Comprehensive Notes on DC

Generators
An Intuitive, First-Principles Approach
by an EEE Professor & Pedagogue AI

September 17, 2025

DC Generators: From First Principles

Contents
1 The Generator Principle 4
1.1 Faraday’s Law and Motional EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 The Simple Loop Generator: An AC Machine 4

2.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 The Alternating Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 The DC Generator: Introducing the Commutator 7

3.1 Construction and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 The Pulsating DC Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 EMF Equation of a DC Generator 9

4.1 Derivation from First Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Dependence on Winding Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 EMF in terms of Angular Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5 Classification of DC Generators 11
5.1 Separately-Excited Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2 Self-Excited Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2.1 Shunt Wound Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2.2 Series Wound Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2.3 Compound Wound Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

6 Losses in a DC Generator 13
6.1 Copper Losses (Pcu or I 2 R Losses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.2 Iron Losses or Core Losses (Pcore ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.3 Mechanical Losses (Pmech ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.4 Summary of Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

7 Power Stages and Efficiency 15

7.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2
8 Worked Example: Flux per Pole Calculation 16
8.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
8.2 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

9 Armature Reaction 18

10 Characteristics of DC Generators 19
10.1 Critical Field Resistance for a Shunt Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
DC Generators: From First Principles

1 The Generator Principle

An electrical generator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. This conversion process is not magic; it is founded upon a fundamental
principle of physics known as Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

1.1 Faraday’s Law and Motional EMF

Faraday’s Law states that a changing magnetic flux through a conducting loop induces
an electromotive force (EMF), or voltage, across the ends of the loop. Mathematically,
the induced EMF (E) is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (ΦB ):

dΦB
E =− (1)
dt
The negative sign, dictated by Lenz’s Law, indicates that the induced current will flow in
a direction that creates a magnetic field opposing the change in flux.
A more intuitive way to understand this for a generator is through the concept of mo-
tional EMF. When a conductor of length l moves with a velocity v through a magnetic
field B, the magnetic force on the free charges within the conductor causes them to accu-
mulate at one end. This separation of charge creates an electric field and, consequently,
an EMF.
For a straight conductor moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, this motional
EMF is given by:

E = Blv (2)

This equation reveals the three essential ingredients for generation:

1. A Magnetic Field (B): Typically provided by permanent magnets or electromag-

nets (called the field system).

2. A Conductor (l): Usually a length of copper wire (part of the armature).

3. Relative Motion (v): The conductor must "cut" or move across the magnetic
flux lines. This is provided by a prime mover (e.g., a turbine, engine).

If the conductor forms part of a closed circuit, the induced EMF will drive a current.

2 The Simple Loop Generator: An AC Machine

Let’s build the simplest possible generator to see these principles in action. It consists of
a single rectangular loop of copper wire (ABCD) rotating in a uniform magnetic field.

4
DC Generators: From First Principles

2.1 Construction

As shown in Figure 1, the key components are:

• Field Magnets: A North (N) and South (S) pole create a magnetic field from left
to right.

• Armature Coil: A single rectangular loop ABCD rotates about its central axis.

• Slip Rings: Two conducting rings, ’a’ and ’b’, are attached to the ends of the coil
and rotate with it. They are insulated from each other and the shaft.

• Brushes: Two stationary blocks of carbon or copper, ’M’ and ’L’, press against the
slip rings, providing an electrical connection to the external circuit.

• Load: An external resistance R where the electrical energy is used.

Velocity out
A B Velocity out
B A

N S N S
D C Velocity in C D
Velocity in

M R L M R L
Current M → L Current L → M
(a) First Half-Revolution (0° to 180°) (b) Second Half-Revolution (180° to 360°)

Figure 1: Operation of a simple loop generator with slip rings.

2.2 Working Principle

Imagine the coil rotating clockwise. We analyze its motion at various positions.

5
DC Generators: From First Principles

N-Pole
Position above
1A(0°)
B
Rotation

A D
Position 3 (90°) Position
Flux lines 7 (270°)
B C

D 5C
Position (180°)
S-Pole below

Figure 2: Top-down view of coil positions during rotation.

