded fences or barriers erected adjacent to a highway
or public footpath.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Clear and secure site based on the contract document.
It is advisable, during clearing and grubbing, to involve the removal of any dead branches
or the trimming of low hanging branches on the trees, so as to interfere with the growth.
All pruning should be carried out in compliance with appropriate nursery practices. In the
case of any harm to private property, the contractor shall be responsible for the costs
involved in restoring the site to its previous state. A professional arborist should be
consulted to make recommendations for the restoration or replacement of vegetation.

779
Figure 186: Preparation of the construction site
Source: Preparation of the construction site [Link]

3.2 Identify and mobilize human resources construction plant and equipment based
on the contract document
The main contractor sets out certain requirements for the selection of its subcontractors.
Such requirements may include previous experience of the subcontractor, technological
ability to conduct work, mobilization ability in terms of human resources and plant
equipment, financial capacity, quality of work carried out in the previous, records in terms
of working relationships with the main contractor, record of work safety and workers’
welfare.

3.3 Put in place site infrastructures (site office, site store, ablution block, fence,
signage/safety signs, hoarding) based on contract document and legal
requirements.
• The arrangements for office accommodation should be provided on site as it a
matter of choice for each individual contractor according to the Act 1963.
• There should be site store for provision of adequate space, protection and
control for building materials.
• There should be sanitary facilities such as an ablution block separate male and
female if possible.
• There should be a fence with a minimum height of 1.8 m with minimum access
points and lockable gate or barrier.
• The safety signs/ signage should there and positioned well
• Hoarding should be provided to prevent unauthorized persons obtaining access
to the site.

780
Conclusion
This learning outcome has prepared the student to be able to understand clearing of the site,
site infrastructures, site layout and organization, resource mobilization, contract documents
and legal requirements.

Further Reading

Read more on:

Contract documents, resource mobilization and legal requirements as illustrated on the
Construction Project Management Theory and Practice by Kumar Neeraj page 137.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. The following falls under clearing of the site. Which one is does not?
a) Demolition of existing buildings
b) Grubbing out of bushes and trees
c) Removal of soil with vegetable matter
d) Builder’s square
2. The following are methods used to reduce the levels in the slopping sites. Which one
is not?
a) Cut and fill
b) Cut
c) Fill
d) Clear site
3. Which of the following does not fall under site work and setting out?
a) Clearing the site
b) Establishing a datum
c) Setting out the building
d) Hoarding
4. Which one of the following is not a site layout consideration?
a) Storage
b) Access
c) Datum
d) Plant

781
5. Which of the following is not a safety sign?
a) Red
b) Yellow
c) Black
d) green
6. Discuss three types of contract documents
7. Differentiate between fencing and hoarding.
8. Discuss the aspect to be considered when carrying out site layout considerations.
9. Describe site organization structure
10. Why do you think when a builder is tendering for a given job, he must first visit the
site before filling in his unit rates in the bill of quantities?

Oral Assessment
1. Briefly explain factors to be considered when tendering?
2. Discuss the activities should be carried out in pre-tender work?

Practical Assessment
Conduct a construction site visit and prepare the site organization structure.

Oral Assessment
Site organization structure important?Justify

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos
• Wooden pegs
• Nails
• Hammer

782
19.3.4.5References

Site Clearance. (2010). In L. J. Hooper, Graphic Standards Field Guide to Hardscape (p.
71). Graphic Standards Field Guide to Hardscape.
Chudley, R. (2015). Advanced Construction Technology, 5th edition. Trans-Atlantic
Publications. ISBN-13:978-0435046835.
Edward Allen, E. a. (2013). Fundamentals of Building Construction . Materials and
Methods 6th Edition.

783
19.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Construct the Wastewater Infrastructure
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Construct the Wastewater Infrastructure
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Source and mobilize construction materials and tools • Group discussions
4.2 Set out infrastructure • Demonstration by
4.3 Construct wastewater infrastructure units trainer
4.4 Do labour payments • Power point
4.5 Prepare and submit as built drawings presentation
4.6 Prepare payment certificate • Exercises by trainee
4.7 Prepare completion certificate
4.8 Observe site personal health and safety

[Link] Information Sheet No19/Lo 4: Construct the Wastewater Infrastructure

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome covers Constructional details of onsite sanitation facilities and
Construction plant and equipment. It also equips the learner with labour payment
knowledge.

Definition of key terms

Trickling filters - These are a wastewater treatment system made up of crushed rocks in a
tank of a depth of about 2 metres and a diameter of about 60 metres that is used to remove
organic pollutants .

Sedimentation tanks – These are part of a waste water treatment system where waste
water is filled and allowed to settle for a while so as to remove suspended particles that are
in the wastewater.

Grit chambers – These are tanks that are long and narrow and are used to remove
inorganic solids from waste water by reducing the speed of the flowing wastewater.

784
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Source and mobilize construction materials and tools (Cement, Aggregates (course
and fine), Steel, Stones /blocks, Timber, Tape measure, Hack saws, Pipe
wrenches, Levelling tools e.g. Hammer, Set of protective) gear based on the bill
of quantities
A bill of quantities entails the construction materials, tools, labour and their costs. It also
includes the quantities [Link] is usually prepared after specifications have been set and
the design of the infrastructure has been done.
It will be used as a guide to obtain the specific quantities of construction materials needed.
Sourcing of construction materials involves balancing between the cost of materials and
their quality.

Material sourcing for construction involves the following activities:

1. Deciding on possible suppliers.
Based on the materials that are required, you can choose a supplier for example a
hardware store or a wholesaler with the required materials.

2. Checking the availability of materials.

You could call the viable suppliers to check whether the required materials are in stock.
Also in this step you could confirm the quality of the materials in stock.

3. Requesting quotes from the suppliers.

This is done so as to find a supplier with the most economical price. The quote can be
obtained via email or by going to the supplier.
After obtaining the quotes a price comparison is done to decide the final supplier.

4.2 Set out infrastructure based on the engineering drawings.

Setting out infrastructure is a process of transferring an engineering drawing onto the
site/actual ground so as to establish the necessary structural parts. It enables construction
to be carried out as it has been planned.
Setting out is done by using the following methods:
a. Using the peg and rope method
b. By using a dumpy level.

The procedure for setting out is as follows:

i. The building line for the waste water infrastructure is first set out.
ii. The baseline for the infrastructure is then set out.
iii. The first right angle to the base line is set out next.
iv. The second right angle to the base line is set out.
v. The final back line is set out.

785
 vi. The set out for the infrastructure is then checked to confirm the measurements.
vii. Profiles are then set up on corners and ranging lines attached.

4.3 Construct wastewater infrastructure units (Screen, Grit chamber-horizontal,

aerated/spiral, Sedimentation tanks, Activated sludge chamber, Trickling filters,
Ponds, Oxidation ditch, Aerated lagoons, Storm water drains, Equalization tank,
Sequential Batch Reactor, Rotating biological contactors, Oil and grease trap)
based on the design drawings
Waste water infrastructure units are the units that are systematically used to purify water
so that it can be recycled back.
Construction of these units is done in with reference to the engineering drawings and bill
of quantities on the site where they have been set out.

4.4 Do labour payments based on the progress report and attendance.

A progress report is a report that details the activities that have been carried out, those that
have been completed, those that are in progress, any problems that may have been faced
and how the construction project is proceeding.
The progress report facilitates labour payments, called progress payments. These are partial
payments made to cover the amount of work that has been done at a particular stage or by
what percentage of work that has been done.

4.5 Prepare and submit as built drawings based on the actual construction.
As-built drawings are revised drawings that are prepared and submitted by the contractor
after the project has been completed.
They usually indicate all the adjustments made while building the project.
The method of preparing is built drawings is as follows:
1. Preparation of the as built drawings by the contractor.
The contractor incorporates all changes made to the original design in accordance
with official notes regarding such changes. The contactor is also supposed to visit
the site to ensure all the changes are reflected in the drawing.
After preparing the drawings, they are submitted to the Engineer overseeing the
construction.

2. Approval of the as built drawing by the engineer.

The engineer verifies the drawings with the official notes time to time according to
how much construction has been done.
They will also go to the site and check the drawings against the constructed
facilities.
If satisfied, the engineer will accept the drawings and keep a record of them in their
office.

786
4.6 Prepare payment certificate based on progress report.
A payment certificate in construction is a document that gives an account of the work that
has been completed. It is approved by the contractor.
They are issued either on a regular basis or when a project reaches a particular milestone.
Some types of payment certificates include: certificate of non-completion, interim
certificate, practical completion certificate and final certificate.

4.7 Prepare completion certificate based on the legal requirements.

A completion certificate is also called a final certificate. It is usually submitted when the
project has been completed successfully at the end of the contract. The construction has to
have met required specifications outlined by Building regulations stipulated by the Kenyan
Government.

4.8 Observe site personal health and safety as per the OSH Act and site regulations.
OSH Act is a set of rules meant to ensure the safety and wellbeing of employees by
employers by protecting them from hazards.
These regulations help in the identification, reduction and elimination of hazards that are
related to construction work.
The employers and employees must adhere to the set standards of safety to avoid getting
injured due to the top four construction hazards which include:
1. Falls
2. Struck-By
3. Caught-In/Between
4. Electrocutions

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered Constructional details of onsite sanitation facilities and
Construction plant and equipment.

Further Reading

Read more on the various types of payment certificates, how to come up with as-built
drawings and go through the OSH Act.

787
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a waste water infrastructure unit?
a) Activated sludge chamber
b) Trickling filter
c) Pit latrine
d) Grease trap
2. Which one is not a type of payment certificate?
a) Final certificate
b) Certificate of non-completion
c) Independent certificate
d) Interim certificate.
3. One of the following better defines an as built drawing. Which one is it?
a) The drawing of the building before construction.
b) The revised drawing of the building after construction.
c) A sketch drawing
d) None of the above.
4. A completion certificate is also called?
a) Interim certificate
b) b) Project certificate
c) c) Final certificate
d) d) None of the above
5. What does OSH Act stand for and what does it entail?
6. Define a progress report.
7. Discuss 4 wastewater infrastructure units?
8. Write a short essay outlining the basic steps that are followed in material sourcing and
their significance.
9. Discuss what a payment certificate is and expound on the various types of payment
certificates.

Oral Assessment
Demonstrate various waste water infrastructure units.
Examine the steps followed while sourcing materials for construction?

Practical Assessment
Design an engineering drawing of a trickling filter and practice setting out its
infrastructure.

788
Oral Assessment
Mention the challenges faced in the process of designing the trickling filter.
What are the major steps followed while setting out infrastructure?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Software
• Cameras
• Construction manuals
• Projectors
• Flip charts
• Calculators
• Rulers, pencils, erasers
• Charts with presentations of data
• Drawing sheets
• Internet
• Relevant videos

[Link] References

[Link]
management/wastewater-management
Mueller, F.W. (2012). Integrated Cost and Schedule Control for Construction Projects.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Reese, C.D. & Eidson, J.V. (2006). Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety And Health.
Boca Raton: Taylor and Francis Group.
Stuetz R. & Stephenson T. (2009). Principles of Water and Waste Water Treatment
Processes. London: IWA Publishing.
Teixeira E. & Rauen W. (2019). Hydrodynamic Design and Assessment of Water and
Waste Treatment Units. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

789
 CHAPTER 20: DESIGNING ONSITE SANITATION FACILITIES

20.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit covers the competencies required to design onsite sanitation facilities.
It involves Collection and analysis of onsite sanitation design data, calculation of onsite
sanitation design parameters, drawing onsite sanitation units, designing shit flow diagram
and compilation of onsite sanitation design report.
This standard applies in water industry.

20.2 Performance Standard

Collect onsite sanitation design data, analyse onsite sanitation design data, calculate onsite
sanitation design parameters, draw onsite sanitation units, design shit flow diagram, and
compile onsite sanitation design report based on job requirements/specification and tools
prepared.

20.3 Learning Outcomes

20.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Collect onsite sanitation design data
b) Analyse onsite sanitation design data
c) Calculate onsite sanitation design parameters
d) Draw onsite sanitation units
e) Design shit flow diagram
f) Compile onsite sanitation design report

790
20.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Collect Onsite Sanitation Design Data
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Collect Onsite Sanitation Design Data
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Map out area to be served • Demonstrate how

1.2 Prepare tools for data collection to correctly map
1.3 Collect data and information out an area and
prepare tools
needed
• Elabourate on the
data collection
process

[Link] Information Sheet No.20/LO1: Collect Onsite Sanitation Design Data

Introduction to learning outcome

This unit focuses on collection of onsite sanitation design data for a mapped out area and
using prepared tools as per the job specification. Data collection tools are also discussed

Definition of key terms

Tools for data collection – these include the instruments or methods that are employed so
as to obtain data, interpret it and present it.

