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GENERAL SCIENCE
NOTES
GSCSL 1430
BY Ms KELAPILE

MODULE 2: EXPLORE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS

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GSCSL 2.1: DEMONSTRATE UNDERSTANDING OF MOTION

An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to its surroundings in a given
time.

- Distance: shows how far the object has travelled. It is a scalar quantity because it only has the
magnitude. It tells only how far away the object is. SI unit: metre (m)

- Displacement: is the distance travelled in a specified direction. Therefore, it is a vector quantity

since it has both the magnitude and direction.
e.g. 50 km due east. SI unit: metre (m)

- Speed: is the distance travelled per unit time. SI unit: metre per second (m/s).
Mathematically speed is:

speed =
distance
s
v=
t
AND

average speed = total distance

travelled

v +u
average speed=
2

(i) Uniform speed: Distance travelled in equal intervals of time is the

same i.e. distance travelled every second is the same.
(ii) NON-UNIFORM SPEED: Distance travelled per unit time varies.

- Velocity: is the distance travelled in a unit time in a stated direction.

the speed in a specified direction. SI unit: metre per second (m/s).

velocity =
displacement
time
s
v=
t
(i) Uniform velocity: Both speed and the direction don’t change i.e. the body
travels with uniform speed and in the same direction (in a
straight line).
(ii) Non-uniform velocity: Either speed or direction changes (or both)
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- Acceleration: is the rate of change of velocity with time. Acceleration is also a vector
quantity. Its SI unit is metre per second squared (m/s2) or (m s-2).

a=v–
u
where a = acceleration (m/s2)
u = initial velocity (m/s)
v = final velocity (m/s)
t = time taken (s)

(i) Uniform acceleration

The rate of change of velocity with time is constant i.e. speed increases by the same
amount every second and the body is also travelling in one direction.

(ii) NON-UNIFORM ACCELERATION

a) increasing acceleration
b) decreasing acceleration

- DECELERATION: When a body slows down its speed decreases and the acceleration becomes
negative. Negative acceleration is called DECELERATION or RETARDATION.

GSCSL 2.1.1 PLOTTING MOTION GRAPHS

HOW TO PLOT A GRAPH

1. One should label the axes with correct labels and units.
2. The scale for each axis should be linear, readable and each should cover 1/2 or more of the grid.
3. All points should be visible and correctly plotted on the grid using correct notations
4. Draw a line that shows a trend or correlation between the dependent variables and independent
variables. The line should be smooth and sharp.

ACTIVITY 1: plot a displacement - time graph using data provided in table below.

time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
displacement/ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
m
ACTIVITY 2: plot a velocity - time graph using data provided in table below.

time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5

speed (m/s) 0 4 8 12 16 20

GSCSL 2.1.2 INTERPETATION OF MOTION-TIME GRAPHS

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DISPLACEMENT - TIME GRAPH

This is a graph which shows how the displacement of a moving object changes with time.

 The gradient of a displacement-time graph represents the velocity of the moving object.

(a) CONSTANT(UNIFORM) VELOCITY

The displacement is changing uniformly at a uniform change in time.

(b) AT REST

The object has stopped so the graph remains at the same level. No change in position with
respect to time

(c) NON-CONSTANT(UNIFORM) SPEED

(i) INCREASING SPEED
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To determine speed at a point (instantaneous speed)

draw a tangent to that point and calculate its
gradient.

(II) DECREASING SPEED

VELOCITY - TIME GRAPH

This is a graph which compares how velocity changes over a period of time.
 The gradient of a velocity-time graph represents the acceleration of the moving object.
 The area under the graph represents the displacement of the moving object.

(a) CONSTANT (UNIFORM) ACCELERATION

the body is moving with a uniform acceleration since the graph is a straight line in a
slope.
(b) CONSTANT SPEED
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The speed is not changing so the graph remains at the same level.
acceleration = gradient = 0, showing that the body is travelling with a uniform
velocity.

(c) AT REST

The object is not moving so the graph remains on the time axis

(d) NON-CONSTANT ACCELERATION

(e) UNIFORM DECELERATION

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The value of the acceleration is negative, and this shows that the object is decelerating.

EXAMPLES
Q1. The approximate velocity-time graph for a car on a 5-hour journey is shown below. (There is a
very quick driver change midway to prevent driving fatigue).

a) Describe the motion of the car in each region

Q2. The distance-time graph for a motor cyclist riding off from rest follows.

a) Describe the motion.

Q3. A car runs at a constant speed of 15 m/s for 300 s and then accelerates uniformly to a speed of 25
m/s over a period of 20 s. This speed is maintained for 300 s before the car is brought to rest with
uniform deceleration in 30 s.
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a) Draw a velocity-time graph to represent the journey described above.

GSCSL 2.1.3 EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The equations used to solve problems on motion when the acceleration of the body is uniform

They show how velocity, displacement, acceleration and time are related to one another.