Position 1 (Angle θ = 0◦ ): The plane of the coil is vertical, perpendicular to the flux
lines. The conductors AB and CD are moving horizontally, parallel to the flux lines. They
are not cutting any flux.

• Flux Linkage (ΦB ): Maximum. All flux lines pass through the loop.

• Rate of Change of Flux Linkage (dΦB /dt): Minimum (zero).

• Induced EMF (E): Zero.

Position 3 (Angle θ = 90◦ ): The plane of the coil is horizontal, parallel to the flux
lines. The conductors AB and CD are now moving vertically, cutting the flux lines at the
maximum possible rate.

• Flux Linkage (ΦB ): Minimum (zero). No flux lines pass through the loop.

• Rate of Change of Flux Linkage (dΦB /dt): Maximum.

• Induced EMF (E): Maximum.

Using Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule on conductor AB (moving up) and CD (moving

down), we find the direction of the induced current:

• In AB: Current flows from A to B.

• In CD: Current flows from C to D.

• In the external circuit: Current flows from brush M, through R, to brush L. The
path is A-B-M-L-C-D.

Position 5 (Angle θ = 180◦ ): The coil is vertical again, similar to Position 1. The
conductors are momentarily moving parallel to the flux.

6
DC Generators: From First Principles

• Flux Linkage (ΦB ): Maximum (in the opposite direction).

• Rate of Change of Flux Linkage (dΦB /dt): Minimum (zero).
• Induced EMF (E): Zero.

Position 7 (Angle θ = 270◦ ): The coil is horizontal again. Conductor AB is now moving
down, and CD is moving up. They are again cutting flux at the maximum rate.

• Flux Linkage (ΦB ): Minimum (zero).

• Rate of Change of Flux Linkage (dΦB /dt): Maximum.
• Induced EMF (E): Maximum, but in the opposite direction.

Applying Fleming’s Rule again:

• In AB: Current now flows from B to A.

• In CD: Current now flows from D to C.
• In the external circuit: Conductor D is now connected to slip ring ’b’ and brush M.
Conductor A is connected to slip ring ’a’ and brush L. Current flows from brush L,
through R, to brush M. The path is D-C-L-M-B-A. The current has reversed.

2.3 The Alternating Output

As the coil completes a full 360◦ rotation, the induced EMF and current rise to a max-
imum, fall to zero, rise to a maximum in the opposite direction, and fall to zero again.
This is a sinusoidal waveform. A current that periodically reverses its direction is called
an alternating current (AC).

EMF
+Emax
Positive half-cycle
0° 90° 180° 270°
Time
Negative 360° of Rotation (θ)
/ Angle
half-cycle
−Emax

One Cycle

Figure 3: The sinusoidal AC waveform produced by the simple loop generator.

3 The DC Generator: Introducing the Commutator

To produce a direct current (DC) — a current that flows in only one direction — we must
modify our simple generator. The key innovation is to replace the two continuous slip
rings with a single split-ring commutator.

7
DC Generators: From First Principles

3.1 Construction and Operation

A commutator is a conducting cylinder split into two insulated segments (’a’ and ’b’).
Each end of the armature coil is connected to one segment. The stationary brushes are
positioned to make contact with the segments.

First Half-Revolution Second Half-Revolution

A B B A

N S N S

M (-) L (+) M (-) L (+)

CurrentRM → L CurrentRM → L
(a) Current flows A-B, C-D. Brush M is posi- (b) Current flows D-C, B-A. Segments have
tive. flipped, so Brush M is still positive.

Figure 4: Action of the split-ring commutator.

The commutator acts as a mechanical reversing switch.

• First Half-Revolution (0° to 180°): As before, current flows A to B and C to D.

Conductor AB is connected to segment ’a’, which is in contact with brush M. So,
brush M is positive and L is negative. Current flows M → R → L in the external
circuit.