Onsite sanitation facility – this is a sanitation facility that treats the wastewater at the
place where it has been generated.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Map out area to be served based on job requirements/specification.
The area to be served by the on-site sanitation system is mapped using already existing
base maps and by employing the use of GPS and GIS to acquire more accurate data. To
acquire these maps a team made up of individuals with a range of different skills will be
employed.

791
Mapping is important for the following reasons:
1. It enables the site to be charted and this helps in having a better understanding that
will aid in planning the sanitation facility.
2. It aids in marking the boundaries of the site
3. It prevents the occurrence of overlaps as a result of miscalculation.

1.2 Prepare tools for data collection (Questionnaires, Stationery, GPS, Cameras,
Check list, Sampling equipment, Maps, Measuring instruments, Safety
equipment, Safety box, First aid kits) based on onsite sanitation facility (septic
tanks, bio-digesters, anaerobic baffled reactors, latrines. Soak pits, ecosan toilets,
imhoff tank) to be designed.
Tools for data collection are the instruments or methods that are employed so as to obtain
data, interpret it and present it.
They include:
Interviews, questionnaires, reporting, existing data, observation, focus groups and
combination research.
The necessary preparations that have to be made include:
i. Making logistical arrangements at the site of the sanitation facility
ii. Preparing the questionnaire by doing a pre-test of the questions to be asked
iii. Selecting and preparing the required equipment at the site
iv. Rechecking the questionnaires
After the data can proceed to be collected for subsequent analysis.

1.3 Collect data and information based on tools prepared.

The data that is expected falls into two categories:
Quantitative data; which is data that can be expressed as values that indicate quantity. It is
expressed numerically. It is usually then interpreted and presented in tables or graphs.
Qualitative data; which is data that is descriptive and describes qualities. It answers
questions like “why?” and “how?” It explains the values obtained as quantitative data.
Data is collected from the site using the tools of data collection i.e.: Interviews,
questionnaires, reporting, existing data, observation, focus groups and combination
research and analysed. This information will then be used to design the onsite sanitation
facility.
Data collection aids in design in the following ways:
1. It enhances the research by verifying its integrity.
2. It reduces arising of errors.
3. It is important in decision making since data will be used to have a better
understanding
4. It saves time and costs that would have been lost if decisions were made without a
better understanding

792
Conclusion
This learning outcome served collection of onsite sanitation design data to meet the need
for wastewater disposal and within a legal framework.

Further Reading

Do some further research on mapping and the various data collection tools?

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a method of data collection?
a) Interviews
b) Questionnaires
c) Observations
d) Experiments
2. While doing preparations for the data collection tools, which among the following must
be rechecked?
a) The site
b) Questionnaire
c) First aid kits
d) Sampling equipment
3. Which of the following fits the description “Collection of data by the use of
questionnaires alongside other methods”
a) Survey
b) Interviews
c) Mapping
d) Sampling
4. Define tools for data collection.
5. What is an on-site sanitation facility?
6. Expound on the preparations that have to be made on tools for data collection.

Practical Assessment
Come up with a simple questionnaire on construction of an on-site sanitation facility to be
used within your locality. Use them to collect data from individuals living in that area.

793
Oral Assessment
1. Mention various tools of data collection.
2. Mention various challenges faced while collecting data using questionnaires.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Questionnaires
• Stationery
• GPS
• Cameras
• Check list
• Sampling equipment
• Maps
• Measuring instruments
• Safety equipment
• Safety box
• First aid kits

[Link] References

Pearce L. & Axinn W. (2006). Mixed Method Data Collection Strategies. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Sapsford R. & Jupp V. (2006). Data Collection and Analysis. London : SAGE Publications.
Kurian M. & McCarney P. (2010) Peri-urban Water and Sanitation Services: Policy,
Planning and Method. Springer.

794
20.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Analyse Onsite Sanitation Design Data
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Analyse Onsite Sanitation Design Data
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Arrange data and information • Utilize excel

2.2 Present data software to
analyze the
collected data

[Link] Information Sheet No20/LO2 Analyse Onsite Sanitation Design Data

Introduction to learning outcome

This unit aims to arrange and present collected data and information based on the onsite
sanitation facility to be designed.

Definition of key terms

Arrangement of data – this is where data is put into tables so as to have it organized
according to similarities. It is also referred to as classification of data.

Presentation of data- this involves organizing data in such a manner that it is

summarized and is attractive so as to be able to easily interpret it.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Arrange data and information based on onsite sanitation facility to be designed.
Data arrangement involves classifying the data collected using tools for data collection into
groups. This is done by checking the similarities of the raw data that has been gathered.
This is done so as to aid in the understanding of data before it is finally analysed. Also,
suitable comparisons can be made. The data for the design of the onsite sanitation facility
from the various data collection tools such as: questionnaires, reporting, existing data,
observation, focus groups and combination research, is classified so that it is easier to be
able to further understand it.

795
Classification of data is done according to the following basis:
a. Qualitative classification.
This is where data is put into categories based on qualities. For example, data
collected from a population can be classified according to employment where there
would be the unemployed and those that are employed.
b. Quantitative classification.
This is putting data into classes in the basis of characteristics that can be measured
such as: length, width etc.
c. Chronological classification.
It is also called temporal classification. This involves putting data in clusters in
accordance to time, either in descending or ascending order. Time could be in
weeks, months, years etc.
d. Geographical classification.
It is also called spatial classification. This is classifying data according to
geographical locations such as counties, countries, cities etc.
After the data for designing the onsite sanitation facility has been classified then analysis
and presentation can be done.

1.2 Present data based on onsite sanitation facility to be designed.

Presentation of data is done so as to allow for decisions to be made. The data collected in
the previous outcome after it has been classified needs to presented for it to aid in designing
the onsite sanitation facility.
There are various methods of presenting data, called tools of data presentation. These
include:
a. Textual presentation.
This is where data comprising of texts and values is written and then read.
b. Tabular presentation.
This involves putting data systematically in rows and columns. This makes up a
statistical table.
c. Graphical presentation.
This is where statistical data is presented in the form of lines or curves plotted on
coordinated points.
Examples of graphs: bar graph, pie chart, line graph etc.
A suitable method of data presentation should be selected from the above list to present the
data needed to design the onsite sanitation facility.

Conclusion
This learning outcome served arrangement and presentation of data and information
collected from the previous outcome.

796
Further Reading

Read more on the various classifications of data and the methods of presenting data.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a method of data classification?
a) Temporal classification
b) Spatial classification
c) Graphical classification
d) Quantitative classification.
2. One of the following is not a method of presenting data?
a) Textual presentation
b) Graphical presentation
c) Chronological presentation
d) Tabular presentation
3. Give three reasons why data classification is important.
4. What are the three data presentation tools?
5. Write an essay highlighting the process of arranging and presenting the data for the
onsite sanitation facility and specify what methods you used in both.

Oral Assessment
Mention types of graphs.
Mention the 4 types of data classification.

Practical Assessment
Arrange and present the data for designing the onsite sanitation facility. Use excel to
generate the graphs.

Oral Assessment
Mention the observations you have made from the presented data.

797
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Software e.g. Excel

[Link] References

Reynolds L. & Simmonds D. (2012). Presentation Of Data In Science: Dordrecht. Martinus

Muhoff Publishers.
Hennessy E. (2014). Presenting Data: How to Communicate Your Message Effectively:
Wiley.
Evergreen S. (2017). Presenting Data Effectively: Communicating Your Findings For
Maximum Impact: SAGE Publications.
Wills J. (2004). Data Analysis and Presentation Skills. West Sussex: Wiley.

798
20.3.4 Learning Outcome No 3: Calculate Onsite Sanitation Design Parameters
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3 Calculate Onsite Sanitation Design Parameters
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Identify design parameters to be calculated • Present design

3.2 Identify tools for design parameter calculation parameters and
3.3 Calculate various onsite sanitation facility design tools for their
parameters calculation
through a power
point presentation.

[Link] Information Sheet No20/LO3: Calculate Onsite Sanitation Design

Parameters

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome involves the calculation of design parameters based on wastewater
design manual, calculation of design parameters already identified based on required
design codes and calculation of various onsite sanitation facility design parameters based
on the design codes.

Definition of key terms

Design parameters: Design parameters are aspects of a system that are required to make
something happen according to [Link]/dictionary.

Tools for design parameter calculation: The tools for design parameter calculation are
tools that assist in coming up with the required system design to function well.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Identify design parameters to be calculated based on wastewater design manual.
Design parameters: Design parameters are aspects of a system that are required to make
something happen according to [Link]/dictionary.
The design manual is intended to serve as a guide for those already in the field who may
use it for cross-checking purposes and as a starting point for those interested in wastewater
and would like to be involved in the design of works (Freese, 2009)

Design parameters in wastewater design:

• Maximum quantity of sewage
• Volume of sewage

799
 • Surface area
• Detention period
• Depth
• Diameter
• Free board

Figure 187: Design parameters for settling tank

Source: [Link] by Bibhabasu Mohanty.

3.1 Identify tools for design parameter calculation (laptops, calculator, stationery, and
software) based on the parameter to be calculated.
The tools for design parameter calculation are tools that assist in coming up with the
required system design to function well. These tools are explained below:
Laptops: Laptop is a portable computer that can be conveniently transferred and used in a
number of locations that run software and access the same type of files according to
[Link]/computer basics.
Calculator: Calculator is a tool that performs mathematical arithmetic operations as stated
by [Link]/calculator.

800
Stationery: Stationery is a type of writing material, such as paper, envelopes, pens, pencils
and books according to Cambridge Advanced Learner’s dictionary.
Software: Software is a series of programs designed to perform a well-defined purpose
according to [Link]/software.

3.2 Calculate various onsite sanitation facility design parameters based on design
codes.
On-site sanitation facilities: are wastewater systems designed to treat and dispose of
effluent on the same property that produces wastewater in areas not covered by public
sewage infrastructure (Tkgd2007, 2008).

Design procedure
In designing a sanitary sewer system, the designer commences by:
Step 1: Establishing the boundaries of the specific area to be serviced
Step 2: Obtaining mapping as required
Step 3: Breaking the defined area into units
Step 4: Determining the existing and proposed land use
Step 5: Deciding on an ultimate population to be attached to each unit
Step 6: Determining the design flow for the population of each unit
Step 7: Determining a design allowance for infiltration.
After the proposed sewer routing is established and the necessary profiles obtained, the
designer will proceed to calculate sewer pipe sizes and grades.
The design of the latrine is driven both by customer preferences and by public health
requirements. While basic design factors (pit length, septic tank retention time, etc.) remain
the same, local circumstances and specifications influence the factors that regulate the final
cost of the latrine.

Pit latrine design

Step 1: Size of the pit
Three conditions must be met when determining the size of a pit latrine opening:
• The pit will have ample storage space for all sludge that accumulates during
its operating life or prior to its expected emptying according to (R Franeys,
1992).
• When the service life of the pit is finished, enough space will still be left for
the contents to be enclosed.
• Appropriate wall space should be available at all times so that any liquid in
the pit can enter the surrounding soil (R Franeys, 1992).
Step 2: Capacity to store
Adequate capacity should be accounted for when designing the pit’s operating life
according to (R Franeys, 1992)

801
Step 3: Depth of soil seal
This is usually taken as 0.5 m (R Franeys, 1992). In the case of the double pit
latrines, the depth is to the bottom of the inlet drain.
Step 4: Zone of penetration
A significant amount of water can reach the pit in communities where people use
water for anal cleaning or bathing in the toilet. When the soil pores below the sludge
surface are believed to be blocked, additional wall areas must be allowed to
penetrate the liquids above the sludge (R Franeys, 1992)
Step 5: Depth of pit
According to R Franeys, (1992) total depth of the pit shall be calculated as follows:
Pit depth = sludge depth + infiltration depth + depth of soil seal

Figure 188: Pit latrine design

Source: Pit toilets (Latrines)/ Global Water Pathogen Project

Conclusion
This learning outcome has covered calculation of onsite sanitation design parameters such
as wastewater estimation and population projection, tools for design parameters and design
of onsite sanitation facilities based on design codes.