SYMBOLS USED
s– displacement (m)
t – time(s)
a - acceleration (m/s2)
u – initial velocity (m/s)
v – final velocity (m/s)

EQUATIONS
v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
s = ½ (u + v)t

EXAMPLES:
1. A motorcycle travelling at 10 m/s accelerates at 4 m/s 2 for 8 s.
a) What is its final velocity?
b) How far does it travel during the 8 s?

2. A car accelerates from 8 m/s to 20 m/s in 10 s.

a) What is its acceleration?
b) How far does it travel during the 10 s?

3. A train is travelling at 40 m/s when its brakes are applied. This produces a deceleration of 2m/s 2.
a) How long does the train take to come to rest?
b) How far does the train travel before stopping?

4. A cyclist accelerates from rest to 10m/s in 5s. calculate her acceleration.

5. An aircraft accelerates at 25 m/s2. Its take-off speed is 60 m/s.

a) What length of runway does it need to take off?
b) How long does it take to reach its take-off speed?

GSCSL 2.1.4 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

When an object falls, it experiences force of gravity pulling it downwards and force of air resistance
pushing it upwards.
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Weight or gravitational force is the force which gives an object its downwards acceleration called
acceleration due to gravity, g.
i.e. all objects placed within earth’s gravitational field will experience the amount of force (10N) upon
every 1kg of mass within the object.

g = 10m/s2 = 10N/kg

FREE FALLING OBJECTS

In free-fall an object falls due to gravity.
An object falling freely in vacuum (or where air resistance is negligible) moves with a uniform
acceleration known as acceleration due to gravity.

Object thrown upwards

V = 0m/s
Final velocity at max height
is zero

g = -10m/s2
Object moving against
gravitational pull

U > 0m/s
Object leaves hand at a velocity
greater than 0m/s

Object dropped

u = 0m/s
initial velocity just
before being released

g = 10m/s2
Object moving along
gravitational pull

v > 0m/s
Object accelerates towards
the earth and hits ground at
max velocity

In the equations of motion studied previously acceleration a is replaced with acceleration due to
gravity g

v = u + gt
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s = ut + ½ gt2
v2 = u2 + 2gs
s = ½ (u + v)t

EXAMPLE
Q1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20m/s
a) Calculate the maximum height that the ball reaches.
b) Calculate the total time it is in the air.

Q2. a stone is dropped down an empty mine shaft, taking 3s to reach the bottom. Assuming the stone
falls from rest and accelerates at 10m/s , calculate
a) The maximum velocity reached by the stone before hitting the bottom.
b) The average velocity of the stone in flight.
c) The depth of the mine shaft

FALLING WITH AIR RESISTANCE

As an object falls through air, it encounters some degree of air resistance. Air resistance is the result
of collisions of the object’s leading surface with air molecules.
Air resistances reduce acceleration, therefore objects with air resistance do not fall with
constant/uniform acceleration.
The amount of air resistance encountered by the object mostly depends on two common factors which
are

- the speed of the object

- cross-sectional area of the object.

FR = 40N FR = 30N FR = 12N

When object is just being released: when the object is falling:

- speed is less - speed increases
- air resistance is negligible - air resistance increases
- weight is the net force - net force decreases
- object accelerating constantly/ uniformly - acceleration decreases
I.e., it initially accelerates downwards I.e., as its speed increases, the
due to gravity opposing force of air resistance grows
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FR = 0N
At some point during the fall:
- air resistance becomes equal to the weight
- net force becomes zero
- acceleration becomes zero
- no acceleration means object moves at a constant velocity called TERMINAL VELOCITY

i.e., eventually the object reaches a point where the air resistance balances out the gravitational
force, causing the ball to fall at a constant velocity called "terminal velocity.".

Below is a graph representing this motion

Terminal velocity
VELOCITY

m/s
Decreasing
acceleration

Uniform acceleration.

Time/s

Object falling through fluids are also going to experience a resistive force called viscous force.
Viscosity is the internal friction force in fluids which opposes motion when they flow. When the
object falls through a liquid:
 The object accelerates downwards because the net force is the weight, and the only force acting
on the metal ball
 As the velocity increases, the viscous force also increases until it is equal to the weight of the
object.
 At this point the net force is zero and the object moves with a constant velocity called
TERMINAL VELOCITY.
Q; explain why a ball falling through water falls faster than it does in oil.
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GSCSL 2.1.4 EFFECT OF FORCE ON MOTION

A force on an object changes the motion of the object by;

a) Making an object at rest to start moving.
b) If already moving, it can accelerate it or decelerate it
c) Can change its direction

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION: if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a

straight line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at a constant speed unless it is
acted upon by a force.

NET FORCE is the vector sum of all the individual forces which act upon an object.