• The Crossover Point (180°): Just as the coil passes the vertical position, the
direction of the induced EMF in the coil is about to reverse. At this exact moment,
the brushes cross the insulation gap between the commutator segments. Segment
’a’ moves away from brush M and towards brush L. Segment ’b’ moves away from
brush L and towards brush M.

• Second Half-Revolution (180° to 360°): The current in the coil has now re-
versed and flows D to C and B to A. However, conductor DC is now connected to
segment ’b’, which is now in contact with brush M. Conductor BA is connected to
segment ’a’, now touching brush L. The result is that brush M is still the positive
terminal. The current in the external circuit continues to flow M → R → L.

8
DC Generators: From First Principles

3.2 The Pulsating DC Output

The commutator has rectified the output. The current in the external circuit is now
unidirectional, although its magnitude still pulsates from zero to a maximum and back
to zero twice per revolution.

EMF
Emax
Unidirectional but Pulsating

0° 90° 180° 270° 360° of Rotation (θ)

Time / Angle

Figure 5: The pulsating DC waveform from a single-coil DC generator.

It is crucial to note that while the external circuit sees DC, the current in the armature
coil itself is still alternating. The commutator’s job is to rectify this internal AC into
external DC. In a practical DC generator, many coils and commutator segments are used
to smooth out these pulsations, producing a nearly constant DC output.

4 EMF Equation of a DC Generator

We can derive a general equation for the EMF generated by a practical DC machine. This
derivation is based on the total flux cut by the armature conductors over time.

4.1 Derivation from First Principles

Let’s define the key parameters of the machine:

• Φ = Flux per pole, in Webers (Wb).

• P = Number of poles in the machine.
• Z = Total number of active armature conductors.
• N = Speed of the armature in revolutions per minute (rpm).
• A = Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

Step 1: Flux Cut by a Single Conductor in One Revolution In one complete

revolution, a single conductor passes under all P poles. The total magnetic flux cut by
this conductor is the sum of the flux from each pole.
Total flux cut in one revolution, dΦ = P × Φ (Wb)

Step 2: Time Taken for One Revolution The armature rotates at N revolutions per
minute. The time for one revolution is:
60
Time for one revolution, dt = (seconds)
N

9
DC Generators: From First Principles

Step 3: Average EMF Induced in a Single Conductor According to Faraday’s Law

(Eq. 1), the average EMF induced in this single conductor is the total flux cut divided
by the time taken.
dΦ PΦ ΦP N
Econd = = = (volts) (3)
dt 60/N 60

Step 4: Total EMF of the Generator The Z total conductors are not all in series.
They are arranged in A parallel paths. The conductors in each parallel path are in series,
so their voltages add up. The total generated EMF of the machine, Eg , is the EMF of
any one of these parallel paths.
Z
Number of conductors in series per path =
A
The total generated EMF is the EMF per conductor multiplied by the number of conduc-
tors in series:      
Z Z ΦP N
Eg = × Econd = ×
A A 60

This gives us the final EMF equation for a DC generator:

ΦZN P
Eg = (4)
60A

4.2 Dependence on Winding Type

The number of parallel paths, A, is determined by how the armature is wound.

• For a Simplex Lap Winding: The number of parallel paths equals the number of
poles.
A = P (Lap Winding)
Lap windings are used in machines designed for high current and low voltage.
• For a Simplex Wave Winding: There are always only two parallel paths, regard-
less of the number of poles.
A = 2 (Wave Winding)
Wave windings are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current.

4.3 EMF in terms of Angular Velocity

The EMF equation can also be expressed in terms of angular velocity, ω, in radians per
second.  rev   2π rad   1 min  2πN 60ω
ω=N × × = =⇒ N =
min 1 rev 60 s 60 2π
Substituting this into the EMF equation (Eq. 4):
   
ΦZP 60ω PZ
Eg = = Φω (5)
60A 2π 2πA

10
DC Generators: From First Principles

For a given machine, P, Z, and A are constants. We can group them into a single machine
constant, Ka .
PZ
Eg = Ka Φω where Ka = (6)
2πA
This powerful form shows that the generated EMF is directly proportional to the flux per
pole and the speed of rotation.