Further Reading

Read more on:

1. Design of onsite sanitation facility: Engineering Design Manual by Sudbury, C. o.
(2012). On-site Sanitation facility. Engineering Design Manual.
2. Watch a video on Design criteria ([Link]

802
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following is not an onsite sanitation facility to be designed?
a) Latrines
b) Stationery
c) Septic tank
d) Site office
2. Which one is not a tool for design parameter calculation?
a) Software
b) Stationery
c) Design manual
d) Laptop
3. Define design parameters
4. Differentiate the tools for design parameter calculation
5. Determine various onsite sanitation design parameters
6. Discuss the importance of calculating onsite sanitation design parameters

Oral Assessment
Outline the tools for design parameter calculation.
State the technical skills an individual need to have in calculation of onsite sanitation
design parameters.

Project Assessment
Design a septic tank suitable for 120 users assume a flow of sewage 100l/h/day and a
retention period of 24 hours assume any other necessary information.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Laptops
• Calculator
• Stationery
• CAD Software
• Internet

803
[Link] References

Mehraban Sadeghi, H. H. (2012). Design Parameters. International Journal of

Environmental Health Engineering.
Sudbury, C. o. (2012). On-site Sanitation facility. Engineering Design Manual.
Tkgd2007. (2008). Onsite sanitation facility. Scratch in Adobe illustrator.

804
20.3.5 Learning Outcome No 4: Draw Onsite Sanitation Units
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Draw Onsite Sanitation Units
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Identify and gather drawing • Facilitate group

4.2 Draw onsite sanitation facilities discussions and
4.3 Submit onsite sanitation facility drawings for approval provide online
videos on how to
draw the sanitation
facilities.
• Provide exercises
to the trainees for
submission

[Link] Information Sheet No20/LO4 Draw Onsite Sanitation Units

Introduction to learning outcome

This units aims to ensure the trainees are able to draw chosen onsite sanitation facilities
based on the design parameters calculated.

Definition of key terms

Drawing tools -these are instruments to help the learner draw a required design.

Supplies -these are the available items that are provided.

Materials -objects which the drawing will be put down to help in visualization.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1 Identify and gather drawing tools, (software, pencils, ruler, T-square, scale rule,
eraser, set square, drawing board) supplies (masking tapes, software) and
materials (drawing paper, photocopying/printing papers, and stationery) based
on available resources and complexity of the design.
Drawing tools
Pencils-an instrument used for writing or drawing made from a thin piece of granite
Ruler-a straight piece of wood or plastic which is marked and used for measuring distances
T-square-an implement used for drawing horizontal lines or testing angles

805
Scale rule-instrument used to measure and transfer length
Eraser-a piece of rubber used to wipe out unwanted writings
Set square-an instrument used for drawing lines at certain degrees
Drawing board-a table used for drawing or writing
Supplies
Masking tape-tape used to cover unwanted painting areas
Software-instructions set on a computer that are used carry out certain tasks
Materials
Drawing paper-paper used for drafting finished work
Photocopying paper-a plain paper used for printing
Stationery –a collection of writing materials

4.2 Draw onsite sanitation facilities based on the design parameters.

Onsite sanitation facility -this is where the waste is collected and treated on the same
facility
Design parameters –these are the considerations needed before starting something.
The demand for sanitation
Project definition
Background information
Comparison and selection of systems

Figure 189: Soak pit

Source: Vigyan Ashram, Introduction to Water, Rural Development Education System,
[Link]

806
4.3 Submit onsite sanitation facility drawings for approval as per legal requirements
Legal requirements –protocols put in place by the government that needs to be fulfilled and
act as guidelines.
Should be readily available to the community.
Local government to include onsite sanitation plans to reduce expenditures.
The health sector should play a part in ensuring the safety of the public’s health
Inspection of sanitation systems to avoid exposure of excretes materials and endangerment
of people’s health.

Figure 190 : Onsite sanitation facility drawings

Source: Texas A&M Agrilife Extension, Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems (OWTS),
[Link]

Conclusion
This learning outcome served the drawing of onsite sanitation units using available
resources and based on the complexity of the design. The learner should be able to
comfortably define terms related to the onsite sanitation and implementing the knowledge
taught.

Further Reading

Read more on the design parameters of onsite sanitation facility.

807
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Identify a factor which doesn’t affect waste disposal in onsite sanitation
a) Ground conditions
b) Human waste
c) Insects and vermin problems
d) Significance of pollution
2. In planning of onsite sanitation facility different considerations are taken into account.
Give a factor with least consideration.
a) Mode of transport
b) Need for sanitation
c) Financial aid
d) Background information
3. Define onsite sanitation.
4. Give the objective of onsite sanitation
5. In relation to onsite sanitation give two examples.
6. Describe the preparation for an onsite sanitation facility.

Case Study Assessment

While on an attachment you’re asked by your supervisor to help with the ongoing onsite
sanitation facility construction, which design criteria will you use to help them draw the
facility?

Oral Assessment
Which design criteria did you use?

Practical Assessment
In your class identify and name the different tools and materials available.

Oral Assessment
What are the tools used for?

808
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
Tools:
• Software
• Pencils
• Ruler
• T-square
• Scale rule
• Eraser
• Set square
• Drawing board

Supplies:
• Masking tapes
• Software

Materials:
• Drawing paper
• Photocopying /printing papers
• Stationery

Equipment:
• Computer
• Printer
• Photocopiers
• Calculator

[Link] References

Texas A&M Agrilife Extension. (2019). Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems. Texas.
Agrilife Bookstore.
WHO. (2018). WHO Guidelines on Sanitation and Health. Geneva. World Health
Organization

809
20.3.6 Learning Outcome No 5: Design Shit Flow Diagram
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Design Shit Flow Diagram
Learning Activities Special Instructions

[Link] data required for SFD preparation • Utilize the

[Link] methodology for data collection available
[Link] and gather tools, supplies and materials resources to gather
[Link], sort and analyze data the data requires
[Link] SFD for designing a
shot flow diagram.

[Link] Information Sheet No20/LO5 Design Shit Flow Diagram

Introduction to learning outcome

The objective of this unit is to design a shit flow diagram by first collecting the required
data using the available resources and as per the standards needed. The learner should be
able to understand and work with a shit flow diagram.

Definition of key terms

Shit flow diagram –a diagram that shows how excrete flows in an urban or rural setting.

Fecal Sludge management –it is the collection, transportation, and treatment of the fecal
sludge

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Identify data required for SFD preparation according to standards
• Boundary of area-political and administrative boundaries may differ with the areas
sanitation boundaries.
• Population -using census data to know the area population.
• Types of sanitation systems and how they operate.
• The key geographical features to know the areas climate and topography.
• Policies or regulations of the area for easier sanitation delivery.
• Co-ordinates to locate service chain components.

810
5.2 Identify methodology for data collection as per the standards
Methodology is a way of gathering information.
• Questionnaire- a set of questions written on paper and given to people to answer
them.
• Interviews- meeting held by two parties to gather information by asking questions.
• Pictures- captured images by use of an instrument called a camera.
• Identifying the stakeholders- stakeholders are the relevant authority that gives
permission for a project to start.
• Relevant identification documents and introduction letters- these are used to show
the institution you come from and your intentions.

5.3 Identify and gather tools, supplies and materials based on available resources
Tools: Safety equipment-these are tools or materials used to protect an individual from
harm
Measuring instruments-they are used to estimate distance
Cameras-it is an instrument used to capture an object
Stationery- a collection of writing materials
Map- a tool that assists in locating or finding a place
GPS- an instrument used to find the location of a place
Supplies: Software- instructions set on computer that are used to carry out certain
tasks
Materials: Drawing paper- a factory made light material used in artwork or writing.

5.4 Collect, sort and analyze data based on methodology identified

• Data collection will be through questionnaires which will be dropped and
picked from the responders after filling them. Pictures will be taken by form of
cameras while interviews will be carried out on one on one basis.
• Sorting will be done through: numbering of pictures that will act as proof of
location.
• Questionnaires will be numbered and the questions coded.
• Analysis will be done by compiling all the data and feeding it into the SFD
graphic generator.

5.5 Prepare SFD based on the data collected

Shit flow diagram- a diagram that shows how excrete flows in an urban or rural
setting.

811
 Preparation
Identify the stakeholders to ensure you get the necessary permission from relevant
authorities and mark out the sanitation boundary.
Questionnaires will give you a better understanding of the sanitation situation in the
area and other related issues.
Population of the area will give the measurements one needs to know for the
possible best containment system to use for a certain amount of people.
Pictures will be a form of proof of the existing sanitation systems around the area.
The data will be fed into the into the SFD graphic which will be generated from
the SFD matrix using the online graphic generator.

Figure 191: SFD Promotion Initiatives Updates

Source: African Water Association , 2017, SFD Promotion Initiatives Updates, USAID,
[Link]

Conclusion
This learning outcome served the preparation, designing of an SFD for fecal sludge
management and teaching the basics in collecting and analyzing raw data.

812
Further Reading

Read further on the steps of fecal sludge management

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which area is fecal sludge management preferred the most?
a) Cluster settlement
b) Dense settlement
c) Sparse settlement
d) Stratified settlement
2. Name the mode of transport used in fecal sludge management.
3. After treatment of the fecal sludge management, what is the byproduct given?
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of fecal sludge management.
5. Differentiate between onsite sanitation and fecal sludge management.
6. Describe how social and cultural practices affect fecal sludge management.
7. Fecal sludge management is proving to be a necessary way of waste water treatment.

Oral Assessment
What was the most advantageous quality of fecal sludge management?

Case Study Assessment

On your way home, you pass by a school with a failed sewerage system. Advise the school
principal on fecal sludge management and design a shit flow diagram for the school.

Practical Assessment
In groups of two find the system used to ensure a proper fecal sludge management in your
area.

Oral Assessment
Which way of disposal is used in fecal sludge management?

813
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
Tools:
• Software
• Pencils
• Ruler
• T-square
• Scale rule
• Eraser
• Set square
• Drawing board

Supplies:
• Masking tapes
• Software

Materials:
• Drawing paper
• Photocopying /printing papers
• Stationery

Equipment:
• Computer
• Printer
• Photocopiers
• Calculator

References

Bhitush Luthra. (2019). Shit Flow Diagram. New Delhi. Global and Indian Experience.
Center for Science and Environment. (2019). Methodology for Data Collection. New
Delhi. Center for Science and Environment.
Ian Ross, Rebecca Scot, Ana Mujica, Zach White, Mike Smith. (2016). Fecal Sludge
Management: Diagnostics for Service Delivery in Urban Areas. Leicestershire.
World Bank Group.

814
20.3.7 Learning Outcome No 6: Compile Onsite Sanitation Design Report
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Compile Onsite Sanitation Design Report
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Obtain design report format from the wastewater design • Utilize the
manual. provided design
6.2 Prepare design report report format from
6.3 Submit design report to the client the wastewater
design manual.

[Link] Information Sheet No20/LO6 Compile Onsite Sanitation Design Report

Introduction to learning outcome

This unit summarizes the design of onsite sanitation facilities because a trainee is expected
to submit a design report to the client as per best practice.

Definition of key terms

Onsite sanitation entails dealing with the waste on the location where it is collected and
deposited with regard to drainage and disposal of sewage and refuse from houses,
examples include; septic tanks, use of latrines and many others to be obtained from the
waste water manual

Onsite sanitation design report is a written guide record that is in place to show how
engineers use the design process to arrive at the destined design of onsite facilities

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Obtain design report format from the wastewater design manual.
• It can be obtained from the government catalog of ministry of water and irrigation or
on the Internet by downloading from Google scholar websites
• The design report format outlines the following;
a. Existing sanitation technology
b. Existing conditions of onsite sanitation
c. Selection of sanitation technology
d. Selection of rural or urban sanitation
e. Cost comparison and alternatives and decision making

815
 f. Planning, design considerations and parameters of the chosen method
construction
g. Implementation phase

6.2 Prepare design report based on identified format.

A design report is prepared by conducting studies on the following basis;
a. Existing sanitation technology in Kenya include onsite and offsite sanitation
b. Grasping sewerage conditions for onsite treatment systems i.e climatic and site
conditions, population, sociocultural factors and institutional framework in place
c. The minimum criteria for selection is the service level of water supply, population
density, ground permeability and water table
d. Use of septic tanks, latrines are both considered in the rural and urban sanitation
variations being land and water use
e. The method with the minimum cost and maximum benefits is picked
f. Conceptualization of the plan, actualization of drawings design data analysis and
computation with respect to design principles and parameters to come up with
dimensions
g. Availability and gathering of resources and materials involved such as land,
workmanship and thereafter construction
More information on the detailed design report to be found in
Ministry of Water and Irrigation draft practice manual for Sewerage & Sanitation Kenya.
JUNE (2008)

6.3 Submit design report to the client as per best practice.

• The design report is submitted to client through a legal framework involving a third
party where the document is reviewed and dully signed by both parties involved in the
contract agreement
• The terms and conditions of monitoring and evaluation of the works are also agreed
• The client is made known to the risks, costs and maintenance measures to be put in
place after project completion

An illustration below to show how sanitation technologies are designed to work

816
Figure 192: Sanitation technologies
Source: Using the shit flow diagrams by Lara Fernandez Martinez, Loughborough
University

Conclusion
This learning outcome served the preparation and submission of an onsite sanitation design
report and enlightened the learner about waste water design manual.

