Unit-1

DC Circuits
Definitions
Node:
 A node is the fundamental point of connection in a circuit.
 It's where two or more components (like resistors, capacitors, or wires) meet.

Junction:
 A junction is a specific type of node where three or more components are connected.
 It's a point where current can split or combine.

Branch:
 A branch is the part of the circuit between two nodes that can deliver or absorb
energy, excluding short circuits.
Loop:
 A loop is a closed path in the circuit where one returns to the starting node without
crossing any intermediate node twice.
Mesh:
 A special type of loop that doesn't enclose any other loops within it. Think of it as the
smallest possible loop in a circuit.

Linear Elements:
 A linear element shows linear characteristics of voltage v/s current.
 Thus, the parameters of linear elements remain constant (ie. the parameters do not
change with voltage or current applied to that element).
 Resistors, inductors and capacitors are linear elements.

Non-linear Elements:
 In case of non-linear element, the current passing through it does not change linearly
with the linear change in applied voltage across it, at a particular temperature and
frequency.
 In a non-linear element, the parameters change with applied voltage and current
changes.
 Semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors, thyristors, etc. are typical examples of
non-linear elements.
 Ohm's law is not valid for non-linear elements

Active and Passive Elements:

 If a circuit element has the capability of enhancing the energy level of an electric
signal passing through it, it is called an active element, Ex. a battery, a transformer.
etc.
 Otherwise, the element that simply allows the passage of the signal through it, without
enhancement is called a passive element (resistors, inductors, thermistors and
capacitors). Passive elements do not have any intrinsic property of boosting an
electric signal.
Unilateral Elements:
 If the magnitude of the current passing through an element is affected due to change
in polarity of the applied voltage, the clement is called a unilateral element.
 Example: diodes, transistors, etc., are unilateral elements,

Bilateral Elements:
 If the current magnitude remains the same even if the polarity of the applied voltage is
reversed, it is called a bilateral element.
 Unilateral elements offer varying impedances with variation in the magnitude or
direction of flow of the current while bilateral elements offer same impedance
irrespective of the magnitude or direction of flow of current.
 A resistor, an inductance and a capacitor, all are bilateral elements.
Linear Circuit Elements
 Resistance
 Inductance
 Capacitance

Resistance
 When an electric current flows through a bulb or any conductor, the conductor offers
some obstruction to the current and this obstruction is known as electrical resistance
and is denoted by R.
 Every material has an electrical resistance and this is the reason why conductors give
out heat when current passes through it.

Symbol of Resistance Symbol of Variable Resistance

 According to Ohm’s law, there is a relation between the current flowing through a
conductor and the potential difference across it. It is given by,
V∝I
V = IR
Where,
 V is the potential difference measured across the conductor (in volts)
 I is the current through the conductor (in amperes)
 R is the constant of proportionality called resistance (in ohms)
 The electrical resistance of a circuit is the ratio between the voltage applied to the
current flowing through it.
 Rearranging the above relation,
V
R
I
 The unit of electrical resistance is ohms.
Volts
ohms 
Amperes
 The electrical resistance of a conductor is dependent on the following factors:
o The cross-sectional area of the conductor
o Length of the conductor
o The material of the conductor
o The temperature of the conducting material
 Electrical resistance is directly proportional to length (L) of the conductor and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area (A). It is given by the following
relation.
L
R
A
Where ρ is the resistivity of the material (measured in Ωm, ohm meter)
 Resistivity is a qualitative measurement of a material’s ability to resist flowing
electric current.
Inductance
 Inductance is the property of a material by virtue of which it opposes any change of
magnitude or direction of electric current passing through the conductor.
 Inductance is represented usually by (L) and its unit is Henry (H).

Symbol of Inductor

 A wire of finite length, when twisted into a coil, becomes a simplest inductor.
 As soon as a current flows through it, an electromagnetic field is formed.
 However, with any change of flow or direction of current, the electromagnetic field
changes.
 The change of field induces a voltage VL across the coil, given by Lenz's law while
the phenomenon was explained in Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
di
VL   L
dt
Power Observed by the inductor is given by
di
PL  vi  Li
dt

di
PL  vi  Li
dt
Where v is the applied voltage,
di
v  v L  L
dt
Energy absorbed by the inductor is given by
t t
di 1 2
W   [Link]   Li  Li
0 0
dt 2
Thus, we can say that a pure inductance can store finite amount of electrical energy
1 2 
given by  Li  . It does not dissipate any energy like resistor.
2 
Capacitance
 It is the capability of an element to store electric charge within it.
 A capacitor stores electric energy in the form of an electric field being established by
the two polarities of charges on two electrodes of a capacitor.
 Quantitatively, the capacitance is a measure of charge per unit voltage that can be
stored within the capacitor.
 The unit of capacitance is Farad (F) while it is represented by the symbol (C).

Symbol of Capacitor
 'q' being the amount of charge that can be stored in a capacitor of capacitance C
against a potential difference of v volts,
 We can write,
q
C
v
dv
iC  C
dt
dq
Since iC 
dt
 Power observed by the capacitor is
dv
P  viC  vC
dt
 The energy stored by capacitor is
t t
dv 1
W   Pdt   vC  Cv 2
0 0
dt 2
 It can be observed that voltage across the capacitor being constant, the current through
it is zero.
 This means that the capacitor, on application on constant DC voltage and with no
initial charge first act as short circuit but when it gather full charge, it behaves as an
open circuit.
 A capacitor never dissipates energy but stores it.
Voltage Sources and Current Sources
 Voltage source can be represented by an ideal voltage cell in series with the internal
resistance of the battery.