5 Classification of DC Generators
DC generators are classified based on how their magnetic field is created, a process called
excitation.

DC Generators

Separately Excited Self Excited

Series Wound Shunt Wound Compound Wound

Long Shunt Short Shunt

Figure 6: Classification of DC Generators.

5.1 Separately-Excited Generator

The field winding is energized by an independent external DC source (e.g., a battery or a

separate DC supply). The field current (If ) is independent of the armature current (Ia )
and load current (IL ).
Ia = IL (7)

11
DC Generators: From First Principles

VL

Ia IL

Eg G Ext. Load
DC Rf

If

Figure 7: Separately-Excited DC Generator.

5.2 Self-Excited Generator

The field winding is energized by the current produced by the generator itself. For this to
start, there must be some residual magnetism in the field poles. This small residual flux
allows a small EMF to be generated when the armature rotates, which drives a small field
current, which strengthens the flux, which increases the EMF, and so on. This "build-up"
process continues until the machine reaches its operating voltage.

5.2.1 Shunt Wound Generator

The field winding (Rsh ) is connected in parallel (or "in shunt") with the armature. It has
many turns of fine wire, giving it a high resistance, so it draws only a small fraction of
the armature current. The full terminal voltage VL is applied across it.
Ia = IL + Ish (8)
VL
Ish = (9)
Rsh
VL = Eg − Ia Ra (10)

5.2.2 Series Wound Generator

The field winding (Rse ) is connected in series with the armature. It has few turns of
thick wire to handle the full load current with low resistance. The field flux is directly
proportional to the load current.
Ia = Ise = IL (11)
VL = Eg − Ia (Ra + Rse ) (12)

VL VL
Ish IL Ia coordinate(pgf circ@tmp@sw
G Rsh Load G Rse Load
Ia
(a) Shunt Wound Generator. (b) Series Wound Generator.

Figure 8: Self-Excited Generator Configurations.

12
DC Generators: From First Principles

5.2.3 Compound Wound Generator

This type has both a series field winding and a shunt field winding.

• Cumulative Compound: The MMFs of the series and shunt fields aid each other.
As load increases, the series field boosts the total flux, which can compensate for
voltage drops.

• Differential Compound: The MMFs of the two fields oppose each other. As load
increases, the series field weakens the total flux, causing a sharp drop in voltage.

They can also be connected as Long Shunt (shunt field is parallel to the series combina-
tion of armature and series field) or Short Shunt (shunt field is parallel to the armature
only).

6 Losses in a DC Generator
The conversion of mechanical to electrical energy is not 100% efficient. The energy losses
in a DC generator can be categorized into three main types.

6.1 Copper Losses (Pcu or I 2 R Losses)

These losses are due to the resistance of the various windings in the machine and manifest
as heat.

• Armature Copper Loss (Pcu,a ): Ia2 Ra . This is the largest single loss and is highly
dependent on the load current. It is also called the Variable Loss.

• Field Copper Loss:

– Shunt Field Loss (Pcu,sh ): Ish

2
Rsh or VL Ish . Since VL and Ish are nearly constant,
this is considered a constant loss.
– Series Field Loss (Pcu,se ): Ise
2
Rse = IL2 Rse . This is a variable loss.

• Brush Contact Loss: Loss due to the resistance at the contact point between
brushes and commutator. Often modeled as a constant voltage drop (Vbrush , typi-
cally 1-2 V), so the loss is Vbrush Ia .

6.2 Iron Losses or Core Losses (Pcore )

These losses occur in the iron core of the armature as it rotates within the magnetic field.
They are largely independent of the load and depend mainly on speed and flux density.