Further Reading

Learners should read more on design of onsite sanitation and be able to compute analysis
questions on onsite sanitation, their design principles and consideration.
Go through other sections of the waste water design manual to familiarize yourself with
other methods of sanitation.

817
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following cannot be termed in existing condition of sanitation
technology?
a) Population
b) Cost
c) Planning
d) Management
2. Septic tanks are adopted conveniently in?
a) Rural areas
b) Urban areas
c) Both
d) Low density residential areas
3. Where can one obtain a design report format?
a) Internet
b) Waste water design manual
c) Review journals
d) Onsite facility
4. Briefly define online sanitation
5. What is an online sanitation design report?
6. List two online sanitation methods practiced in a Kenya

Essay question
With reference to the waste water design manual, describe the preparation of a design
report

Oral Assessment
Is online sanitation reliable in our country? If yes or no why?

Case Study Assessment

A client in Machakos has hired your consultant company to prepare a design report format
for his residential houses sewerage system. Adopt the design with a suitable method of
sanitation

818
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Computer
• Internet
• Printer
• Work Station
• Photocopying /printing papers

[Link] References

Republic of Kenya Ministry of water and Irrigation draft practice manual for Sewerage
and Sanitation Services.
[Link]
The american water works association. (2012). waste water treatment plant [Link]
edistion. colorado: mcgraw hill professional

819
 CHAPTER 21: CONSTRUCTION OF ONSITE SANITATION FACILITIES

21.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit covers the competencies required to construct onsite sanitation facilities. It involves
preparing construction schedule, organizing the construction site and construction of the various
onsite sanitation facilities. This standard applies in water Industry.

21.2 Performance Standard

Prepare construction schedule, organize the construction site, and construct the various onsite
sanitation facilities based on engineering codes, scope of work, and project specifications.

21.3 Learning Outcomes

21.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Prepare construction schedule
b) Organize the construction Site
c) Construct the various onsite sanitation facilities

820
21.3.2 Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Construction Schedule
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Prepare Construction Schedule
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Interpret engineering drawings • Trainer guidance on the

1.2 Identify construction activities application of
1.3 Prepare project management timelines engineering codes
• Use of updated
engineering codes

[Link] Information Sheet No21/LO1: Prepare Construction Schedule

Introduction to learning outcome

This section deals with the necessary steps taken for the construction of the onsite sanitation
facilities. Scheduling construction activities involve distributing the construction tasks available
over a specified time frame to ensure its timely delivery and a high quality output of the final
product. Sanitation has always been neglected during water supply. However, there has been a
tremendous development s in the innovation of better and low-cost sanitation facilities. Therefore,
preparation of a construction schedule is necessary in realizing an appropriate supply of clean and
potable water and sanitary disposal of human wastes towards improvement of the health of the
people in the society.

Definition of key terms

Construction activities: involve the tasks that are undertaken during the implementation of the
actual building of the structure.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Interpret engineering drawings based on the engineering codes
Different engineering codes are available for the design of different engineering structures in order
to meet certain minimum standards. These codes include but not limited to: Euro codes, British
Standard Codes, Kenyan standards among others and are all essential in any engineering design.
Interpretation of engineering drawings involve converting them into forms of CAD representation
using different forms of softwares for example Auto CAD, Prokon, Revit Technology among
others that convey different meanings including representing a 3-D structure. .

821
There are three levels of interpretation of engineering drawings namely:
a. Lexical level
b. Syntatic level
c. Semantic level
At the syntactic level, there are tasks utilized in generally recognizing annotations and
dimensioning in particular. This dimensioning can be in form of linear or angular dimensioning.
It is essential to always start by reading and understanding the title block of every drawing as they
contain important features including dimensioning units, scales among others. Section views show
the hidden features of an object so that the contractor or the site engineer is able to understand that
during construction. Reading and understanding different symbols used in the drawings is also key
to interpreting the drawing and meeting its demands fully and therefore it is important to
understand a few basics of symbols. The most common symbols used are and not limited to
rectangles, triangles, circles and polygons. Architectural symbols for instance doors, windows,
cars and electrical installations are normally generally notated. Engineering drawings are a graphic
representation of a structure/object and produced by the engineer or technician. It is important that
they are done according to the specifications of the relevant engineering codes. Any contractor or
a site engineer must therefore be able to interpret any technical drawings given to him or her at the
site in order to deliver a project that meets the expected design standards and specifications.
Consultation in engineering is necessary. At the site, it is essential to consult with other colleagues
and especially the engineer that designed and produced the drawing.

1.2 Identify construction activities (Surveying, excavation, laying and jointing) based on scope
of work.
Different construction activities are all put together chronologically in order to achieve the
desired output of the construction. Preliminary surveying for instance for site understanding
and easier clearance to pave way for the actual construction is important.
Surveying is the process of analyzing and obtaining the general characteristics of a land area
proposed for construction. The most preferred surveying instruments include the theodolite
and the total station. There are several categories of surveying namely:
a. Cadastral surveying
b. Topographical surveying
c. Geodetic surveying
d. Aerial surveying
e. As Built surveying

Excavation involves the removal of soil or rocks from a site using tools and machinery.
Excavation and trenching is common for the construction of all sanitary facilities as they are
vital for the construction of deep foundations. However, these methods of foundations differ
for foundations, underground openings or slopes. These foundation methods include: bracing
excavation methods, zoned excavation among others.

822
 Laying and jointing is done especially for pipes for instance concrete pipes or plastic pipes.
Pipes are generally laid below the ground or even sometimes on the ground. These pipes are
laid in the following ways:
a. Initially prepare a detailed map showing the topographical features of the area
including lanes, roads among others.
b. The Centre line of the proposed pipework be transferred from the map to the actual
ground and marked in equal intervals.
c. Excavation of the trenches commences.
d. Pipes are laid on the ground by use of derricks for heavy pipes or manually for lighter
pipes.
e. Testing of these pipes for leakage and pressure begin immediately after the pipes are
laid in position.
f. After it has passed the above immediate test, backfilling using soil or rock is done.

1.3 Prepare project management timelines based on project specifications

The success of a project often is also defined by completing the project within the budgeted
timeframe. This will be achieved by developing a realistic and working plan and effective
management of the created plan. Different construction activities and stages will be given specified
time limits to which they should be completed for example site clearance, excavation, setting out
works, actual construction to completion and official handing over will be given different dates in
the same order. This is also made possible through the work breakdown structure. The following
steps are to be followed in order to develop or prepare project management timelines:
a. Write the scope of the project for instance for the construction of a 3-bedroom house that
will occupy an area of 20 sq. feet.
b. Develop a work breakdown structure. This will help in breaking down the construction of
the house into small sub-units for example construction of foundation, exterior walls,
partition walls, partition walls, roofing.
c. Each work package is broken down into tasks
d. The total time required for each task is estimated. Sufficient time for curing is given for
concrete works.
e. Identify the available resources required to be input into the specific works and allocate
them appropriately.
f. Using all the above gathered information, assemble them to obtain the final project
management timeline

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the preliminary construction techniques, scheduling and
management of the onsite sanitation facilities.

823
Further Reading

Read more on the project cycle and methods of excavation

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which is the most applicable engineering code in any design by engineers
a) British standards
b) Kenyan standards
c) Euro codes
2. Onsite sanitation facilities include the following except one, identify
a) Aqua-privy
b) Pit latrine
c) Swamp
3. Which one of the following is not a construction activity
a) Surveying
b) Excavation
c) Trenching
d) Playing
4. Do poor waste disposal pollute groundwater
5. Is provision of clean water the solution to the problem of poor sanitation
6. Which is the most common form of waste disposal in Kenya
7. Is waste segregation at the production site important in controlling pollution
8. Is project plan important in ensuring a timely delivery of the project

Essay question
Scheduling of work is important in ensuring the completion of the project in time, discuss

Oral Assessment
Why is excavation one of the most important stage in onsite sanitation facilities construction?
Are low-cost construction techniques the solution to the problem to the deficiency of sanitation
facilities in third world countries?

824
Case Study Assessment
Malawi has made great improvements in ensuring an improved water supply rates to its citizens
(56.3%). However, like other sub-Saharan countries, continue to suffer under the burden of an
increasing population and hence a higher demand for more sanitation facilities. Using this
knowledge, discuss what the government should do to improve the livelihoods of the people in
your area.

Oral Assessment
What are the likelihoods that improved sanitation will impact positively on the improvement of
the health of the people of the society?

Project Assessment
Conduct a research (questionnaire) on how poor maintenance of sanitation facilities lead to the
poor sustainability of the already established facilities

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Standard operating procedures
• Ordinary Portland Cement
• Surveying instruments
• Laying pipes
• Wheelbarrow
• Excavators

[Link] References

Strande, L. (2014). The global situation (pp. 1-18). IWA Publishing, London.
Harada, H., Strande, L., & Fujii, S. (2016). Challenges and oppotuniteis of faecal sludge
management for global sanitation. Towards future earth: challenges and progress of global
environmental studies. Tokyo (Japan): Kaisei Publishing, 81-100.
Tiimub, B. M., Forson, M. A., Obiri-Danso, K., & Rahaman, I. A. (2009, May). Pointed gaps in
the provision, quality, patronage and management of toilet facilities in Bawku East District.
In Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral
Approaches, Proceedings of the 34th WEDC International Conference, United Nations
Conference Centre, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (pp. 18-22).

825
21.3.3 Learning Outcome No 2: Organize the Construction Site
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Organize the Construction Site
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Clear and secure site • Strict and

2.2 Identify and mobilize human resource, construction plant and transparent bidding
equipment and tendering
2.3 Put in place onsite infrastructure process
• All measurements
adhered to

[Link] Information Sheet No21/LO2 Organize the Construction Site

Introduction to learning outcome

This is a very important and the most crucial step towards implementation of the proposed facility.
Visiting the actual site and mobilizing the human resource to provide labour and providing the
necessary equipment for the actual construction is essential.

Definition of key terms

Onsite infrastructure: This can be defined as the supporting infrastructure that is provided within
the specified perimeter of a project site and is directly or indirectly related to the same project.
Examples include, but not limited to, onsite sanitation units, administrative offices, roads,
residences, and power substations

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Clear and secure site based on the contract document.
The procedure of clearing and securing the site varies depending on several factors, such as project
size and how remote the site is. The procedure for clearing the site should be clearly highlighted
in the contract document. In most cases, this is done by the contractor. The first step is usually
grubbing and standard clearing. The works included in this step are removing any existing tree
stumps, bushes, buildings, and any other obstruction to site preparation. The terrain is then leveled
to the surveyor's specifications using the surveyor's instruments. The ground beyond the site is
also leveled to facilitate future works of maintenance. The trees and shrubs that stand on the right
of way of the project are also trimmed as per the contract document.

826
Grubbing is done in all areas where deep excavation is to be done. Note that all tree clearances and
excavations are done according to the engineer's specifications, as stipulated in the contract
drawings. At this stage, it's easier to design the onsite facilities depending on the orientation of the
cleared site.

2.2 Identify and mobilize human resource, construction plant and equipment based on the
contract document.
This step is carried out by the contractor before work commencement, and once the site is ready
for work. According to the Fidic Redbook, the contractor shall carry out all the manufacture of the
plant, the production of materials, and all other executions of the stipulated work. Depending on
the nature of work, the contractor should be able to identify the type of labour that is needed for
the execution of the works and also the equipment. These are organized and arranged on site.
Examples of human resources needed in a site are masons, technicians, supervisors, and plumbers.
Examples of equipment that should be availed to the site are wheelbarrows, excavators, pipes, and
trowels. Identify the available labour and compare with what is needed. If there is a need for more,
then more mobilization is paramount.