 The output voltage developed across load resistance RL can be determined as:
RL
VL  E
RS  RL
 If RS << RL then VL  E.
 When the load resistance is very much larger than the source resistance, the constant
voltage source is assumed to have zero source resistance and all of the source voltage
is assumed to be applied to the load (ideal voltage source).
 Certain electronic devices can produce a current that tends to remain constant
regardless how the load resistance varies.

 Hence, it is possible to have a constant current source.

 The output of current from a constant current source can be determined in terms of RL
and RS as
RS
IL  I
RS  RL
 If RS and RL then IL  I
Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a
junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other
place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node“.
 In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node
must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.

 Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two
currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also
rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
 This concept is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network being
driven by a voltage source, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all
the voltage drops within the same loop” which is equal to zero.

 In other words the algebraic sum of all voltage sources and voltage drops within a
closed loop must be equal to zero since the algebraic sum of the voltage drops equals
the algebraic sum of the voltage sources.
 This concept is commonly known as the Conservation of Energy.
-V1+IR1+V2+IR2+IR3=0
V1  V2
I
R1  R2  R3
Independent and Dependent Source:
 The voltage and current sources donot depend on any other quantity in the circuit (i.e.
the strength of voltage or current in the sources), and do not change for any change in
the connected network, are called independent sources.

 A dependent voltage or current source is one which depends on some other quantity in
the circuit (may be either voltage or current), i.e. the strength of voltage or current
changes in the source for any change in the connected network.
 Dependent sources are represented by diamond-shaped symbol.
 There are four possible dependent sources:
1. Voltage-dependent voltage source,
2. Voltage-dependent current source,
3. Current-dependent current source,
4. Current-dependent voltage source.
 In the above figures a, b, c and d are the constants of proportionality; a and c have no
units; unit of b & is Siemens and unit of d is ohms.
Series Resistive Circuits
 Resistors are said to be in series when they are connected in such a way that there is
only one path through which the current can flow.
 Therefore, the current in a series circuit is the same in all parts in the circuit.
 The voltage drop across each component in a series circuit depends on the current
level and the magnitude of resistance.

 The total resistance connected across the voltage source is R = R1 + R2 + R3 (R is

called the equivalent resistance in ohms for the given circuit.)
 For a series circuit with n resistors, the equivalent resistance R is thus,
R = R1 + R2 + R3+…+Rn
 The equivalent circuit consists of the voltage source E and the equivalent resistance R.
 The current I flows from the positive terminal of the voltage source.
 Using Ohm's law, the current through the series circuit in ampere is obtained as
E E
I 
R R1  R 2  R 3  ...  R n

 There is only one path for the current flow in a series circuit.
 Using Ohm's law, the voltage drops across each resistor in volts are obtained as
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3
 Since the sum of the resistive voltage drops is equal to applied e.m.f. for any series
circuit
E  V1  V2  V3  ...  Vn
E  IR1  IR2  IR3  ...  IRn
E  I R1  R2  R3  ...  Rn 
Voltage Divider:
 Two or more series connected resistances can be used as a voltage divider circuit.
 Consider the circuit for example:

E
V1  IR1  .R1
R1  R 2
E
V2  IR2  .R2
R1  R2
 If R1=R2 then V1=V2=E/2
Potentiometer

 The potentiometer is essentially a single resistor with terminals at each end and a
movable contact that can be set to any point on the resistor.
 Terminals A and B are the end terminals and terminal C is the adjustable contact.

 The output voltage (VO), in volt, is given as

R2
VO  E
R1  R2
 If moving contact is half way between the two end terminals then
R
R1  R 2 
2
E
Or V0 
2
 Thus, it is seen that the potentiometer can be adjusted to give an output voltage
ranging linearly from 0 to E.
Parallel Resistance Circuit:

 Resistors are said to be connected in parallel when equal voltages appear arms euck
resistor (Le network element).
 The total current taken from the supply is the sum of all the individual resistor (or
network elements) currents.

Currents and Voltages in Parallel Circuits

 Resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the circuit has two terminals which
are common to each resistor.

 The voltage across each resistor is E volts and the current through R1 is I1 through R2
is I2 and R3 is I3.
 The current supplied by the battery in ampere is I = I1 + I2 + I3
E E E E
I  1 2  3
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R2 R3
1
R
1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3
 If n resistors are connected in parallel then we have where R is the equivalent
resistance.
 Therefore, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel
connection is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
1 1 1 1 1
    ... 
R R1 R2 R3 Rn
Nodal Analysis:
 Nodal analysis is based on Kirchhoff's current law.
 This method has the advantage that a minimum number of equations are needed to
determine the unknown quantities.
 Moreover, it is particularly suited for networks having many parallel branches and
also, when there are current sources in the network.
 For the application of this method, one of the nodes in the network is regarded as the
reference or datum node or zero potential node.
 The number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n-1), where n is the
number of independent nodes.
I1 R1 R2 I2
A
I3

E1 R3 E2

B
 Using Ohm’s Law
E1  V A
I1 
R1
E  VA
I2  2
R2
V  VB V A
I3  A 
R3 R3
 Apply KCL at node A
 I1  I 2  I 3  0
E1  V A E 2  V A V A
   0
R1 R2 R3
Procedure for Nodal Analysis:
1. Convert all voltage sources to current sources and redraw the circuit diagram
2. Identify all nodes and choose a reference node. (Usually, the common node is the
reference node.)
3. Write the equation for the currents flowing into and out of each node, with the
exception of the reference node.
4. Solve the equation to determine the node voltage and the required branch currents.
Numerical Problem: Find the voltage “v” in the circuit shown below.

