Human reproduction and sexual behaviour

By Róza Zákány

University of Debrecen, Faculty of Medicine

Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology
Male reproductive organs
Figure 43.8 The Reproductive Tract of the Human Male

External and internal genital organs of human male

• Semen, a mixture of fluids and
molecules to support sperm and
facilitate fertilization, is the product
of the male reproductive system
(testis, epididymis, prostate,
seminal vesicle).
• Sperm cells are produced in the
testes, which are located in a sac
called the scrotum outside the
body cavity.
• This location outside the body
ensures that the optimal
temperature for spermatogenesis
(slightly below body temperature)
is maintained.
• Muscles in the scrotum control
contraction and relaxation of the
testes, keeping them at the proper
thermal location in relation to the
body.
 testis

• Spermatogenesis takes place in the

seminiferous tubules after puberty
and is continuous until the end of
life in males.
• Each tubule is lined with a stratified
epithelium, within which
developing sperm cells reside.
• The germ cells are protected from
noxious substances in the blood by
Sertoli cells, which also provide
nutrients for the developing sperm
and are involved in the hormonal
control of spermatogenesis.
• Male sex hormones (androgens,
mainly testosterone) are produced
by clusters of Leydig cells lying
between the seminiferous tubules.
Figure 43.3 Gametogenesis (Part 1)

2n
4n

•Spermatogenesis involves two meiotic divisions: Primary spermatocytes

form secondary spermatocytes, and then secondary spermatocytes
produce four haploid spermatids.
•Spermatocytes remain in cytoplasmic contact throughout their
development, probably so that all spermatocytes can share the gene
products of the X chromosome, which only half of them have.
Spermiogenesis in seminiferous tubules of testis

• The second meiotic division of the

germ cell results in four haploid
spermatids, which develop into
sperm cells as they move toward
the lumen of the tubule.
• The nucleus in what will become
the head of the mammalian sperm
becomes compact, and the
surrounding cytoplasm is lost.
• A flagellum develops, and the
mitochondria become a
condensed midpiece that will
provide energy for motility.
• A cap, or acrosome, forms over
the nucleus in the head and
contains digestive enzymes to
penetrate the protective layers of
the egg.
 Pathway of spermiums

• From the lumen of the tubules,

sperm move to the
epididymis, a storage sac
where they mature.
• The epididymis connects to
the urethra via the vas
deferens.
• The urethra is the common
duct for urinary and
reproductive systems.
• The components of semen
come from several accessory
glands.
• The bulbourethral glands
produce a mucoid secretion
that neutralizes acidity in the
urethra and lubricates the tip
of the penis.
 Pathway of spermiums

• Paired seminal vesicles

produce about two-thirds of
the volume of semen,
consisting of mucus,
protein, and fructose as an
energy force for the sperm.
• The prostate gland
produces the thin, milky
fluid that makes up the rest
of the volume of semen.
• Prostate fluid makes the
uterine environment more
hospitable to sperm and
converts the semen, by
enzyme action, into a
gelatinous mass.
The Human Reproductive System
• The penis and scrotum are the
male genitalia.
• The penis is a tubular shaft, the tip
of which has sensitive skin called
the glans penis that is very
responsive to sexual stimulation.
• A fold of skin called the foreskin
covers the glans; the cultural
practice of circumcision removes
a portion of the foreskin.
• Erections occur when the
sexually aroused male’s
autonomic nervous system causes
penis blood vessel dilation.
 The Human Reproductive System

• At the final part of copulation, semen is propelled

through the vas deferentia and urethra in two
steps.
• During emission, contractions of smooth muscles
in the vas deferentia and accessory glands move
semen into the urethra.
• During ejaculation (orgasm), contractions of the
muscles at the base of the penis force semen
through the urethra and out of the penis.
• After ejaculation, the autonomic nervous system
causes constriction of the vessels in the penis and
thus a decrease in blood pressure in the erectile
tissue; the compression of blood vessels leaving
the penis is relieved and the erection declines.
• The male sexual steroid hormone
testosterone, produced by the Leydig cells
of the testes, controls spermatogenesis and
maintains male secondary sexual
characteristics.
• At puberty, increased release of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by
the hypothalamus stimulates cells in the
anterior pituitary to to increase secretion of
LH and FSH.
• The Leydig cells are stimulated by LH to
produce testosterone.
• The rise in testosterone level promotes
secondary sexual features, a growth spurt,
increased muscle mass, and testes
maturation. Testosterone production after
puberty is needed for the maintenance of
secondary sexual characteristics and the
production of sperm.
• Spermatogenesis itself is under the control of
FSH and testosterone on the Sertoli cells.
• The Sertoli cells also produce the hormone
inhibin, which exerts negative feedback on
the production of FSH by the anterior
pituitary.
Female reproductive organs
External and internal genital organs
Femaleof human females
genital organs
• The external opening of the
vagina has two sets of folded
skin, the labia majora and
labia minora, which also
surround the urethra.
• At the tip of the labia minora is
the clitoris, the anatomical
analog of the male penis that
is capable of erection and is
highly sensitive to sexual
stimulation.
• Both the labia minora and
clitoris become engorged with
blood during sexual
stimulation.
• The opening to the vagina is
initially covered by a thin
membrane called the hymen,
which ruptures with vigorous
physical activity or first sexual
intercourse.
 Femal genital organs
• In the female reproductive
system, the mature egg is
released into the body cavity
and is swept into the end of the
oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an
undulating fringe of tissue.
• Fertilization takes place in the
oviduct.
• Cilia lining the oviduct propel
the fertilized or unfertilized egg
toward the uterus, a muscular,
thick-walled cavity.
• The opening at the bottom of
the uterus is the cervix, which
leads into the vagina.
• Sperm are deposited in the
vagina, and the fetus must
pass through it during birth.
 The Human Reproductive System