2.3 Put in place onsite infrastructure (stores, site offices, fences) based on contract document
and legal requirements.
The contract document should indicate the necessary onsite infrastructure that is to be built. Once
site clearance and mobilization of equipment are complete, then this step can commence. The first
thing to do is appropriately fence the site as per the contract document. The administrative offices
can then be constructed so as to accommodate the administrative staff that is crucial for project
management. The stores are then constructed. These are important in facilitating the movement of
material and equipment. Stores are also important in safeguarding materials such as cement. On
completion of this step, the site should be ready for the commencement of the main works

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered the full organization of the construction site in order for the actual
construction works to commence.

Further Reading

Discuss other ways which the suitable alternatives can be utilized to replace onsite sanitation
facilities.

827
[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following is not an onsite infrastructure facility?
a) Toilet
b) Wheelbarrow
c) Pavement
d) Power substation
2. Which one of the following is not an activity in site clearing?
a) Design of culverts
b) Tree cutting
c) Demolitions
3. Identify the human resource that is involved in site clearance
a) Painters
b) Drivers
c) Masons
d) Excavator operators

Oral Assessment
1. Identify and explain two documents that are necessary in putting into place onsite
infrastructure.
2. Explain, in detail, the process from site clearing to commencement of the main works

Case Study Assessment

Organize with your lecturer, and visit a nearby construction site. Request for entry and identify all
the existing onsite infrastructures. Draw sketches of the site outline that capture the infrastructure.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Standard operating procedures
• Ordinary Portland Cement
• Surveying instruments
• Laying pipes
• Wheelbarrow
• Excavators
• GPS

828
[Link] References

Bunni, N. G., & Bunni, N. G. (2005). The FIDIC forms of contract (Vol. 284). Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
Totterdill, B. W. (2001). FIDIC User's Guide: A Practical Guide to the 1999 Red Book. Thomas
Telford.
[Link]
source/programmanagement/implemented/specbooks/january2016/files/[Link]

829
21.3.4 Learning No 3: Construct the Various Onsite Sanitation Facilities
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Construct the Various Onsite Sanitation Facilities
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Source and mobilize construction materials • A correct bill of

3.2 Set out onsite sanitation facilities quantities
3.3 Construct onsite sanitation facility units • Construction done
3.4 Do labour payments according to the
3.5 Prepare and submit as-built drawings approved
3.6 Prepare substantial completion certificate engineering
3.7 Prepare payment certificate drawings
3.8 Prepare completion certificate

[Link] Information Sheet No21/LO3: Construct the Various Onsite Sanitation Facilities

Introduction to learning outcome

Onsite sanitation facilities will be constructed using several methods for instance the “project
cycle” approach in order to improve on sanitation standards in the society. This approach seeks to
address all the project complexities through all its stages and, at the same time, maintaining the
alignment with the objectives and strategies. The construction phase is a very important one in
project management.

Definition of key terms

Construction materials: These are items or supplies, most of which are naturally occurring that
are used to form the components of the structure. Naturally occurring materials include stones,
sand, and timber. Some materials are made in the factory from naturally occurring minerals. A
good example is cement.

Onsite sanitation facility units: are units designed and constructed to handle, store, and treat the
waste generated within the same property that produces it. In most cases, the onsite treatment
facilities are used in areas that are not yet covered with public sewers. A typical example is the
septic tank.

830
Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Source and mobilize construction materials (cement, bricks, stones) based on the bill of
quantities.
Before the commencement of the project, there is proper documentation that specifies all the
materials to be used in the necessary quantities. This document is called the bill of quantities. The
contractor uses this document to know and decide on the best way of acquiring the materials. The
document specifies the number of bags of cement that are required for each construction stage.
Bricks and stones are measured in terms of kilograms or tons. In that case, the contractor will be
able to interpret the document and order the required amount of the same. Preferably, these
materials should be sourced from closer sources to save on the cost of construction. For example,
the stones and bricks could be sourced from a nearby quarry. Once these have been obtained, the
construction of the facilities can commence. Read and understand the bill of quantities, on the
materials section. Make or organize how orders of the same materials will be made. Also, organize
for delivery of the same to the site. Identify the ordered materials on arrival, and perfom a thorough
inspection to check on quantity and quality. Write a report on the same. Also, document this in the
invoice and sign the delivery documentation. Lastly, organize how the delivered materials shall be
stored. This is to make sure they are protected from quantity and quality manipulation.

3.2 Set out onsite sanitation facilities based on the engineering drawings.
Setting out is a very important stage in construction. It is the stage that determines the orientation
of the construction and whether the plan will be followed accordingly. For this step, the engineers
or surveyors may make use of sophisticated instruments. Examples are GPS, computers, and
surveyors' equipment. The setting out is done following the drawings. Centerlines of the structures
are interpreted from the drawings and transferred to the ground. Excavation lines are also plotted
on the ground during setting out. . Interpreted the drawings, and draw the appropriate centerlines.
Mark them using a visible marker, preferably a string. This shall aid in accurate excavation.

3.3 Construct onsite sanitation facility units (Septic tanks, bio-digesters, soak pits) based on
the design drawings
Septic tanks. The drawings will determine whether the tank will be a single or two-compartment
tank. The excavation is also done following the setting out procedure. The best materials to use for
the floors and walls of the septic tank are concrete and plastic. The floor should have a slight slope
towards the outlet. All these details are specified in the structural drawings. Bio-digesters. These
are facilities fed with generated organic waste, and in return, create useful gases such as methane.
This is the right way of recycling waste. Just as in the septic tanks, the specifications are well
illustrated in the structural drawings provided in the contract document. Soak pits. These are
covered holes, whose walls are made of porous materials to allow fed in waste to soak into the soil
slowly. In most cases, the soak pit is connected to the septic tank. Its design is a bit easier. The
depth of the soak pit, the position of the inlet, and the material to be used should be specified in
the drawings. The details should be followed keenly.

831
3.4 Do labour payments based on the progress report and attendance list.
Unless stated otherwise, it's the responsibility of the contractor to mobilize and pay for labour. The
easiest way is to have a complete list of all the involved labour. In such a case, an attendance list
is necessary to make sure everyone is paid for what he/she has worked for. It is important to
observe the regulations that have been set for rates of wages and working conditions. Organize the
labourers on the payroll into manageable groups. This is if the payments are to be made in cash.
Have group heads to help in distributing their dues. Organize them to sign a document on receiving
the payment. Lastly, write a report and submit to the management.

3.5 Prepare and submit as-built drawings based on the actual construction works.
These drawings are prepared based on what is going on on the ground. They are very important as
they cater to the changes that might have occurred during the construction. Changes in construction
might be a result of various forces such as nature, politics, and financial constraints. Built drawings
as necessary in making further construction plans. This can be done by the use of computer
software such as AutoCAD. These drawings are then submitted to the relevant authorities for
approval before construction commences. They have to meet certain minimum criteria in terms of
design.

3.6 Prepare substantial completion certificate based on FIDIC regulations.

A substantial completion certificate is a document between the owner of an ongoing construction
and a contractor. This certificate is prepared upon completion of the initially proposed work when
the contractor has handed over the structure to the owner and the owner now becomes liable for
anything that happens to the structure. The Fidic Redbook states that reporting of progress of works
shall continue until the respective contractor has completed all the planned works. Before total
completion, the contractor should submit relevant results that capture a description of the progress
of works at each stage of design. This can be done via charts, graphs, photos, and videos. A
certificate is then offered for completion of a stage

3.7 Prepare payment certificate based on progress report.

The payment certificate captures the amount that the contractor is entitled to and it depicts the
importance of cash flows in determining the success of a project. This will depend on the amount
of progress on the works. The report of progress should be accompanied by supporting documents
that will validate the necessity of payment being demanded. These payments can therefore be set
periodic payments or stage payments. Any variations from the contract price should be clearly
indicated. If all is clear, the payment certificate is issued

832
Table 59: payment certificate based on progress report
Type Cost (Kshs)
Preliminaries 5 000 000
Foundation 23 000 000
Internal works 30 000 000
External works 15 000 000
Total 73 000 000

3.8 Prepare completion certificate based on the legal requirements.

The completion certificate is issued once whole works or sections (if any) have been completed
within the agreed time of completion. Once the progress has been agreed on, taking over certificate
application is issued by the engineer to the employer. At that point, the contractor ceases to be
responsible for any works ongoing on the site.

Conclusion
Constructing a public sewer is quite expensive. On-site sanitation facilities are, therefore,
important for the improvement of sanitation standards of a society. More importantly, in areas
where there is no access to a public sewer. There is, therefore, a need to construct more onsite
sanitation facilities. However, the performance of these facilities will depend on how well the
construction is done. For the best results, proper design and construction procedures are
paramount.

Further Reading

Read more on the construction of septic tanks

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a certificate captured in the Fidic Redbook?
a) Certificate of completion
b) Payment certificate
c) Structural drawings
d) Taking over certificate

833
2. Which one of the following is not a part of a contract?
a) Contractor
b) Employer
c) Engineer
d) Politician
3. Which one of the following is not an onsite treatment facility?
a) Septic tank
b) Soak pit
c) Bio digester
d) Waste stabilization pond

Oral Assessment
1. Explain your choices of onsite treatment methods
2. Briefly describe five documents captured in the Fidic Redbook.

Case Study Assessment

Visit any public institution and identify the present onsite treatment facilities and give detailed
report on their management and sustainability of these facilities

Practical Assessment
Draw and label a simple septic tank. Use your own dimensions and if possible, draw a connected
soak pit

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Computers
• Stationery
• Standard operating procedures
• Ordinary Portland Cement
• Surveying instruments
• Laying pipes
• Wheelbarrow
• Excavators
• Trowels
• Tape measure

834
[Link] References

Glover, J., & Hughes, S. (2011). Understanding the FIDIC Red Book: A Clause by Clause
Commentary. Sweet & Maxwell.

835
 CHAPTER 22: CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT MANAGEMENT

22.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning

This unit describes the competencies required to manage civil engineering projects. It involves
managing project time, managing construction project quality, managing project site safety, health
and security, managing construction project cost, managing project labour, managing project
contracts and managing construction materials, plant, tools and equipment.

22.2 Performance Standard

Manage project time, construction project quality, project site, safety, health and security,
construction project cost, project labour, project contracts, and construction materials, plant and
tools and equipment based on project specifications.

22.3 Learning Outcomes

22.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes
a) Manage project time
b) Manage construction project quality
c) Manage project site, safety, health and security
d) Manage construction project cost
e) Manage project labour
f) Manage project contracts
g) Manage construction materials, plant, tools and equipment

836
22.3.2 Learning No 1: Manage Project Time
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Manage Project Time
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1.1 Prepare work schedules and time programs • Group discussions

1.2 Monitor and evaluate project timelines • Demonstration by
1.3 Control project time schedules trainer
1.4 Prepare and disseminate project timeline reports • Online videos
• Power point
presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No22/LO1: Manage Project Time

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with project time management and this can be achieved through the
knowledge of various aspects such as; preparation of work schedules and time programs,
monitoring, evaluation and control of project timelines and schedules. All this is based on the
project specifications.

Definition of key terms

Work schedule: Ronald (2015) defines schedules in project management as a process of
identifying deliverables, milestones, and activities in chronological order with a start and end date
and time. Therefore, work schedules can be defined as an organization of activities, deliverables,
and project milestones to ensure that inputs are transformed into outputs in a project at a stipulated
time.
Project timeline: The project timeline can be defined as the process of showing the chronological
order of events in a project.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
1.1 Prepare work schedules and time programs based on the project specifications
The process of preparing work schedules and time programs can be complex since different
projects have varied approaches and challenges. However, there are six steps simplified steps that
can be applied in all projects regardless of the project nature.

837
 a. Identify and Write down the project tasks
The most crucial step in project management allows the project manager to understand the project
nature. Moreover, it determines how activities will be well-coordinated within the project
stipulated time.
b. Define the various relationships between the tasks.
Once the project tasks have been written down, it is crucial to identify the existing relationship
between the various events.
c. Develop various Milestones
Project milestones indicate the event that allows the end of a particular project activity and allows
the beginning of another activity. The steps involve allocating the relevant tasks that will facilitate
the achievement of the set milestones.
d. Allocate time for the identified milestone
After the milestone development, the next step now becomes identifying the available time and
allocating accordingly. The time allocation should be balanced and clearly stated. Moreover, it
should have an allowance to avoid inconveniences.
e. Allocate resources
After the project's milestones have been identified, it is crucial to understand the various roles and
resources allocation basis. The project success depends on this step since the progress and results
will be dependent on the product mix on this stage.
f. Review and Revise the schedule regular
The first attempt might not provide the most feasible option; therefore, it is necessary to adjust the
program. However, the revision should be aligned with the project's goals, objectives, and
allocated time and resources.