I1 4Ω A 10Ω I2

I3

100V V 10Ω 180V

B
Mesh Analysis
 The mesh or loop analysis is based on Kirchhoff's voltage law.
 Here, the currents in different meshes are assigned continuous paths so that they do
not split at a junction into branch currents.
 In this method, the loop voltage equations are written by KVL in terms of unknown
loop currents.


 Circuits with voltage sources are comparatively easier to be solved by this method.
 Applying KVL in loop 1,
-E1+I1R1+(I1-I2)R2+I1R4=0
E1=I1(R1+R2+R4)-I2R2
 Applying KVL in loop 2,
-E2+I2R3+(I2-I1)R2+I2R5=0
E2=I1R2-(R2+R3+R5)I2
 Solving above two equations, we can find the values of I1, and I2 and subsequently the
branch currents can be evaluated.

Procedure for Mesh Analysis

1. Convert all current sources to voltage sources.
2. Draw all loop currents in a clockwise direction and identify them.
3. Identify all resistor voltage drops as positive to negative in the direction of the loop
current and assume these drops to be positive.
4. Identify all voltage sources according to their correct polarity.
Superposition Theorem:
Statement: In a linear bilateral network containing several sources, the current through or
voltage across any branch in the network equals the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages
of each individual source considered separately with all other sources made inoperative, i.e.
replaced by resistances equal to their internal resistances.

 It may be noted here that while removing the voltage source, it should by its internal
resistance (if any) or by a short circuit and while removing source it should be
replaced by an open circuit.
 Superposition theorem only to linear networks (both AC and DC) where current is
linearly related as per Ohm's law.
 Considering the voltage source E1 acting alone and removing the other voltage source
E2, after replacing it by its internal resistance otherwise short circuit the source.
I1‘ R1 R2 I ‘
A 2

I‘

E1 R3

B
 Current through R1

E1
I 1' 
RR2
R1 
R  R2
Current through R is
R2 E1 R2
I '  I1' 
R  R2 RR1  R1 R2  R2 R
  Considering the voltage source E2 acting alone and removing the other voltage source
E1, after replacing it by its short circuit, the current through R1, R2 and R being
Current through R1

E2
I 2" 
RR1
R2 
R  R1
Current through R is
R1 E2 R1
I "  I 2' 
R  R1 RR2  R1 R2  R1 R
 Therefore if two sources connected through a network, the net current is
E1 R2  E 2 R1
I  I'  I" 
RR2  R1 R2  R1 R

Procedure for Application of Superposition Theorem

1. Select one source and replace all other sources by their internal impedances.
2. Determine the level and direction of the current that flows through the desired
branch as a result of the single source acting alone.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 using each source in turn until the branch current components
have been calculated for all sources.
4. Algebraically sum the component currents to obtain the actual branch current(s).
Thevenin's Theorem:
 Statement: The current flowing through a load resistance connected across any two
terminals of a linear bilateral network in the ratio of the open circuit voltage across
the two terminals with load resistance removed, and the summation of the load
resistance with the internal resistance of the network; the internal resistance of the
network is obtained by looking at the network from these two open circuit at terminals
with all internal/independent sources deactivated.
R1 R2
A

r
R3 RL
E

B
 The current flowing through a load resistance RL connected across any two terminals
A and B of a linear, bilateral network is given by Voc/(Ri +RL), where Voc is the open-
circuit voltage (i.e. voltage across terminals AB, when RL is removed and Ri is the
internal resistance of the network as viewed back into the open-circuited network
from terminals AB, deactivating all the independent sources.

Limitations:
1. Thevenin's theorem cannot be directly applied to a network which contains non-linear
impedances,
2. This theorem cannot calculate the power consumed internally in the circuit or the
efficiency of the circuit.

Steps:
Step I: RL is to be removed from the circuit terminals a and b for the network.

Step II: The open-circuit voltage (Voc) which appears across terminals a and b is calculated as
ER3
Voc   VTH
r  R1  R3
This Ri is Thevenin’s equivalent resistance
Step III: Remove the battery from the circuit laving internal resistance (r) of the battery
R (R  r )
Ri  R2  3 1
R3  R1  r
 This Ri is called Thevenin’s equivalent Resistance (RTh)

Step IV: Current through RL is

Vth
I Th 
RTh  RL

Procedure for Application of Thevenin’s Theorem

1. Calculate the open-circuit voltage (Vth) across the network terminals.
2. Redraw the network with each independent source replaced by its internal resistance.
This is called deactivation of the sources".
3. Calculate the resistance (RTh) of the redrawn network as seen from the output
terminals.
Norton's Theorem:
 According to this theorem, any two-terminal active network containing voltage
sources and resistances when viewed from its output terminals is equivalent to a
constant current source and an internal (parallel) resistance.
 The constant current source (known as Norton's equivalent current source) is of the
magnitude of the short-circuit current at the terminals.
 The internal resistance is the equivalent resistance of the network looking back into
the terminals with all the sources replaced by their internal resistances.

 Let us find out the current through RL using Norton's theorem.