• Hysteresis Loss (Wh ): As the armature core rotates, each part is subjected to a
continuously reversing magnetic field. Energy is required to reorient the magnetic

13
DC Generators: From First Principles

domains in the iron during each cycle of magnetization. This loss is given by the
Steinmetz formula:
1.6
Wh = ηBmax fV (13)
where η is the Steinmetz coefficient, Bmax is the maximum flux density, f is the
frequency of magnetic reversals (f = P N/120), and V is the volume of the core.
This loss is minimized by using materials with low hysteresis, like silicon steel.

• Eddy Current Loss (We ): The rotating iron core also acts as a conductor cutting
magnetic flux. This induces an EMF within the core itself, which drives circulating
currents called eddy currents. These currents produce I 2 R heating.
2
We ∝ Bmax f 2 t2 V (14)

where t is the thickness of the core laminations. To minimize this loss, the armature
core is not a solid block of iron but is constructed from thin, insulated sheets (lami-
nations) stacked together. This dramatically increases the resistance in the path of
the eddy currents.

(a) Solid Core (b) Laminated Core

N N

Large Eddy Current Small Eddy Currents

S S

Low resistance path, large loss

High resistance path, small loss

Figure 9: Eddy current reduction using a laminated core.

6.3 Mechanical Losses (Pmech )

These losses are due to physical motion.

• Friction Loss: Occurs at the bearings and at the brush-commutator interface.

• Windage Loss: Air resistance (drag) on the rotating armature.

6.4 Summary of Losses

• Variable Losses = Armature Cu Loss (+ Series Field Cu Loss)

• Constant Losses (Wc ) = Shunt Cu Loss + Iron Losses + Mechanical Losses

14
DC Generators: From First Principles

7 Power Stages and Efficiency

The efficiency of a generator is the ratio of the useful power output to the total power
input. We can visualize the flow of power through the machine to understand where the
losses occur.

A B
C
Mechanical Electrical Power
Electrical
Power Input Developed
Power Output
(from prime in Armature
VL IL
mover) Eg Ia

Iron & Copper

Mechanical Losses
Losses (I R Losses)
2

(Rotational
Losses)

Figure 10: Power flow diagram for a DC generator.

Stage A: Mechanical Power Input (Pin ) This is the power supplied by the prime
mover to the generator shaft.
Stage B: Electrical Power Developed in Armature (Pdev ) After subtracting the
iron and mechanical losses from the input power, the remaining power is converted into
electrical form in the armature.

Pdev = Eg Ia = Pin − Pcore − Pmech (15)

Stage C: Electrical Power Output (Pout ) After subtracting the copper losses from
the developed power, the remaining power is delivered to the external load.

Pout = VL IL = Pdev − Pcu = Eg Ia − Pcu (16)

Generator Efficiencies

1. Mechanical Efficiency (ηm ): Ratio of power converted to electrical form to the

mechanical power input.

Power Developed in Armature (B) Eg Ia

ηm = = (17)
Mechanical Power Input (A) Pin

2. Electrical Efficiency (ηe ): Ratio of power delivered to the load to the total power
developed in the armature.

Power Output (C) VL IL

ηe = = (18)
Power Developed in Armature (B) Eg Ia

15
DC Generators: From First Principles

3. Overall or Commercial Efficiency (ηo ): The most important measure, it is the

ratio of final useful power output to the initial mechanical power input.
Power Output (C) VL IL
ηo = = = ηm × ηe (19)
Mechanical Power Input (A) Pin

