Significant Figures

Significant figures include all reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit in a
measurement.

Rules for determining significant figures:

• All non-zero digits are significant

• Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
• Leading zeros (before first non-zero digit) are not significant
• Trailing zeros after decimal point are significant
• Trailing zeros without decimal are not significant

Scientific notation eliminates ambiguity: cm has 4 significant figures.

Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures

1. Multiplication/Division: Result has same significant figures as the number with

least significant figures
a. Example: (3 significant figures)
2. Addition/Subtraction: Result has same decimal places as the number with least
decimal places
a. Example: g (1 decimal place)

Dimensional Analysis

Dimensions represent the nature of physical quantities using base dimensions: [L]
(length), [M] (mass), [T] (time), [A] (current), [K] (temperature), [cd] (luminous intensity),
[mol] (amount).

Dimensional formulas show how base dimensions combine:

• Volume:
• Velocity:
• Force:

Applications of dimensional analysis:

• Checking equation consistency

• Deriving relationships between quantities
 • Zero acceleration: Constant velocity

Kinematic Equations

For uniformly accelerated motion, the following equations relate displacement (), time (),
initial velocity (), final velocity (), and acceleration ():

1.
2.
3.

Key relationships:

• Area under velocity-time graph = displacement

• Slope of velocity-time graph = acceleration
• Slope of position-time graph = velocity

Free Fall Motion

Free fall is motion under gravity alone (neglecting air resistance), with constant
acceleration downward.

Equations for free fall (taking upward as positive):

•
🧮 Kinematic Equations of Motion
For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, five quantities are related:

Quantity Symbol Unit

Displacement m

Time taken s

Initial velocity m/s

Final velocity m/s

Acceleration m/s²

Key equations:

•
•
•

📏 Physical Quantities and Dimensions

Dimension
Quantity Symbol Unit Remarks
s

Path length - [L] m Scalar quantity

Displacemen . Sign indicates direction in

[L] m
t 1D
Trajectory equation:

This diagram illustrates how a projectile follows a parabolic path, with the horizontal
component of velocity remaining constant while the vertical component changes due to
gravity.

🔄 Uniform Circular Motion

Characteristics:

• Speed: Constant
• Velocity: Continuously changing direction
• Acceleration: Always directed toward center (centripetal)

Key relationships:

•
•
•
•
•

where is angular speed, is radius, is frequency, and is period.

This diagram shows how a vector A can be broken down into its x and y components,
allowing for easier analysis of motion in two dimensions.

Vector Addition Methods

1. Graphical Methods:
a. Head-to-tail method
b. Parallelogram method
2. Analytical Method:
a.
b.
c. ## Vector and Scalar Quantities

Scalar quantities have magnitude only:

• Volume, mass, speed, density, number of moles, temperature, pressure,

impulse, time, power, energy, gravitational potential, coefficient of friction,
charge

Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction:

• Acceleration, velocity, angular frequency, displacement, angular velocity,

force, angular momentum, work, current, linear momentum, electric field,
average velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity

🎯 Key Motion Concepts

Uniform Circular Motion

• Kinematic equations for uniform acceleration do NOT apply - acceleration

magnitude is constant but direction changes continuously
• Resultant acceleration is toward center only if speed is constant

Vector Addition

• Resultant velocity: (velocities with reference to common frame)

• Relative velocity: (velocity of object 1 relative to object 2)
3.5 True/False Analysis

• (a) True: Magnitude of vector is always scalar

• (b) False: Components of vector are vectors along axes
• (c) False: Path length ≥ displacement magnitude (equal only for straight-line
motion)
• (d) True: Average speed ≥ average velocity magnitude
• (e) True: Three non-coplanar vectors cannot sum to zero

🔄 Newton's Laws of Motion

First Law - Law of Inertia

Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled by external force to change that state

Key points:

• Zero net force → zero acceleration

• Rest and uniform motion are equivalent states
• Inertia = resistance to change in motion

Second Law - Force and Acceleration

The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to applied force and occurs
in force's direction

Mathematical forms:

• Momentum:
• Force:
• Component form: , ,

Units: 1 N = 1 kg × 1 m/s²

Third Law - Action-Reaction

To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction

Sources:

• String tension (stone on string)

• Gravitational force (planetary motion)
• Static friction (car on level road)