 The steps are as follows:
Step-1: Remove RL and short circuit the terminals a and b. The current through the
short-circuited path is ISC R = E/R1 =IN), where IN is the Norton's equivalent current.
R1
A

E ISC
R2

B
Step-2: For finding the internal resistance Ri of the network, terminals a and b are
open-circuited and the source is deactivated.
RR
Ri  1 2  R N
R1  R2
where RN is called Norton equivalent resistance
Step-3: Norton's equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. contains Norton's current source
IN and a parallel resistance equal to the internal resistance of the circuit Ri

Step-4: Connect RL across terminals a and b and find current IL through RL

RN
IL  IN
RN  RL
Nortonising Procedure
1. Calculate the short-circuit current IN at the network terminals.
2. Redraw the network with each source replaced by its internal resistance.
3. Calculate the resistance RN of the redrawn network as seen from the output
terminals.
4. Draw Norton's equivalent circuit.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
 A resistive load abstracts maximum power from a network when the load resistance
equals the internal resistance of the network as viewed from the output terminals, with
all energy sources removed, leaving behind their internal resistances.
 This theorem is applicable to all branches of electrical engineering including analysis
of communication networks.

 Figure shows a simple resistive network in which a load resistance RL is connected

across terminals a and b of the network.
 The network consists of a generator emf (E) and internal resistance along with a series
resistance R.
 The internal resistance as viewed from the terminals a and b is Ri = r + R.
 According to the maximum power transfer theorem, RL will abstract maximum power
from the network when Ri = RL = (r + R)

Proof
Current I through RL
E
I
Ri  RL
Power across the load is
E2 E 2 RL
PL  I 2 RL  . R 
RI  RL 2 L ( Ri  RL ) 2
For PL to be maximum
dPL
0
dRL

dPL  ( R  RL ) 2  2 RL ( Ri  RL ) 
 E2  i 0
dRL  ( Ri  RL ) 4 

Ri  RL  2 RL
RL  Ri  r  R
Thus, for maximum power transfer
RL  Ri
Maximum power is
E2 E2
PL max  I RL 
2
R 
RL  RL  L 4 RL
Power delivered by source is
E2 E2
EI  
RL  RL 2 RL
The efficiency under maximum power transfer condition is
E 2 / 4 RL 1
  50%
E 2 / 2 RL 2
 Unit-2
AC Circuits

Introduction:
 Sinusoidal waveforms are periodic waveforms whose graphs can be plotted using the
sine or cosine function from trigonometry.
 Electrical circuits supplied by sinusoidal waveforms whose polarity changes every
cycle and are commonly known as “AC” voltages and current sources.
 The representation of sinusoidal waveforms is fundamental in the study of electrical
engineering and power electronics.
 Sinusoidal waveforms are important in understanding alternating current (AC) circuits
and signal processing.

 Fig. Single Phase AC Signal

 Fig. Three Phase AC Signal

Definitions Relating To Sinusoidal Alternating Quantity
1. Amplitude (Peak Value): It is the maximum value (positive or negative) of an
alternating quantity.
2. Instantaneous Value: It is the value of the alternating quantity at any instant
3. Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is
known as cycle.
4. Time Period: It is the time required by an alternating quantity to complete 1 cycle; so for
a 50 Hz a.c., the time period is 1/50 second.
5. Frequency: The number of cycles per second is called the frequency of the alternating
quantity. Its unit is Hertz (Hz).
6. Phase: Phase of an alternating quantity is fraction of the time period that has elapsed
since the quantity last passed through the chosen zero position of reference.
7. Phase Angle: It is the equivalent of phase in radians or degrees. So phase angle is
(2pi*t/T) or (2πt/T) where is the instantaneous time and T is the time period.
8. Phase difference: Phase difference between two alternating quantities is the fractional
part of a period by which one has advanced over or lags behind the other. To measure
phase difference, the frequency of the alternating quantities should be same.
(a) The alternating quantities are in phase when each passes through their zero value,
maximum and minimum values at the same instant of time.
(b) A leading alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum, minimum or zero
value earlier than the other quantity. A lagging quantity is one which reaches the
maximum, minimum and zero values later than the other quantity.
9. Roots Mean Square (RMS Value): The rms value of the alternating current is that steady
current, i.e. the DC current which if passed through a circuit produces the same amount
of heat as produced by the alternating current flowing through the same circuit for the
same period of time.
The heat produced by direct current I or its equivalent rms value of the alternating
quantity i is proportional to i2.
So the area under the curve i2 vs. 2π is the total heat produced by an alternating current.
RMS value is given by
2
1
I RMS   i dt
2

2 0

2
1
I RMS  I sin 2 d
2

2
m
0

Im 1
I RMS  2 
2 

Im
I RMS   0.707 I m
2
10. Average (or Mean) Value: The average value of an alternating current is that steady or
DC current which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as transferred
by that alternating current during the same period of time
The average value of an alternating current is given by

1
I AV   id
 0

1
I AV 
 I
0
m sin d

Im 2I m
I AV   cos 0   0.637 I
  m

Thus, the average value of an alternating quantity = 0.637 x maximum value of that
alternating quantity.

11. Crest or Amplitude or Peak Factor Ka: It is the ratio of the peak or maximum value to
the rms value of an alternating quantity. For a sinusoidal wave,
I Im
Ka  m   1.414
I rms 0.707 I m

The knowledge of crest factor is important for measuring the iron losses, as iron loss
depends on the value of maximum flux.
Also, in dielectric insulation, testing the dielectric stress to which the insulation is
subjected is proportional to the maximum or peak value of the applied voltage.