7.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency

We can find the load condition at which the generator operates most efficiently. Let’s
analyze a shunt generator. The efficiency is given by:
Output Output VL IL
η= = = (20)
Input Output + Losses VL IL + Ia2 Ra + Wc
where Wc represents all the constant losses (shunt field, iron, mechanical). Assuming
the shunt field current Ish is small compared to the load current IL , we can approximate
Ia ≈ IL .
VL IL
η≈ (21)
VL IL + IL2 Ra + Wc
To find the maximum efficiency, we can differentiate this expression with respect to the
variable IL and set the derivative to zero. It is easier to differentiate the denominator of
the reciprocal:
1 VL IL + IL2 Ra + Wc IL Ra Wc
= =1+ + (22)
η VL IL VL VL IL
For η to be maximum, 1/η must be minimum. We take the derivative with respect to IL
and set it to zero.  
d 1 Ra Wc
=0+ − =0 (23)
dIL η VL VL IL2
Ra Wc
= =⇒ IL2 Ra = Wc (24)
VL VL IL2
The term IL2 Ra represents the variable losses (approximating Ia ≈ IL ), and Wc represents
the constant losses. Therefore, the condition for maximum efficiency is:
Variable Loss = Constant Loss (25)
This is a fundamental result applicable to many types of electrical machines and trans-
formers.

8 Worked Example: Flux per Pole Calculation

Here we reproduce and solve Example 26.23 from the source text, showing all intermediate
steps.

8.1 Problem Statement

A 10 kW, 250 V, d.c., 6-pole shunt generator runs at 1000 r.p.m. when delivering full-
load. The armature has 534 lap-connected conductors. Full-load Cu loss is 0.64 kW. The
total brush drop is 1 volt. Determine the flux per pole. Neglect shunt current.

16
DC Generators: From First Principles

8.2 Solution

1. List Given Data:

• Output Power, Pout = 10 kW = 10 000 W

• Terminal Voltage, VL = 250 V

• Number of poles, P = 6

• Speed, N = 1000 rpm

• Total armature conductors, Z = 534

• Winding type: Lap-connected. This means A = P = 6.

• Full-load Armature Copper Loss, Pcu,a = 0.64 kW = 640 W

• Total brush voltage drop, Vbrush = 1 V

• Assumption: Shunt current is negligible, so Ish ≈ 0.

2. Calculate Full-Load Current: The load current (IL ) can be found from the output
power and terminal voltage.
Pout 10 000 W
Pout = VL IL =⇒ IL = = = 40 A
VL 250 V

3. Determine Armature Current (Ia ): For a shunt generator, Ia = IL + Ish . Since

we are instructed to neglect the shunt current:

Ia ≈ IL = 40 A

4. Calculate Armature Resistance (Ra ): The full-load armature copper loss is given
as Pcu,a = Ia2 Ra . We can use this to find Ra .

Pcu,a 640 W 640 W

Ra = = = = 0.4 Ω
Ia2 (40 A)2 1600 A2

5. Calculate Generated EMF (Eg ): The generated EMF in the armature must be
large enough to supply the terminal voltage plus all the internal voltage drops. For a
generator, the voltage equation is:

Eg = VL + Ia Ra + Vbrush

Substituting the known values:

Eg = 250 V + (40 A × 0.4 Ω) + 1 V

Eg = 250 V + 16 V + 1 V = 267 V

17
DC Generators: From First Principles

6. Calculate Flux per Pole (Φ): Now we use the main EMF equation (Eq. 4) and
solve for Φ.
ΦZN P Eg × 60 × A
Eg = =⇒ Φ =
60A Z ×N ×P
Substitute the values for our machine:
267 V × 60 × 6
Φ=
534 × 1000 rpm × 6
The number of poles P and parallel paths A cancel out since A = P for a lap winding.
267 × 60 16020
Φ= = = 0.03 Wb
534 × 1000 534000

Final Answer: The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb or 30 mWb.

9 Armature Reaction
Armature reaction is the effect of the magnetic field produced by the armature cur-
rent on the main magnetic field produced by the field poles. This interaction has two
undesirable effects:

1. It distorts the main field, which can lead to sparking at the brushes (cross-magnetization).

2. It weakens the main field, which reduces the generated voltage (demagnetization).

FmMNA
A
Fm FR
N
M
ew

Trailing
××
N

×× ××
tip

× ×
N S GNA ·
·
×
·
FA
·· · FA
···

Trailing
tip

(a) Main field only (no load). (b) Armature field only. (c) Resultant field (on load).