1.2 Monitor and evaluate project timelines based on the project specifications
Project monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is the process of gathering and interpreting data to check
if the project is moving towards the stipulated direction. Monitoring is carried to measure progress
and performance for decision-making purposes at the different stages of the projects. On the
contrary, evaluation is carried out for general data assessment purposes of understanding the extent
at which the specified goal is achieved. It is crucial to understand the direction and the impact that
a particular project, therefore the need to carry out monitoring and evaluation activities.
Furthermore most projects are time bound, and evaluation and monitoring help in maintaining the
specified timing.

1.3 Control project time schedules based on the project specifications

For easier control project time schedules, data collection plays a crucial role. The data collection
varies with the project nature; thus, the project managers need to identify the sustainable data
collection method. From the data collected, the resource and responsibility allocation is identified
with the time being a factor of consideration. The information helps in operational and strategic
management, and controlling the project becomes an easy and straight leader.

838
1.4 Prepare and disseminate project timeline reports based on the project specifications.
After the data is collected, the need for compiling and analysis arises. Therefore, the project
manager collabourates with the research team members and selects the various tools required to
analyse the data collected logically and acceptably. After analysis, the data organized and prepared
in an official document that will be used for reporting purposes. The data collected should be
organized in such a way that it allows objective and strategic adjustments.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered project time management

Further Reading

Read more on project timelines and project time control

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Work schedule can be defined as
a) the various expectations that show the project's success
b) process of identifying deliverables, milestones, and activities in chronological order
with a start and end date and time
c) A document that shows a chronological order of events in a project.
d) Organization of activities, deliverables, and project milestones to ensure inputs are
transformed into outputs in a project at a stipulated time.
2. Which one of the following does not explain the purpose of carrying out monitoring and
evaluation in a project?
a) Capacity building
b) Clarification
c) Accountability
d) Strategic management

839
3. Which one of the following explains the meaning of monitoring a project?
a) The document prepared during the process can be used for explanation purposes to the
project donors and stakeholders about the utilization of the various resources in the
program.
b) Information acquired at the different project levels can be used to change the project
approach due to the objective and strategies adjustment.
c) Process of measuring progress and performance for decision-making purposes at the
different stages of the projects
d) Provides information that is required for the coordination and management of the
various resources for project improvement purposes.

Short answer question

Identify the tools required to analyse and report the collected data?

Essay question
Describe the process of monitoring and evaluate project timelines based on the project
specifications

Case Study Assessment

The county board of directors has selected you in the short-list on their project manager in a county
development project. Prepare a document that you will present on the interview day to demonstrate
your ability to organize, manage, and report the project at the various project stages.

Project Assessment
Write a report on the management of the post-modern library being constructed in your school

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationeries
• Design Software
• Computer lab
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Manuals and guidelines
• Project management software
• Measuring and drawing tool
• Printer/plotting device
• Codes of practice

840
[Link] References

Eng. Ssempebwa Kibuuka Ronald. (2015). Project Schedule Management. Hawaii. Research Gate.
Hu, X., Cui, N., Demeulemeester, E., & Bie, L. (2016). Incorporation of activity sensitivity
measures into buffer management to manage project schedule risk. European Journal of
Operational Research, 249(2), 717-727.
Susser, B. S. (2012). How to Effectively Manage IT Project Risks. Journal of Management &
Business Research, 2(2).

841
22.3.3 Learning No 2: Manage Construction Project Quality
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2: Manage Construction Project Quality
Learning Activities Special Instructions

2.1 Develop construction project quality plans • Group discussions

2.2 Develop construction project methodology • Demonstration by
2.3 Acquire construction project resources trainer
2.4 Undertake construction project quality control • Online videos
2.5 Prepare construction project quality reports • Power point
presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No22/LO2: Manage Construction Project Quality

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with development of construction project quality plans, methodology,
and undertaking of project quality control together with preparation of project quality reports.

Definition of key terms

Contract: This is an agreement creating and defining obligations between parties. It is an
agreement enforceable at law made between two or more persons by which rights are acquired by
one or more to act on the part of the other or others.

Contract specifications: These are the rules of the contract. They are the agreed upon set of
requirements that provide the necessary details about specific requirements.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
2.1 Develop construction project quality plans according to the contract specifications
Construction project quality plan is a written plan detailing how one will manage quality on a
construction project. Project quality plans vary depending on the type of construction project one
undertakes; however, they are limited in scope. Quality plans are written to make the clients know
how you going to control the quality of your projects, so it is necessary that when developing a
quality plan, one should make clear how and when you would control quality in your project. A
construction quality plan should be prepared in such a way that your headings match up with your
client’s specifications.

842
Essential elements of a construction project quality plan include
i. Project personnel in charge of the project quality. Has the overall responsibility
ii. Quality communications to ensure quality work is done.
iii. Quality assurance surveillance-Monitoring overall project quality.
iv. Project quality specifications-Where one makes sure compliance with the projects contract
specifications.
v. Inspections and tests-To inspect phases of works to ensure they are up to the required
quality.
vi. Control of nonconformance-The quality control plan should outline how to handle
situations that go wrong.

2.2 Develop construction project methodology according to the contract specifications

Construction Project methodologies are processes that assist project managers with guidance and
the steps to take to bring a project to completion.
Depending on contract specifications, there are a number of methodologies that are crucial to
getting the job right. The choice of methodology will depend entirely on the project with their set
of rules, principles, processes and practices.
• Agile
This is one of the most recognizable methodologies where demands and solutions evolve
through the cross functional teams and their customers.

• Lean
This type of construction methodology promotes maximizing customer value while
minimizing waste.

• Waterfall
In this methodology, processes flow downwards in one direction like a waterfall. One is able
to move onto the next phase of development once the current phase has been completed as
illustrated by Winston W George in an article written in 1970.

• PMI/PMBOK
PMI stands for project Management Institute which is a non-profit membership
association, project management certification and standard organization.
PMI produces the PMBOK which is a guide detailing the set standards that characterize
project management.

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2.3 Acquire construction project resources according to the contract specifications
Construction resources in a construction project might include:
i. Products and material
ii. Human resources
iii. Space and facilities
iv. Finances
v. Construction plant, tools and equipment.
vi. Subcontractors.

Construction Project resources vary depending on cost, duration, quality and safety as the
construction project industries are diverse and contains subcontractors, contractors, consultants,
architects, owners and others. Acquiring resources needs an understanding of what resources are
needed, what resources are available, where the resources are located and the ability to reschedule
those resources accordingly.

2.4 Undertake construction project quality control according to the contract specifications
Construction quality control is or are measures to ensure that a project conforms to the quality as
indicated in the specifications.
To ensure quality, a number of steps are employed in a construction project.
i. Organizing for Quality-Have a group that will have an overall responsibility of ensuring
that the project quality is adhered to.
ii. Inspectors and quality assurance personnel will be involved in day to day quality check of
the project.
iii. Work and material specification. -This documentation includes special provisions of the
design project facility as well as references to generally accepted specifications to be used
in construction.
iv. Quality control by statistical methods-This involves testing all the material on a particular
project. Such as non-destructive techniques or an onsite inspector can witness the
appropriateness and adequacy of construction methods.

2.5 Prepare construction project quality reports according to the contract specifications
Construction quality report is an account generated that is given to the customer of the
materials used in the project together with a description of its technical characteristics.
The reports details how the quality plans were followed to ensure quality is attained.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered management of construction project quality

844
Further Reading

Read more on construction project methodologies on

Kolarić, S., Pavlović, D., & Vukomanović, M. (2015). Developing a methodology for preparation
and execution phase of construction project. Organization, technology & management in
construction: an international journal, 7(1), 1197-1208.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Quality control is...
a) The graphic display of data that illustrates results of a process
b) Measures to ensure that a project conforms to the quality as indicated in the
specifications.
c) Processes that assist project managers with guidance and the steps to take to bring a
project to completion.
2. Which of the following is not an essential element of a construction project quality plan?
a) Quality communications
b) Control of nonconform aces
c) Project submissal
3. Quality control plan must address
a) Quality control of the project
b) Quality assurance of the Project
c) All of the above
4. Which statement is true?
a) The choice of methodology will depend entirely on the project with their set of rules,
principles, processes and practices.
b) Construction Project methodologies are processes that assist project managers with
guidance and the steps to take to bring a project to completion
c) All of the above
5. Summarize the different methodologies in a construction project.
6. With reference to quality control, outline three quality standards in a construction project.
7. Summarize quality control plans.

845
Essay question
With reference to construction project plan outline and explain in details what one would consider
then planning for a construction project.

Oral Assessment
1. Outline the factors to include in a construction resource
2. Evaluate the elements of a construction project

Case study assessment

A road is to be constructed in your area and your firm has been contracted to do it. As the project
manager present your project plan for approval by the relevant authorities.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationeries
• GPS
• Design Software
• Computer lab
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Manuals and guidelines
• Project management software
• Measuring and drawing tool
• Printer/plotting device
• Codes of practice

[Link] References

Flood, I., Issa, R. R., & Liu, W. (2006, June). A new modeling paradigm for computer-based
construction project planning. In Proceedings of the Joint International Conference on
Computing and Decision-Making in Civil and Building Engineering (pp. 1-11).
Haswell, C. K., & De Silva, D. S. (2013). Civil engineering contracts: practice and procedure.
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Murray, M., & Langford, D. (Eds.). (2008). Construction Reports 1944-98. John Wiley & Sons.
.

846
22.3.4 Learning No 3: Manage Project Site, Safety, Health and Security
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3: Manage Project Site, Safety, Health and Security
Learning Activities Special Instructions

3.1 Develop project health, safety and security • Group discussions

guidelines • Demonstration by trainer
3.2 Conduct site health, safety and security • Online videos
inspections • Power point presentation
3.3 Coordinate and monitor project site security • Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No22/LO3: Manage Project Site, Safety, Health and Security

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with development, coordination and monitoring of project health,
safety and security guidelines. The health and safety of people places of work deals with
development, coordination and monitoring of project health, safety and security guidelines. These
provisions are enhanced by legal regulations which introduce measures to improve the health and
safety of workers through minimizing the risks they go through at their places of work.

Definition of key terms

Occupational safety and health: is an essential sector that deals and ensures the safety, health
and welfare of the workers.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
3.1 Develop project health, safety and security guidelines in line with the OSH Act
Health and Safety Project is planned to assist in the monitoring of operations and promote a risk-
based approach to the prevention of dangerous actions that may lead to accidents or illnesses or
severe workplace incidents. The following are guidelines in line with the OSH Act (2007):
i. There should be registration of work places applied before any persons occupy or uses
any premises as a work place
ii. There should be training and supervision of inexperienced works
iii. There should be supervision, employment of persons below eighteen years, apprentices
and indentured learners
iv. Protective clothing and appliances
v. There should be cleanliness in the workplace
vi. Proper ventilation should be provided

847
 vii. Proper lighting should be provided
There should be evacuation procedures

3.2 Conduct site health, safety and security inspections in line with the OSH Act
i. Initial environmental audit- OSHA identifies and understands all legal and other
requirements for workers within the site or work places according to environmental
aspects
ii. Environmental policy – whether the employees and employers are observing their
responsibilities on observing safety and health measures
iii. Planning – OSHA formulates their policies to be put in day to day practice
iv. Implementation – by allocating functions and responsibilities, motivating employees
and training them to be accountable in the delivery of their duties diligently.
v. Training – OSHA clarifies the impact, beware of the task and responsibility within
work places and consequences of the non-compliance workers
vi. Communication – OSHA do their best to communicate using various ways such as
visits, open door events, the legislation, conferences to ensure safety and security of
workers and employees
vii. Auditing – by assessing performance (monitoring operations and track frame) identify
problems and correct them, keeping records performances and documented files

3.3 Coordinate and monitor project site security in line with the OSH Act
There should be proper coordination and monitoring among the employer and the workers in
the project site. The employer and the workers should be aware of:
i. Types of hazards that may occur from work being performed on-site by employees
hired by contractors, subcontractors or staffing agencies.
ii. Procedures or measures necessary to prevent or control exposure to such hazards.
iii. How to contact the manufacturer, subcontractor or personnel department if they
have a health issue.
iv. Past work undertaken and the types of risks that might still be present at the job
site.