12. Form Factor Kf: It is the ratio of the rims value to the average value of an alternating
quantity. For a sinusoidal wave,
I 0.707 I m
K f  RMS   1.11
I av 0.637 I m
AC through pure resistance alone:
When a pure resistance applied across a sinusoidal emf, the current will be in phase with the
emf.

Fig. Pure Resistance Connected across AC Supply

Phasor Diagram of voltage and current through R

Phasor Diagram between voltage and current

Current is given as
v V sin t Vm
i  m  sin t  I m sin t
R R R
Where
V
Im  m
R
V
I 
R
Where
V = RMS value of the applied voltage
I = RMS value of the applied current
R = Resistance in ohms
AC through pure inductor alone:
 Whenever an alternating sinusoidal voltage is applied to purely inductive coil, a back
emf is produced due to self-inductance of coil.
 The applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf, therefore, v = Ldi/dt where
L is the self-inductance of coil,
v is the back emf and
di/dt is the rate of change of current

di v Vm
  sin t
dt L L
V V V   V  
i  m  sin tdt   m cos t  m sin t    m sin t  
L L L  2  XL  2
Where XL = L = inductive reactance
   
Therefore, i  I m sin  t   i.e. the current lags behind the voltage by  
 2 2
Also I = V/XL
Where I is rms value of current
V is rms value of voltage
XL = L (inductive reactance)
AC through pure capacitor alone:
 Whenever an alternating sinusoidal voltage is applied to plates of a capacitor, then the
instantaneous charge in the capacitor q = Cv, where v is the instantaneous value of
applied voltage and C is the capacitance.

 If current i is the rate of flow of charge, then

dq d V  
i  C Vm sin t   VmC cos t  m sin  t  
dt dt 1  2
C
Where 1/C = capacitive reactance
 
Also i  I m sin t   where Im = Vm/XC i.e. current leads the applied voltage by
 2
π/2

Also I = V/XC

where I = rms value of current

V = rms value of voltage
XC = capacitive reactance in ohms
AC through Series RL Circuit:
 Consider a coil of resistance R ohms and inductance L Henry.
 Let V = rms value of applied voltage, I = rms value of resultant current, VR = voltage
drop across R and VL = voltage drop across L.

 In the phasor diagram, the current I flowing in the circuit is drawn in the horizontal axis
as reference.
 VR is drawn in the same direction as that of I and VRIR.
 VL is drawn leading with respect to I by 90° and VL = IXL.
 The resultant of the phasor VR and VL gives the supply voltage V.
 The magnitude of the supply voltage is
V  VR2  VL2  ( IR) 2R  ( IX ) 2L  I R 2  X L2  IZ
Where Z is the impedance of the circuit.
V
 Also, I  and Z  R 2  X L2
Z
 Triangle OAB is called the voltage triangle and triangle O’A’B’ is called the impedance
triangle.
 It is noticed that current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle (θ)
θ = tan-1VL/VR = tan-1IXL/IXR= tan-1XL/XR.
AC through Series RC Circuit:
 Consider a simple AC circuit in which a resistor of R ohms and capacitance of C farad
are connected in series.
 Let V = rms value of applied voltage.
I = rms value of resultant current,
VR = voltage drop across R and
VC = voltage drop across C.

 In the phasor diagram, the current I flowing in the circuit is drawn in the horizontal axis
as reference, VR is drawn in the same direction as that of I and VR = IR.
 VC is drawn lagging with respect to I by 90° and VC = IXC .
 The resultant of vectors VR and VC gives the supply voltage V.
 The magnitude of the supply voltage is
AC through Series RLC Circuit:

 Where;
V = supply voltage (RMS)
I = rms value of the current flow in the circuit
VR = RMS value of voltage across R = IR
VL = RMS value of voltage across L = IXL
VC = RMS value of voltage across C = IXC
 The impedance Z of a series RLC circuit depends upon the angular frequency,  as
do XL and XC,
 If the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance, XC > XL then the
overall circuit reactance is capacitive giving a leading phase angle.
 Likewise, if the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive
reactance, XL > XC then the overall circuit reactance is inductive giving the series circuit
a lagging phase angle.
 If the two reactance’s are the same and XL = XC then the angular frequency at which
this occurs is called the resonant frequency and produces the effect of resonance.
 Then the magnitude of the current depends upon the frequency applied to the series
RLC circuit.
 When impedance, Z is at its maximum, the current is a minimum and likewise,
when Z is at its minimum, the current is at maximum.
 Hence,

V  VR2  VL  VC 
2
 IR 2  IX L  IX C 2
V  I R 2   X L  X C   I R 2  X 2  IZ
2

X = Net Reactance in ohms = (XL-XC)

 The phase angle of voltage V is given by
V  V 
  tan 1 L C
VR

  tan 1
IX L  IX C 
IR

  tan 1 L
X  XC 
R
X
  tan 1
R
 If v = Vmsint
V
Then i  m sin(t   )  I m sin(t   )
Z
Fig. Voltage triangle for leading and lagging power factor

Fig. Power triangle for leading and lagging power factor

AC through Parallel RLC Circuit:
 Consider a parallel RLC circuit where the resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected
alongside each other, all powered by the same voltage supply, VS.
 A parallel RLC circuit maintains the same voltage across each component but divides
the current based on each component’s impedance.