• Stimulated by estrogen, the endometrium

develops new blood vessels to cradle the
blastocyst.
• The placenta is the organ of exchange of nutrients
and waste products between the embryo’s and
the mother’s blood.
• If the blastocyst fails to arrive or embed, the
endometrium regresses and is sloughed off in the
subsequent monthly menstrual period.
 The Human Reproductive System

• The female reproductive cycle actually consists of

two linked cycles: an ovarian cycle that produces
eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that
prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a
blastocyst.
• The ovarian cycle repeats about every 28 days.
• A woman’s fertile years total about 450 ovarian
cycles. In each cycle, one oocyte matures and is
released.
• The end of fertility (menopause) occurs at about
age 50, and only a few oocytes are left in each
ovary.
Figure 43.3 Gametogenesis (Part 2)

4n 2n

•Oogenesis produces eggs through two meiotic divisions.

•The primary oocyte enters prophase of the first meiotic division, and
then its development is arrested (for days, months, or for as long as 50
years).
•During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and adds to its energy,
ribosome, and organelle store. This permits the later embryo to have
nourishment.
•THESE STEPS ARE COMPLETED DURING FETAL LIFE
 Sexual Reproduction

4n 2n

• When it resumes meiosis, the primary oocyte completes the first

division, resulting in two cells of unequal size, the secondary oocyte
and first polar body.
• THIS STEP OCCURS DURING EACH OVARIAN CYCLE JUST
PRIOR TO THE OVULATION
• In many species, including humans, the second meiotic division is
not completed until the egg is fertilized by the sperm
 The Human Reproductive System
• Between puberty and menopause, six to
OVARIAN CYCLE twelve follicles (cells surrounding the
primary oocyte) start to mature each
month by proliferating beside the
enlarging oocyte.
• A few of these follicles persist and
continues to grow, while the others
shrink and cease.
• The enlarged follicle nourishes the
growing egg with the nutrients and
proteins it will use if fertilized.
• After two weeks (of the previous
menstruation) ovulation occurs, a
process in which the follicle ruptures and
the egg is released.
• After ovulation, the follicle continues to
proliferate and forms an endocrine
mass, called the corpus luteum, which
produces estrogen and progesterone
for another two weeks, then
degenerates if an embryo (in form of a
blastocyst) is not implanted in the
uterus.
 The Human Reproductive System

• The uterine cycle parallels the ovarian cycle and involves

the buildup, then breakdown, of the endometrium.
• About five days into the ovarian cycle, the endometrium
regenerates from menstrual loss and begins to prepare for
the possible implantation of a blastocyst.
• About five days after ovulation, the uterus is maximally
prepared and stays that way for another nine days.
• If the blastocyst does not arrive by then, the endometrium
breaks down and sloughs off during menstruation (caused
by drop of progesterone and oestrogen levels resulted by
the degeneration of corpus luteum).
 The Human Reproductive System

• Most other female mammals do not menstruate,

but instead resorb the uterine lining.
• These species demonstrate a seasonal state of
sexual receptivity called estrus (heat) about the
time of ovulation.
• The human female is unusual in being potentially
sexually receptive at all seasons of the year.
Hormonal regulation of female sexual functions

• The ovarian and uterine cycles in

human females are coordinated
and timed by the same hormones
that initiate sexual maturation.
• At puberty, the hypothalamus
signals an increase in
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH), stimulating the anterior
pituitary to secrete FSH and LH.
• The ovarian tissue grows in
response to these hormones and
produces estrogen.
• From puberty to menopause,
interactions of GnRH,
gonadotropins, and sex steroids
control the ovarian and uterine
cycles.
Hormonal regulation of female sexual functions
• Menstruation marks the start of
each uterine and ovarian cycle.
FSH and LH levels increase and
follicles begin maturing to
produce estrogen.
• All but one of the follicles wither
away, but the remaining one
continues to secrete estrogen
causing the endometrium to
grow.
• Estrogen exerts negative
feedback control on
gonadotropin release during the
first 12 days of the ovarian cycle.
• On about day 12, estrogen
exerts a positive rather than
negative feedback control on the
pituitary.
• There is a surge of LH and some
FSH, triggering the follicle to
rupture and release the egg.
Figure 43.13 The Ovarian and Uterine Cycle (Part 2)