Conclusion
This learning outcome has prepared the student to be able to apply the general and particular
legislation and regulations of Health and Safety at work, understand management of project site,
safety, health and security

848
Further Reading

Read further on safety, health and security as illustrated on the Occupational Safety and Health
Act, 2007.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a provision of health and safety?
a) Permit to work
b) Fire prevention
c) Project site
2. Can you interpret the following as used in OSHA?
a) Act
b) Prevention
3. Summarize the application of OSHA guidelines
4. Are you able to interpret OSHA guidelines?
5. Summarize the health and safety general provisions.
6. State health and safety general provisions
7. Summarize importance of project management

Essay question
1. Discuss the basic aspects of targeted by OSHA.

Oral Assessment
1. Evaluate the importance of OSHA in a project
2. Summarize on skills necessary for project management on site.

849
Project Assessment
An elevated road is being constructed at Maji ya Chumvi along Nairobi-Mombasa Highway to fly
over the railway line. Prepare the project report.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationeries
• GPS
• Design Software
• Computer lab
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Manuals and guidelines
• Project management software
• Measuring and drawing tool
• Printer/plotting device
• Codes of practice

[Link] References

Kenya government, (2007). Occupational Safety and Health Act.

Jones, A. M. (2014) Fire Protection Systems, Jones & Bartlett Learning, ISBN-10: 1284035379,
ISBN-13: 978-1284035377
[Link], (2016), Occupational Safety and Health Administration

850
22.3.5 Learning No 4: Manage Construction Project Cost
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4: Manage Construction Project Cost
Learning Activities Special Instructions

4.1 Prepare project budget • Group discussions

4.2 Procure, allocate and monitor site resource utilization • Demonstration by
4.3 Control project cost variation trainer
4.4 Prepare project financial report • Online videos
• Power point
presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No22/LO4: Manage Construction Project Cost

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with project budget preparation, procurement, allocation and
monitoring of site resource utilization and the control of project cost variation.

Definition of key terms

Project scope: Project scope is the part of project planning that deals with determining project
goals, the project methods such as labour and materials, project timeline, functions and project
fixed costs. These are parts which are needed to deliver and achieve a project to its completion.

Cost variation: Cost variation is the difference between the earned value of a project and its actual
cost (McMullen, 2010)

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
4.1Prepare project budget according to the scope of the project
The project budget is the total cost that has been projected to complete the project within a
specified period of time for instance payments, operating costs, starting capital among others.

851
Table 60: Project budget according to the scope of the project
Sample Project
Budget
Activity Direct cost Budget Overhead Total cost
Survey 1,500 500 2,000
Planning 6,000 500 6,500
Foundation 4,000 1,000 5,000
Materials 8,000 1,500 9,500
Building 10,000 2,000 12,000
Plumbing and 4,000 500 4,500
electrical
Cumulative 39,500

4.2 Procure, allocate and monitor site resource utilization according to the project scope
Procurement of construction materials and resources is vital to ensuring the success of the project.
It involves the following important steps:
i. Particularization. This is the first step as it involves the coordination of the project manager
and the purchasing department in order to buy the required materials and items required to
complete the project.
ii. Choosing. This is where the client or the purchasing firm selects the potential suppliers of
materials before and during the construction period.
iii. Contracting. The purchasing department coordinates with the suppliers on when and how
the materials will be delivered to the site and they must lie within the budget of the project.
iv. Management control. How these materials will be utilized and controlled will determine
the successful completion of the project. This will be done by the management team of the
project.
v. Measurement. This is the last step of procurement as it represents the accountability of the
team that ensured the accomplishment of the project. There are several measurement
indicators in project management that have to be adhered to and their criteria met after the
project has been handed over to the client.

Allocation of resources involves scheduling the available resources appropriately required to

complete the project.
The following steps will ensure a good resource-allocation to ensure that the project is completed
within the estimated duration and does not exceed the budgeted cost.
i. The project is divided into different steps
ii. The available resources are assigned
iii. The different aspects of the resources are actuated.
iv. Resources are resolved and allocated as required
v. Ways of resource utilization are utilized.

852
Table 61: Procure, allocate and monitor site resource utilization according to the project scope
Month From To
June Survey Planning
July planning Foundation
August Foundation Materials & Building
Sep Building Other Finishes

4.3 Control project cost variation as per SOPs

The cost variation of the project is the numerical difference between the value of the project earned
and the actual cost of the project.
From the Sample Project budget
Value of the Project = 39,500
Actual cost of the Project = 42,000
Then, Cost variation 42,000 − 39,500 = 2,500

4.4 Prepare project financial report

The Project Financial Statements Report provides an Income Statement, Cash Flow and a Balance
Sheet for individual projects as they provide credibility and accountability on the expenditure
breakdown of the project’s allocated finances. This provides you with useful data for tracking
financial information related to individual projects according. The diagram below is an illustration
of project financial report

853
Figure 193: Project financial report
Source: [Link]

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered management of construction project cost, project budget, project
cost variation and project financial report.

854
Further Reading

Read further on project financial report

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. What is not part of the earned value calculations?
a) Unknowns that are known
b) Unknowns that are not known
c) Amount of work completed
d) Budget of the project
2. Which one of the following does not contribute to the success of a project
a) Procurement
b) Resource allocation
c) Monitoring of the project
d) Resource vandalism
3. In project management, speed and dependability objectives are generally called?
a) Dependence
b) Vision
c) Time
d) Range
3. Summarize the various steps in ensuring a good resource allocation
4. Explain how uncertainties in project management are minimized.

Essay questions
Discuss the various ways of managing project costs

Case Study Assessment

Visit a nearby construction facility within your school and prepare a project management financial
report

Practical Assessment
From the visited construction facility within your school determine the tasks and the estimated
costs of each stage of construction

855
[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationeries
• GPS
• Design Software
• Computer lab
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Manuals and guidelines
• Project management software
• Measuring and drawing tool
• Printer/plotting device
• Codes of practice

[Link] References

Mullen, A. (2010). Chron small business.

Imbeah, W., & Guikema, S. (2009). Managing construction projects using the advanced
programmatic risk analysis and management model. Journal of Construction Engineering
and Management, 135(8), 772-781.
Iyer, K. C., & Jha, K. N. (2005). Factors affecting cost performance: evidence from Indian
construction projects. International journal of project management, 23(4), 283-295.
Hwang, B. G., & Ng, W. J. (2013). Project management knowledge and skills for green
construction: Overcoming challenges. International journal of project management, 31(2),
272-284.

856
22.3.6 Learning No 5: Manage Project Labour
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5: Manage Project Labour
Learning Activities Special Instructions

5.1 Develop project labour guidelines • Group discussions

5.2 Establish labour levelling plan • Demonstration by trainer
5.3 Allocate staff • Online videos
5.4 Manage labour welfare • Power point presentation
5.5 Prepare project labour report • Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No22/LO5: Manage Project Labour

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with management of project labour through the development of
project labour guidelines, allocation of staff and management of labour welfare to ensure smooth
implementation of work stages.

Definition of key terms

Project labour. This can be defined as the human resource that is employed in the project to
implement the idea portrayed in the designs and drawings. They include technicians, masons,
plumbers, electricians and drivers.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
5.1 Develop project labour guidelines in line with Labour laws and FIDIC regulations
Labour guidelines are rules or guides that are developed to ensure the labourers work in harmony,
and towards one goal. Labour guidelines are crucial in a project as they affect how the employees
feel about their jobs. The labour laws and Fidic are statutory bodies that have set and defined rules
and regulations to ensure that any guidelines developed in a project protect the workers' rights.
According to the Fidic Redbook, the contractor is the one that organizes, houses, and compensates
any human resource employed in a project.
Developing labour guidelines is easy. You have to set rules that will favor the progress of the
project but, at the same time, withhold the rights of the human resource. The best way to develop
these guidelines is to involve all the workers to make sure you capture what would lead to
maximum productivity.
Remember that you should pay the right wages and observe the conditions of labour every time.
The rates of labour that are to be paid should not be lower than the industry's average rates.
857
The contractor should also comply with all the labour laws applicable to his personnel, including
those that relate to the employees' health, safety, and environment. Movement and welfare. The
employees are also required to adhere to all set laws concerning the project.
Work should only be carried out on the recognized days of work unless stated otherwise in the
agreement. The extra hours worked should be recognized and overtime and compensated.
There are many rights of employees that are to be considered by the managers when developing a
project labour guideline. Consult the Fidic Redbook for more.

5.2 Establish labour levelling plan

A labour leveling plan can be defined as a plan according to which start and finishing dates are
adjusted depending on labour limitation to create a balance between the demand of the labour and
the available supply. Creating this plan calls for a proper understanding of progress monitoring.
Since different people perform different tasks in a project, planning is key.
First, identify the number of activities that are supposed to be done in a specified time. Also, have
in mind the amount of workforce you have. Also, identify how many people and how much time
each task will need to complete. Once you have all that in mind, you can develop a histogram
based on the earliest start time of any activity to balance the labour resource. This tends to spread
the available workforce on the available tasks. It ends up rearranging the tasks according to the
available labour which we call levelling.
The final result of this is a plan that will show all tasks assigned with an equal balance between
available labour and demand for the same, arising from the tasks.

5.3 Allocate staff

This is quite easy. However, there is a lot to consider. For you to do this effectively, you need to
have in mind. Have the tasks to be done, preferably have a list. Also, on the same list indicate the
skills demanded by that task and the number of staff it would require to implement. On the other
hand, have a list of the available workers and the skills possessed by each. What should follow
next is matching the tasks and the appropriate employees. In the process, you should remember to
consider the staff's availability of the interests of the task. Also, remember to observe the labour
guidelines stated by the statutory bodies fully.

5.4 Manage labour welfare

Labour welfare means the services, benefits, and facilities that the employer avails to the human
resource. They include accommodation and health services. They are provided to improve the
productivity of the labourers. Therefore, labour welfare management entails the coordination of
aspects carried out to ensure the comfort of the labour force is improved.
Managing the welfare of the employees is easy. All you need to do is have a clear understanding
of their individual needs. Ensure that they have been provided with proper housing, proper medical
services, and safety equipment at work.

858
The Fidic Redbook also dictates that the following should be done to the employees.
Supply of quality foodstuffs and clean water. Also, the management should work to ensure the
cultural and religious beliefs of all employees are upheld.
Last but not least, the employer should not employ any forced or compulsory labour.

5.5 Prepare project labour report

A labour report is a detailed report prepared to show all the labour charges attached to the project.
They include regular time, overtime, and also, the total number of work hours per employee. This
report also captured the employee number, name, and the task performed.
To prepare this report, you need all the mentioned details. You can create a simple spreadsheet
with a name column that corresponds to worked ours and total charges. Alternatively, you can use
the vision planning software. This uses data from the project to generate a detailed report.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered project labour management. . From this outcome, the students
should be able to properly coordinate the human resource involved in a given project. Also, the
student should be able to prepare a number of reports concerning the human resource.

Further Reading

Read further on labour resource management from the Fidic Redbook of 1999 and the labour laws
of Kenya document. These two resources are available online for free.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following is not a document that safeguards the rights of employees?
a) The Fidich Redbook
b) The labour laws of Kenya
c) Traffic regulations act
2. Which one of the following is a right of employees in accordance with the Fidic redbook.
a) Right to food and clean water
b) Right to practice religious and cultural beliefs
c) Right to drugs and alcohol

859
3. Briefly explain how a labour report is prepared
4. Explain, in details, any five clauses of the Fidic redbook, that are concerned with labour
management

Oral Assessment
Explain how inaccuracy of the labour report could affect project progress

Case Study Assessment

Visit a nearby construction site, and consult on their labour guidelines. List down the rights that
the management has considered.

Oral Assessment
From your visit to the site, how would you advice the management to improve the welfare of the
employees?

Practical Assessment
Prepare a detailed labour report for the day you visited the named site

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationeries
• GPS
• Design Software
• Computer lab
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Manuals and guidelines
• Project management software
• Measuring and drawing tool
• Printer/plotting device
• Codes of practice

860
[Link] References

Angell, R. L., & Kraemer, J. R. (2017). U.S. Patent No. 9,734,464. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent
and Trademark Office.
Dayarathna, Dushar. (2019). Employee Welfare Management.
Project Management for Construction: Labour, Material and Equipment Utilization. [Link].
(2020). Retrieved 25 June 2020, from
[Link]
[Link].