 The total current, IS, from the supply equals the vector sum of the resistive, inductive,
and capacitive currents.
 These currents cannot be summed directly since they are not in phase with each other.
 Apply Kirchhoff’s current law, which states that the sum of currents entering a junction
or node, is equal to the sum of current leaving that node.
 2
I S2  I R2  I L  I C
Phasor Diagram of Parallel RLC Circuit
 Let VS is the supply voltage.
 IS is the total source current.
 IR is the current flowing through the resistor.
 IC is the current flowing through the capacitor.
 IL is the current flowing through the inductor.
 θ is the phase angle difference between supply voltage and current.
 For drawing the phasor diagram of parallel RLC circuit, voltage is taken as reference
because voltage across each element remains the same and all the other currents i.e IR,
IC, IL are drawn relative to this voltage vector.
 As in case of resistor, voltage and current are in same phase; so draw current vector IR
in same phase and direction to voltage.
 In case of capacitor, current leads the voltage by 90o so, draw IC vector leading voltage
vector, V by 90o.
 For inductor, current vector IL lags voltage by 90o so draw IL lagging voltage vector, V
by 90o.
 Now draw the resultant of IR, IC, IL i.e current IS at a phase angle difference of θ with
respect to voltage vector, V.
 Here, we can easily apply Pythagoras’s theorem and we get,
I S2  I R2  I L  I C 
2

Admittance of Parallel RLC Circuit

 From the phasor diagram of parallel RLC circuit we get,
I S2  I R2  I L  I C 
2

V V V
I R  , IC  , IL 
R XC XL
 Substituting the value of IR, IC, IL in above equation we get,
2 2
V   V V 
I S       
 R   X L XC 
 On simplifying, Admittance (Y) is
2 2
1 I  1   1 1 

Y  S    
Z V  R   X L X C 
 As shown above in the equation of impedance, Z of a parallel RLC circuit each element
has reciprocal of impedance (1/Z) i.e admittance, Y.
Resonance
 Resonance is a condition that occurs when the inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive
reactance (XC) in an AC circuit cancel each other out.
 The net reactance becomes zero, leading to an increase in current flow and voltage
amplitude.

Key Components in Resonance

Inductive Reactance (XL):
 Inductive Reactance is the opposition that an inductor presents to an alternating current.
 It is directly proportional to the frequency of the AC signal.
 It is represented by (XL) and measured in ohms (Ω).
 It is mostly low for lower frequencies and high for higher frequencies. However it is
negligible for steady DC current.
 The inductive reactance is XL=2πfL.
 As the frequency increases the inductive reactance also increases.

Capacitive Reactance (XC):

 A capacitor is a device used to store electrical energy.
 The capacitance of a capacitor determines the amount of charging a capacitor can
achieve.
 The measure of the opposition to alternating current by the capacitor is called
Capacitive Reactance.
 It is the resistance of a circuit element to changes in current or voltage.
 Its standard unit of measurement ohms (Ω).
 It is represented by the symbol XC.
 It is inversely proportional to the frequency of the AC signal.
 As the frequency increases the capacitive reactance decreases.
 The capacitive reactance formula is given as follows: XC = 1/2πfC

Resonant Frequency (f0):

 The frequency at which the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal in magnitude
but opposite in phase resulting in cancellation.
 It can be calculated using the formula:
f0 = 1/2π√(LC)
where L is the inductance and C is the capacitance.
 This is observed for a circuit that consists of an inductor and capacitor.

Types of Resonance
 Series Resonance
 Parallel Resonance
Series Resonance
 In a series resonance circuit, the inductor (L) and capacitor (C) are connected in series,
along with a resistor (R).

 The resonant frequency (fo) is the frequency at which the inductive and capacitive
reactance cancel each other out, resulting in a minimum impedance.
 During this point the circuit becomes highly responsive to the applied frequency.
 Let the voltage across the inductor and capacitor is equal, i.e.
VL = VC
 At resonance frequency,
XL = XC
Where XL is the inductive reactance and XC is the capacitive reactance.
 Voltage can be obtained by applying KVL to the series RLC circuit.
V = VR + VL + VC
 If I is the current flowing through the circuit, then
VR = IR; VL = IXL VC = IXC
 Therefore, the voltage equation can be written as
V = IR + IXL + IXC
 Also, the reactance XL and XC are given by,
XL = jωL = j2πfL; XC = 1/jωC = 1/j2πfL
  1 
 Therefore, V  I  R  j  L  
  C 
 Hence, the above equation is in the form of V = IZ, where Z is called the impedance of
the circuit i.e.
 1 
Z  R  j  L  
  C
 The supply frequency at which the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance become
equal to each other is called the resonance frequency.
 This is observed for a circuit that consists of an inductor and capacitor.
 It is denoted by fr.
 At series resonance,
XL = XC
ωL=1/ωC
Here, ω = ωr, angular resonance frequency.
1
r 
LC
 The linear resonance frequency will be,
1
fr 
2 LC
 Impedance is the total opposition that the circuit presents to the flow of alternating
current.
 It is a combination of resistance and reactance due to the presence of resistive,
capacitive, and inductive elements within the circuit.
 The impedance of a series RLC circuit is given by,
Z = R + j(XL-XC)
 At series resonance, XL = XC, Therefore, Z = R
 In a series circuit all components like resistors, capacitors, and inductors are connected
end-to-end so the same current flows through each component.
 At series resonance: XL = XC
 Then, I = V/R
 The circuit draws current from the source only due to the resistance of the circuit which
is the maximum value of the current that can flow through the series RLC circuit.
I
Ir

0.707Ir

Bandwidth
 The figure shows the relation between the series resonance circuit’s current, impedance,
and resonance frequency.