Figure 11: The principle of armature reaction.

No Load Condition: Only the main field (Fm ) exists. The flux is symmetrical, and
the Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA)—the axis where conductors move parallel to flux lines
and induce no EMF—coincides with the Geometrical Neutral Axis (GNA). Brushes are
placed on the MNA.
Load Condition: The armature carries current, creating its own magnetic field (FA )
which is perpendicular to the main field. The resultant magnetic field (FR ) is the vector
sum of Fm and FA .

18
DC Generators: From First Principles

• Cross-Magnetization: The resultant flux is distorted. It is strengthened at the

trailing pole tips (where the two fields add) and weakened at the leading pole tips
(where they oppose). This shifts the MNA in the direction of rotation. For good
commutation (spark-free), the brushes should ideally be shifted to this new MNA.

• Demagnetization: When the brushes are shifted to the new MNA, the armature
MMF vector FA is also shifted. It can now be resolved into two components: a
cross-magnetizing component (Fc ) still perpendicular to the main field, and a de-
magnetizing component (Fd ) that directly opposes the main field Fm . This
opposing component weakens the total flux, causing the generated voltage to drop
as the load increases.

Modern DC machines use interpoles and compensating windings to counteract the effects
of armature reaction.

10 Characteristics of DC Generators
The performance of a DC generator is described by a set of characteristic curves that
relate its voltage, current, field excitation, and speed.

1. No-Load Saturation Characteristic (O.C.C.): This is a plot of the no-load

generated EMF (Eg ) versus the field current (If ) at a constant speed. It is essentially
the magnetization curve of the machine’s magnetic material. It is linear at first (as
flux is proportional to current in the air gap) and then bends as the iron poles begin
to saturate.

2. Internal (or Total) Characteristic: This is a plot of the generated EMF under
load (E) versus the armature current (Ia ). This curve lies below the no-load voltage
due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.

3. External Characteristic: This is a plot of the terminal voltage (VL ) versus the
load current (IL ). This is the most important characteristic as it describes the gen-
erator’s behavior from the user’s perspective. It lies below the internal characteristic
because it also accounts for the voltage drop across the armature resistance (Ia Ra ).

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DC Generators: From First Principles

Eg (No-load EMF) Voltage

Arma
[Link] I. Ideal (No-load)
dropChar. (E)
tu re
action
Saturation
Ia R
III. External a drop
Char. (VL )

Residual Voltage

O If (Field Current) IL (Load Current)

(a) Open-Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.). (b) Internal and External Characteristics.

Figure 12: Typical DC Generator Characteristics.

10.1 Critical Field Resistance for a Shunt Generator

A self-excited shunt generator will only build up a voltage if certain conditions are met.
One crucial condition concerns the resistance of the field circuit.
The voltage build-up process relies on mutual reinforcement: EMF creates field current,
which creates more flux, which creates more EMF. This is represented graphically by the
intersection of the O.C.C. (which shows how much EMF is generated for a given field
current) and the field resistance line (which shows how much voltage is required to drive
a given field current, V = If Rsh ).

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DC Generators: From First Principles

O.C.C.

Voltage Rsh2 (high R)

Rc (Critical)
Rsh1 (low R)
Operating Point
V1

If 1 If

Figure 13: Determining the critical field resistance.

• If the field resistance (Rsh1 ) is low, its line will intersect the O.C.C. at a high voltage
point. The machine will build up to this voltage V1 .

• If the field resistance is increased, the slope of the resistance line increases. The
intersection point moves lower, and the final voltage is reduced.

• The critical resistance (Rc ) is the value of field resistance for which the resistance
line is tangent to the initial part of the O.C.C.

• If the field resistance is greater than the critical resistance (Rsh2 > Rc ), the line will
not intersect the O.C.C. (except near the origin). The machine will fail to build
up any significant voltage.

The critical resistance depends on the speed of the generator. A lower speed results in a
lower O.C.C. curve and thus a lower value for the critical resistance.

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