•The follicle cells develop into the corpus luteum and secrete
estrogen and progesterone to continue endometrial growth.
•These hormones also provide negative feedback to the pituitary,
inhibiting gonadotropin release to prevent maturation of new
follicles.
 The Human Reproductive System

• If fertilization fails, the corpus luteum degenerates on about day 26 of the cycle and
production of progensterone stops. This induces the degeneration and detachment
of the upper larger part of endometrium, thus menstruation occurs.
• Lowered levels of steroids in the blood cancel the negative feedback on the
hypothalamus and pituitary, allowing GnRH, LH, and FSH to increase again.
Fertilization, pregnancy,
delivery
The Human Reproductive System

• To achieve fertilization,
sperm swim up the vagina,
assisted by contractions of
the female reproductive
tract.
• The sperm then pass
through the cervix and
most of the oviduct to the
egg (secondary oocyte) in
the upper oviduct.
 Sexual Reproduction

• In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm

recognition mechanisms also exist.
• The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick
layer of granulosa cells. Beneath that is a protein
envelope called the zona pellucida.
• In the female reproductive tract, mammalian
sperm are metabolically activated; they are
capable of an acrosomal reaction.
• A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona binds
to the head of the sperm, triggering the
acrosomal reaction and releasing acrosomal
enzymes that digest a path through the zona.
Figure 43.5 A Mammalian Egg Is Surrounded by Barriers to Sperm
 Sexual Reproduction

• The first response to fertilization are blocks to

polyspermy: If more than one sperm enters the
egg, the resulting embryo is unlikely to survive.
• In fast block to polyspermy, an influx of Na+
ions within seconds after the sperm enters
changes the electric charge difference across the
egg’s plasma membrane.
• The slow block to polyspermy takes about a
minute. Calcium from the eggs’s endoplasmic
reticulum causes the vitelline envelope to form a
hardened fertilization envelope, which prevents
additional sperm from entering.
 Sexual Reproduction

• Fertilization is the union of

haploid sperm and haploid egg to
produce a single diploid cell, the
zygote. It involves a complex
series of events:
 The sperm and egg
recognize each other.
 The sperm is activated so it
can penetrate the corona
radiata and the zona
pellucida.
 The plasma membranes of
the sperm and egg fuse.
 The egg blocks entry of
additional sperm.
 The oocyte completes the
2nd meiotic division and egg
becomes metabolicaly
activated.
 The egg and sperm nuclei
fuse.
• Fertilization stimulates
completion of the second
meiotic division of oocyte,
after which egg and sperm
(both haploid) fuse to produce
the diploid zygote.
• Still in the oviduct, the zygote
divides to become a morula
and continues down the
oviduct.
• The embryo becomes a
blastocyst in the cavity of the
uterus, attaches to the wall
lining called the endometrium.
• The blastocyst burrows in the
endometrium (implantation),
and interacts with the wall to
initiate the formation of the
placenta.
 The Human Reproductive System

• After implantation in the uterus, a blastocyst begins to secrete

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which keeps the
corpus luteum functional. Later phase of pregnancy the
placenta produces hCG.
• The presence of this hormone is the basis for pregnancy
testing.
• Continued high levels of estrogen and progesterone secreted
by the persisiting corpus luteum prevent the pituitary from
secreting gonadotropins; thus, the ovarian cycle ceases for
the duration of the pregnancy
→NO OVULATION.
• Same mechanism is the basis for birth control pills.
 The Human Reproductive System

• Throughout pregnancy, the muscles of the uterine

wall periodically undergo weak Braxton-Hicks
contractions (false labor contractions), which get
gradually stronger by the third trimester.
• Toward the end of the third trimester, the
estrogen–progesterone ratio shifts in favor of
estrogen; thus contractions become more
stimulated.
• Increased release of oxytocin by the pituitary of
mother and fetus stimulates muscle contraction
and marks the onset of labor.
• Mechanical stimulation comes from the stretching
of the uterus by the fetus and the pressure of its
head on the cervix.
 The Human Reproductive System

• A positive feedback loop develops

(mechanical stimuli increase the
release of oxytocin, and vice versa),
and this converts Braxton-Hicks
contractions into stronger labor
contractions.
• In the early stage of labor,
contractions gradually become more
frequent and intense until they have
opened the cervix.
• In the delivery stage, the baby’s
head moves into the vagina and
becomes visible from the outside.
• The usual head-down position of the
baby comes about during the
seventh month of pregnancy.
Figure 43.15 Control of Uterine Contractions and Childbirth
 The Human Reproductive System

• Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing

down with her abdominal muscles.
• Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it can start
breathing and become independent of the mother’s
circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
• Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached
from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
from the uterus.
• The inner surface of the uterus is a big wound after the
delivery, therefore represents a gate for bacterial infection!
This wound heals (endometrium regenerates) in a few
weeks and bleeding from the uterus stops.