Q – Factor of Series Resonant Circuit

 The Q-factor (Quality Factor) of the circuit is defined as the ratio of reactive power to
the active power, i.e.
Re active _ Power
Q : Factor 
Active _ Power
2
I X I2X
Q : Factor  2 L  2 C
I R I R
L 1
Q : Factor  
R CR

At resonance:
1
0 
LC

0 L L 1 L
Q : Factor   
R  
LC R R C
Parallel Resonance
 In a parallel resonance circuit, the inductor (L) and capacitor (C) are connected in
parallel, with a resistor (R) typically in series with the inductor.
 At the resonant frequency (f0), the impedance of the inductor and capacitor cancel each
other out, resulting in a sharp increase in current flow through the circuit.

 The resonance occurs when the instantaneous values of currents IL and IC are equal and
opposite to each other.
 Applying KCL to this parallel RLC circuit we get,
I = IR + IL + IC
 According to Ohm’s law,
IR = V/R; IL = V/jXL; IC = V/(-jXC)
 Therefore, the total circuit current is given by,
V V V
I  
R jX L jX C
 Hence, I = VY
1  1 1 
Where, Y   j  
R  XC XL 
 Condition of Parallel Resonance
XL = XC

Resonance Frequency:
 The resonance frequency of a parallel resonance circuit is the value of the supply
frequency where the inductive reactance XL becomes equal to the capacitive reactance
XC i.e.
XL = XC
1
2fL 
2fC
1
f2
4 2 LC
1
f 
2 LC
 Also,
1
0 
LC
 The resonant frequency of a parallel RLC circuit depends on the value of capacitance
and inductance.
 At the frequencies lower than resonant frequency, XL < XC or IL > IC , hence the circuit
behaves as inductive circuit has lagging power factor.
 At the frequencies higher than resonant frequency, XL > XC or IL < IC hence the circuit
behaves as capacitive circuit has leading power factor.
 At resonant frequency, XL = XC or IL = IC hence the circuit behaves as purely resistive
circuit has unity power factor.

Admittance:
 Admittance is the measuring ability of the current through a device or circuit.
 This is the inverse of impedance which is similar to how conductance is related to
resistance.
 The SI unit of admittance is the siemens.
 Admittance (Y):
1  1 1 
Y   j   
R  XC X L 
 At resonance: XL = XC
 Putting it in the admittance equation we get Y = 1/R
 At resonance the admittance Y being equal to the resistance (R) reciprocal.

Voltage:
 Voltage refers to the potential difference across each branch of the circuit.
 In Parallel circuit the voltage remains the same across each branch.
 At parallel resonance, XC = XL
 Therefore,
 I = VR ; V = IR
 At parallel resonance the voltage across each element will be equal to the voltage
across the resistance. This is the maximum value of the voltage that appears across each
element.
Current frequency curve:
Y

Ymin

Lagging pf Leading pf
 Thus, current versus frequency curve of the parallel RLC circuit is same as that of
admittance versus frequency curve.
 The difference in upper frequency and lower frequency denotes the bandwidth of the
parallel resonance circuit.
 The power dissipation at the upper and lower frequencies is half of the full power
dissipated at the resonance frequency f0.
 Refer the current-frequency curve, bandwidth (BW) of the circuit is
1 0 
BW   2  1    0
RC  0 RC Q0
 Also
1
1 2    02
LC
 0  1 2
Hence, the resonant frequency is the geometric mean of half-power frequencies.

Quality Factor of Parallel RLC circuit

Re active _ Power R
Q 
Active _ Power L
 At resonance
R
Q   O RC
O L
 Since the resonant frequency is
1
O 
LC
 So, the quality factor is
R LC C
Q R R
O L L L
Application of Resonance
 Used for Voltage multiplier
 Used to filter a signal by blocking some frequencies and passing others.
 Used for Pulse discharge circuits
 Used in different types of oscillator circuit.
 These are used in the tuning circuits of analogue radios.

Advantages of Resonance
 Selective tuning: Filtering out unwanted signals and focusing on the desired frequency
band in communication systems.
 Amplification: Resonance circuits provide strong amplification to signals resulting in
increased signal power. It is used in the applications communication systems.
 Impedance Matching: Resonance circuits are also used for impedance matching
purposes ensuring maximum power transfer between the source and load. It is used in
antennas and transmission lines.
 Energy Efficiency: Resonance circuits can store and transfer energy efficiently
between the inductive and capacitive elements. The applications of energy efficiency
are wireless power transfer systems and energy storage.

Limitations of Resonance
 Bulkiness: The inductive and capacitive components can be bulky and heavy limiting
the downsize of resonant circuits.
 Narrow Bandwidth: Resonance circuits sometimes have a narrow bandwidth which
means that they are effective for a limited range of frequencies. This limitation can
restrict their capability in applications requiring broader frequency coverage.
 Complex Design Requirements: Designing resonance circuits with specific
performance characteristics can be complex and require detailed analysis. Achieving
desired resonance properties such as bandwidth and Q factor often necessitates careful
consideration of circuit and component values.
Three phase balanced circuits
 Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three phases are sending together
from generator to the load.
 Each phase is having a phase difference of 1200, i.e 1200 angle electrically. .
 So from the total of 3600, three phase are equally divided into 1200 each.
 The power in three phase system is continuous as all the three phases are involved in
generating the total power.
 The three phases can be used as single phase each.
 So if the load is single phase, then one phase can be taken from the three phase circuit
and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the circuit.
 The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase system are shown below.