Maximum Speed on Level Road

Banked Road Advantage

• Reduces friction dependence

• Optimal banking angle:

🧱 Friction Fundamentals

Static Friction

• Opposes impending motion

• Self-adjusting:
• Maximum:

Kinetic Friction

• Opposes actual motion

• Generally constant:
• Typically:

Rolling Friction

• Minimal resistance (2-3 orders smaller than sliding)

• Enables wheel technology
• Complex origin: surface deformation effects
📊 Example Problems

Cyclist on Level Road

Given: km/h = 5 m/s, m,

Condition for no slipping:

Calculation: m²/s² vs m²/s²

Result: The cyclist will slip since

Race Car on Banked Track

Given: m, ,

Optimum speed: m/s

Maximum speed: m/s

🔧 Problem-Solving Strategy in Mechanics

1. Draw schematic diagram showing all parts, links, and supports
2. Choose system - any convenient part of the assembly
3. Draw free-body diagram showing all forces on the system
4. Include known forces with magnitudes and directions
5. Apply Newton's laws to determine unknowns
6. Use action-reaction pairs when analyzing multiple systems

⚖️ Newton's Laws Summary

First Law

"Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled by external force to act otherwise"

Key point: If , then

Non-Conservative Forces

• Work depends on path taken

• Energy dissipated as heat/sound
• Examples: Friction, air resistance

🌀 Potential Energy Functions

Gravitational Potential Energy

Relation to force:

Spring Potential Energy

Relation to force: (Hooke's Law)

⚡ Power and Energy

Power is the rate of doing work:

Units:

• 1 watt (W) = 1 J/s

• 1 horsepower (hp) = 746 W

💥 Collision Types

Elastic Collisions

• Kinetic energy conserved

• Momentum conserved
• Relative speed of approach = relative speed of separation

Inelastic Collisions

• Kinetic energy not conserved

• Momentum conserved
Key insight: Lighter moderators (deuterium) are more effective at energy transfer, but
head-on collisions are rare in practice.

⚛️ 1D vs 2D Collisions

1D (Head-on) Collisions

• All velocities lie along one line.

• Conservation laws:
o Momentum:
o Kinetic energy (elastic):

2D (Glancing) Collisions

• Velocities lie in a plane (x-y).

• Conservation equations:
o x-momentum:
o y-momentum:
o Kinetic energy (elastic):

Special case: Equal masses () + elastic + one at rest → Final velocities are
perpendicular ().

🎱 Billiard Ball Example

Scenario: Cue ball () strikes target ball () at rest. Target sinks at .
Find: Cue ball’s deflection angle .

Solution steps:

1. Momentum conservation:
🧪 Quick Check
Q: Why does a comet’s speed increase as it approaches the sun despite energy loss to
atmospheric drag?
A: Gravitational potential energy converts to kinetic energy, outweighing small
atmospheric dissipation.

🌪️ Next Up: Systems of Particles & Rotation

• Centre of mass motion
• Angular momentum & torque
• Rotational dynamics about fixed axes## Moment of Force (Torque)

A door rotates about fixed vertical hinges.

• Force alone is not enough: its point of application and direction decide whether
rotation occurs.
• Torque is the rotational analogue of force.

Definition (single particle)

where is the position vector from origin to the point of application of .

Magnitude:

• Zero torque when

–,
– , or
– (force directed through origin).

SI unit: newton-metre (N m)
Dimensions: (same as energy, but is a vector).
⚖️ Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Two simultaneous conditions:

1. Translational equilibrium

2. Rotational equilibrium
(about any point if )

Scalar form (coplanar forces):

• ,
• (torques perpendicular to plane)

🎢 Couple (Pure Rotation)

• Pair of equal, opposite, non-collinear forces.
• Net force = 0, but net torque ≠ 0.
• Moment of couple is independent of reference point.

🏛️ Principle of Moments (Levers)

Fulcrum at pivot; forces (load) and (effort).

Equilibrium condition:

Mechanical Advantage:
Thin rod Perpendicular, mid-point

Perpendicular, through
Solid disc
centre

Solid disc Diameter

Hollow cylinder Axis

Solid cylinder Axis

Solid sphere Diameter

🔄 Kinematics of Fixed-Axis Rotation

Linear Angular

Equations (constant )