861
22.3.7 Learning No 6: Manage Project Contracts
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6: Manage Project Contracts
Learning Activities Special Instructions

6.1 Manage project documentation • Group discussions

6.2 Engage project stakeholders • Demonstration by
6.3 Inspect construction project works trainer
6.4 Manage project information • Online videos
6.5 Prepare project implementation report • Power point
presentation
• Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No22/LO6: Manage Project Contracts

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with management of project contracts through various aspects such
as management of project documents, information, reports and inspection of project works. By
completing this outcome, the students should be able to manage a civil engineering project to
completion.

Definition of key terms

Project implementation report: The project implementation report is a written document, usually
prepared by a project manager, whose purpose is to capture the progress of a given project. This
report seeks to guide the implementation of design ideas into reality.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
6.1 Manage project documentation
Document management is very important for any project. Not just for its implementation but also
for future reference for future projects. The success of a project also depends on how well the
involved documentation is managed. Project document management is, therefore, defined as
applying practices and procedures used to produce, store, and distribute various types of project
documents. To manage project documents successfully, there are a few things that need to be done.
Number one is that project documents should be treated with the utmost care and respect. A proper
organizational structure for the document folders will be vital. Also, naming the documents using
meaningful conventions will help keep the documents in order. There should also be a clear rule
on how documents are shared. Access of documents should only be granted to necessary parties.

862
And once the time to return comes, there should be a clear protocol on how they are returned to
prevent mix-ups. Lastly, you should ensure that the specified practices are adhered to in all aspects
according to the capabilities and needs of the project.

6.2 Engage project stakeholders

Project stakeholders are the people who have a direct interest towards the ongoing project. In short,
these are the members of the project management team. They include, but not limited to, project
sponsors, users, managers, and engineers. These are mainly the people who have a direct
investment in the project, and their input can directly affect the outcome of the same project. There
is a need to come up with a stakeholder engagement plan. This is a plan that helps the manager
identify strategies and engagements required to bring active involvement of the stakeholders in the
execution of the project. To engage the stakeholders, the plan should advise you to identify them
as early as possible. It is not possible to engage stakeholders that you don't know of. Before you
even initiate the project, make sure you identify the stakeholders first.

Find a way of bringing the stakeholders together and get them talking. Invite them to important
project meetings. This will also help to solve any conflicts that may arise in the future. It would be
best if you always tried to understand others before being understood. This simply means that you
should always have the other people's perspective first before considering your own. For this to
work, you have to be a very great team player. To manage them, you need to be a keen listener. It
would be best if you learned to listen before talking. Lastly, learn how to communicate courteously.
The best way of doing this is by developing a good communication plan that involves all the
stakeholders.

6.3 Inspect construction project works

Inspection of the works simply means monitoring and documenting the progress to ensure it aligns
with the plan in terms of timely and quality completion. For a successful inspection, there are a
few steps that need to be followed. Number one is to prepare fully for the inspection. Identify and
write down the topics that need to be covered during the inspection. Also, identify the premises
that you intend to inspect. It would be best if you remembered to inform the team on site of your
intention to visit for inspection. Once preparation is done, you can now visit the site. On the site,
the following should be done. One is to put on protective gear. This is to protect yourself from any
risks. Carefully inspect the progress of the work and note every step-in detail. This data will help
in report preparation. Besides monitoring the work, inspect and note down the following; the
welfare of the workers, housekeeping issues, readiness for emergency procedures, employee
relationships, wages and compensations, working hours, rest periods, and any other necessary
issue related to the project. Upon completion, close the inspection, and most importantly, prepare
a detailed progress report.

863
6.4 Manage project information
To successfully manage project information, you need to come up with a proper project
information management plan. This is a document that outlines the responsibilities and actions
involved in information management. The plan should capture the following.
• It should define which information is available to who and when
• It should define how the information on the project is collected
• It should define who has access to any information.
• Should define the responsibilities and qualifications of all the personnel involved in
collecting information.

6.5 Prepare project implementation report (Daily, Monthly, Project progress report)
You should be able to complete project implementation reports.
Daily report. This report captures daily construction progress. At the end of the closure of the day's
business, you should check on how much work was done and how much work remains. This report
aims at informing the management of the deliverables and milestones. Remember to focus on the
day's results other than activities. Make use of charts, graphs, tables, pictures, videos, and graphics.
Use short sentences and instead use data points.
Monthly report
This captures the monthly progress report. The procedure for preparing this report is just like that
of the daily report. However, the monthly report should also capture the combined daily progress.
Project progress report
Just as it sounds, this document explains how far you have gone towards implementing the project.
Start by writing the heading of the progress report. This will capture the writer's name, the position
of the recipient, and the report subject.
Write the introductory paragraph. This is a brief composition that explains the project. It talks
about its purpose. Then proceed to the "works completed "part where a description of the works
done is captured. Any findings should be mentioned.
In the next section, you should capture any problems encountered by the Implementing team.
Prepare another section that highlights what your team intends to do moving forward. Finish with
a summary of the report.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered project contracts management. The student is now confident on the
procedures and documents involved in monitoring progress of a civil engineering project.

864
Further Reading

Read further on project management from

[Link]
_2012_v.[Link]

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1. Which one of the following is not done during inspection?
a) Inspect works progress
b) Take pictures
c) Write the report
2. Which one of the following is not captured in the progress reports?
a) Structural Drawings
b) Images
c) Videos
d) Tables
3. Which one of the following is not a possible stake holder in a project
a) Politicians
b) Engineers
c) Investors

Oral Assessment
Explain the reason for your choices of stakeholders.

Case Study Assessment

Visit a nearby ongoing project, with permission from the necessary authorities, do an inspection
and prepare a daily progress report.

Practical Assessment
Visit a nearby ongoing project, with permission from the necessary authorities, do an inspection
and prepare a daily progress report.

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[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationeries
• GPS
• Design Software
• Computer lab
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Manuals and guidelines
• Project management software
• Measuring and drawing tool
• Printer/plotting device
• Codes of practice

[Link] References

How to Write a Progress Report | [Link]. [Link]. (2020). Retrieved 25

June 2020, from [Link]
[Link].
Weil, D. (2008). A strategic approach to labour inspection. International Labour Review, 147(4),
349-375.
What is a Stakeholder in Project Management?. [Link]. (2020). Retrieved 25 June 2020, from
[Link]
management/.

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22.3.8 Learning No 7: Manage Construction Materials, Plant, Tools and Equipment
[Link] Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7: Manage Construction Materials, Plant, Tools and Equipment
Learning Activities Special Instructions

7.1 Prepare site storage facility • Group discussions

7.2 Prepare construction materials (Roofing, Walling, Flooring, • Demonstration by
Finishing, and Reinforcing) schedule trainer
7.3 Prepare construction equipment (Excavation, Lifting, and • Online videos
Transporting) schedule • Power point
7.4 Procure construction materials and equipment presentation
7.5 Issue construction materials and equipment • Exercises by trainee

[Link] Information Sheet No22/LO7: Manage Construction Materials, Plant, Tools and
Equipment

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome deals with management of construction materials through the preparation
of site storage facilities, preparation of material schedules, equipment schedules, and the
procurement of materials and inspection.

Definition of key terms

Construction materials: Also known as building materials, these are materials that are added to
the constructed structure. Examples include concrete, sand, cement, steel, aggregates bricks etc.

Construction equipment: These are machinery, structures, materials, tools or systems designed
for carrying out/executing construction works.

Content/Procedures/Methods/Illustrations
7.1 Prepare site storage facility
These are facilities for keeping civil construction equipment and even machines safely.
All engineering items are properly stored and managed under the stock management department.
This will for instance determine the storage volume and subsequently the amount of space
required. The store of these goods should be selected properly based on its accessibility, size and
proximity among other factors. Inspection by the store keeper must be done upon supply and
delivery of these goods.

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They are also piled and properly managed for ease of removal whenever need arise.
Safety precautions through the use of precaution guidelines must be adhered to.
All civil engineering materials require proper handling, storage and usage for instance when
carrying them manually to work sites, stacking bricks and building stones or driving trucks loaded
with concrete. Given the number of hazards the employees face during storage such as falling
objects, improperly stack objects among others, training and education is necessary.
Factors to consider on preparation of site storage facility include:
• physical properties,
• organization
• security
• costs
• control
• Protection.

7.2 Prepare construction materials (Roofing, Walling, Flooring, Finishing, and Reinforcing)
schedule
Table 62: Construction materials
Construction materials Uses
Roofing Timber Roofing. After the building is
Glass complete.
Iron sheets
walling Concrete Construction wall building
Stone
Brick
Steel sheets
Timber
Clay blocks
Flooring Cement Floor construction:
Brick
Wood
Finishing Terrazo Construction work finishing
Tiles
Rubber
Wood
Glass and cork
stones
Reinforcing Steel bars Absorbs tensile and shear and
BRC mesh stresses

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7.3 Prepare construction equipment (Excavation, Lifting, and Transporting) schedule
Table 63: Construction equipment
Construction Equipment uses
Excavation Earth moving equipments.
Excavators Excavating large volumes of
Graders mass.
Loaders
Backhoe
Bulldozers
Lifting Equipment Material handling-lifting
Crane
Conveyors
Hoists
Forklifts
Transporting Transporting construction
Tippers materials and equipments into
Dumpers and out of site. Also moving
Trailers wastes out of site.
Tankers

7.4 Procure construction materials and equipment

Procurement of construction materials is normally done through a logical order. One first plans
what to contract then how to do it. You need to think of all the work that one will do so as to plan
for any purchases and acquisitions. Procurement procedures are followed.
i. Choosing of Suppliers to be invited to tender.
A client carefully chooses the list of suppliers to be invited to apply for the available tenders
for example when procuring construction materials and equipment.
ii. Request, appeal and tender submission
Tender request is delivered to potential suppliers and they carry the terms and conditions
of the tender contract. They are then required to submit back the proposals.
iii. Technical Evaluation.
Technical proposals is evaluated before the opening of the financial proposal so as to
ensure that it conforms to the conditions and requirements that was set.
iv. Process of negotiation and Awarding of contract:
Contract price is negotiated and other terms and conditions listed among tenderers.
v. Delivery, Inspection and Payment.
Equipment are delivered as agreed in the contract. Inspection is done to ensure the entire
delivered equipment meet the requirements.

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7.5 Issue construction materials and equipment
Lee and Dobler define materials management as “a confederacy of traditional materials activities
bound by a common idea-the idea of integrated management approach to planning, acquisition,
conversion, flow and distribution of production materials.
Inspection
This can happen in two ways
• Pre-dispatch inspection
• Receipts from internal divisions.
The inspector inspects to inspect all the materials delivered to the site prior to being used in the
work.

Conclusion
This learning outcome covered management of construction materials, plant, tools and equipment.

Further Reading

Read further on construction equipment as illustrated in Construction Equipment Management

Book by Giovanni Ciro, October 1998.

[Link] Self-Assessment

Written Assessment
1 Which equipment is used to remove earth?
a) Elevator
b) Crane
c) Excavator
2 The following are construction equipment, which among them is used to level the ground and
spread loose material.
a) Excavator
b) Grader
c) Tractor

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3 Which of the following is not a flooring material?
a) Timber
b) Tiles
c) Concrete
d) Glass
4 Discuss the procedure for procuring construction materials and equipment
5 Distinguish the equipment and materials used to construct a slab.
6 Evaluate factors to consider for site storage facilities.

Essay question
Construction activities have an effect to the environment. With reference to road and building
construction, discuss. (20mks)

Oral Assessment
Why is it important to study how construction activities affect the environment?

Case Study Assessment

Make a visit to the nearest facility being constructed in your area and prepare a report on how they
manage their construction materials on a daily basis.

Practical Assessment
Make a visit to the nearest facility being constructed in your area and prepare a report on how they
manage their construction materials on a daily basis indicating the financial allocation in each
stage of construction.

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators
• Relevant reference materials
• Stationeries
• GPS
• Design Software
• Computer lab
• Relevant practical materials
• Labouratories (chemical, biological & soils)
• Internet
• Manuals and guidelines
• Project management software
• Measuring and drawing tool
• Printer/plotting device
• Codes of practice

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[Link] References

Said, H., & El-Rayes, K. (2011). Optimizing material procurement and storage on construction
sites. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 137(6), 421-431.
Patel, K. V., & Vyas, C. M. (2011, May). Construction materials management on project sites.
In National Conference on Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology (pp. 1-5).
.

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