Fig. wave form of three phase balanced supply system

Star connection
 The finishing ends or starting ends of the three phase windings are connected to a
common point as shown in. A’, B’, C’ are connected to a common point called neutral
point.
 The other ends A, B, C are called line terminals and the common terminal neutral are
brought outside.
 Then it is called a 3 phase 4 wire star connected systems.
 If neutral point is not available, then it is called 3 phases, 3 wire star connections.

Fig. Star Connection

 The current through the neutral wire in case of balanced load is zero.
IN = IA + IB + IC
 The potential difference between any terminal and neutral gives the phase voltage and
that between any two line terminals, i.e. A, B, C gives the line voltage.
 In [Link]. VB and VC are phase voltages of phases A, B and C respectively while VAB,
VBC and VCA are the line voltages.
 If these voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by 120° (elect.),
then they are called balanced voltages.

Relation between Line and Phase Voltages in Star Connection

 The potential difference between lines A and B is VAB = VA - VB (vector difference)
 VAB can be found by compounding VA and VB (reversed).
 Its value is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram.
 Obviously, the angle between VA and VB (reversed) is 60°.

Fig. Phasor diagram

 Assuming
V A  VB  VC  VPh (the phase emf)
1
V AB  V A2  VB2  2V AVB cos 60 0  VPh2  V Ph2  2VPh2   3VPh
2
1
VBC  VB2  VC2  2VBVC cos 600  VPh2  VPh2  2VPh2   3VPh
2
1
VCA  VC2  VA2  2VCVA cos 600  VPh2  VPh2  2VPh2   3VPh
2
 Line voltages are also 120° apart.
 Line voltages are 30° ahead of their respective phase voltages.
VAB leads VR by 30° as well as VYB leads VY by 30° and VBR leads VB by 30°.
 The angle between the line currents and the corresponding line voltages is (30°+ θ)
assuming current lagging by an angle θ (for lagging loads).

Relation between Line and Phase Currents in Star Connection

 The line current in each line is the same as the current in the phase winding to which
the line is connected.
 Let current in line A be IA current in line B be IB and current in line C be IC.
 Since I A  I B  I C (say phase current), in star connection, line current is same as the
phase current

Power in Star Connection

The total active or real power P in the circuit is the sum of the three phase powers.
Hence, the total active power
P = 3x individual phase power = 3VPhIPhcos θ
V
= 3  L I L cos  = 3  VL I L cos 
3
Similarly, total reactive power Q is given by
Q  3VL I L sin 
Total apparent power
S  3VL I L  P 2  Q 2  P  jQ

Delta connection
 In this form of interconnection the dissimilar ends of the three coils i.e. A and B’, B and
C’, and C and A’ are connected to form a closed Δ circuit (starting end of one phase is
connected to finishing end of the next phase).
 The three junctions are brought outside as line terminal A, B, C. the three phase
windings are connected in series and form a closed path.
 The sum of the voltages in the closed path for balanced system of voltages at any
instant will be zero

.
Fig. Delta Connection

 The main advantage of star connection is that we can have two different 3- phase
voltages.
 The voltage that was the line terminals between A & B, B&C, and C & A are called
line voltages and form a balanced three phase voltage.
 Another voltage is between the terminals A & N, B& N, and C &N are called phase
voltage and form another balanced three phase voltage (line to neutral voltage or wye
voltage).

Relation between Line Voltages and Phase Voltages in Delta Connection

 It is seen, that there is only one-phase winding completely included between any pair
of terminals.
 Hence, in delta connection, the voltage between any pair of lines is equal to the
corresponding phase voltage.
 Since the common phase sequence is ABC, VAB leads VBC by 120°, VBC leads VCA by
120°. VCA leads VAB by 120°.

Relation between Line Currents and Phase Currents in Delta Connection

 It is seen, that current in each line is the vector difference of the two-phase currents
flowing through that line (i.e. vector difference of corresponding phase currents).
 Hence, Current in line A is IAB = IA - IB
Current in line B is IBC = IB – IC
Current in line C is ICA = IC – IA
 Current in line A is found by compounding IA and IC (reversed) and its value is given
by the diagonal of the parallelogram.
 The angle between IA and IC (reversed) is 60°.
  The current in line A is:
I1  I A2  I B2  2 I A I B cos 60
I1  I Ph
2
 I Ph
2
 2 I Ph I Ph cos 60
1
I1  I Ph
2
 I Ph
2
 2 I Ph
2

2
I1  3 I Ph
 The current in line B is:
I 2  I B2  I C2  2 I B I C cos 60
I 2  I Ph
2
 I Ph
2
 2 I Ph I Ph cos 60
1
I 2  I Ph
2
 I Ph
2
 2 I Ph
2

2
I 2  3 I Ph
 Assuming all the line currents are equal in magnitude,
I1  I 2  I 3  I L
Power in delta connection
 Three phase power
P = 3xindividual phase powers
P  3VPh I Ph cos
I
P  3VL L cos 
3
 Similarly, total reactive power is
Q  3VL I L sin 
 Total apparent power is
S  P2  Q2
S  3VL I L  P  jQ