If the resultant force acting on a stationary object is zero, then the object will remain stationary

If the resultant force acting on a moving object is zero, then the object will continue moving in the
same direction at the same speed

THEREFORE IMPLYING THAT A NET FORCE IS REQUIRED TO CHANGE THE

MOTION OF AN OBJECT

FORCES ACTING ON AN OBJECT RESULTANT FORCE AND DIRECTION

20N - 15N = 5N to the left

30N + 10N = 40N to the left

50N - 50N = 0N
50N - 30N = 20N up

60N - 60N = 0N
80N - 40N = 40N to the right
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According to newton’s law of motion, the acceleration of the object is directly proportional to the net
force acting on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object

Where: F is resultant force (N)

m is mass (kg)
a is acceleration (m/s)

I.e.: For a greater force acting on an object, the acceleration is greater

For a greater mass, the acceleration is smaller

EXAMPLE 1: calculate the force needed to accelerate an object with a mass of 5kg be 4m/s 2

EXAMPLE 2: a force of 50N is applied to an object with a mass of o.5kg. Calculate the acceleration
of the object.

FRICTIONAL FORCES

Friction is the force that tries to stop or oppose materials sliding across each other. Friction always
acts in the opposite direction to the movement.

Air resistance or drag is a form of friction which is the result of collisions of the object’s leading
surface with air molecules. Drag is the opposing frictional force encountered by objects when moving
through fluids (liquid drag). when a car is travelling fast, drag is the largest of all frictional forces.
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GSCSL 2.1.7 MOMENTS OF A FORCE

When a force is applied to an object that is pivoted, the object will rotate around the pivot in a
clockwise or anticlockwise direction.

Moment is defined as the measure of the turning effect of a force about a particular point/pivot e.g.
wheel borrow, opening the door, seesaw, crane, hammer removing a nail.
To calculate the moment of a force

Moment = force × perpendicular distance of force from pivot

Moment = F.s

SI UNIT: Nm
Other units: Ncm, Nmm etc.

FACTORS AFFECTING MOMENT OF A FORCE

 Size of the force
Greater magnitude of a force will apply a greater moment/ produces a greater turning effect.
This means the system will accelerate faster when rotating.

 Distance of force applied from the pivot

When the distance is greater from the pivot, less effort is needed to produce a turning effect.

Example 1:

Moment = F s
=5N 0.50m
= 2.5Nm (in the clockwise direction)

Example2:

Moment = F s
= 5N 0.5m
= 2.5Nm (in the anticlockwise direction)

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

- Written assessor supervised test
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GSCSL 2.2: EXPLORE EFFECTS OF FORCES ON SHAPE AND SIZE ON

MATERIALS

GSCSL 2.2.1 DETERMINE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTENSION AND

STRETCHING FORCE FOR ELASTIC MATERIALS.

EXPERIMENT: DETERMINE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTENSION AND

STRETCHING FORCE FOR ELASTIC MATERIALS.

PROCEDURE:
(i) Set up apparatus.
(ii) Record the metre rule reading level with the pointer as initial scale reading l0.
(iii) Add 100g to the mass hanger and calculate and record its weight as load(F)
(iv) Record the new position of the pointer as new scale reading l.
(v) Calculate the extension e of the spring using e = l – l0.
(vi) Repeat steps (iii) to (v) for loads 200g, 300g, 400g and 500g. record your results in
an appropriate manner.
(vii) Plot a graph of extension/cm against load/N.
(viii) State the relationship between the load applied and the extension of the spring.
(ix) Calculate the gradient of the linear part of the graph
(x) Use the graph to calculate the spring constant of the spring used.

Remember that elasticity is the ability of a deformed material to return to its original shape
and size when the force causing the deformation is removed.
Elastic materials will stretch when exposed to external force. The stress force and rate of
expansion of the material are directly proportional to each other. This relationship is called
HOOKE’S LAW.
Many materials obey Hooke’s law as long as the load does not exceed the material’s limit of
proportionality.

Hooke’s law states that the extension is directly proportional to force applied provided
the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

Mathematically Hooke’s law is represented as follows:

FORCE APPLIED = SPRING CONSTANT × EXTENTION

F = ke

NB; - Spring constant is the measure of the stiffness of the spring.

- To determine the extension, we subtract the original length from the
stretched length of the spring. e = l – l0
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Q: if a force of 10N caused the spring to stretch by 5cm, calculate the extension of the spring if 20N
was applied to it,

GSCSL 2.2.2 INTERPRET GRAPHS OF EXTENSION AGAINST STRETCHING

FORCE

The following results were collected and recorded from Hooke’s Law experiment

LOAD/ N 0 1 2 3 4 5
STRETCHED LENGTH/cm 3 5 7 9 11 15
EXTENTION/ cm 0 2 4 6 8 12

Below is a plotted graph from an experiment done to investigate Hooke’s Law.

POINT O TO A: the graph is a straight line showing that the extension is directly proportional to the
stretching force. i.e. the spring obeys Hooke’s LAW
We can observe that if the stretching force doubles, the extension also doubles, and so-on.

The gradient of this line, m is equal to 1/k.

1
m=
k

POINT A: this is known as the limit of proportionality.

It is the maximum extension of a spring before permanent deformation. After this point the material
loses its elasticity i.e. it fails to return to its original shape and size when the force is removed from it.
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Q: a student performed an experiment stretching a spring. she loaded masses on a spring and
measured the extension.

TABLE OF RESULTS
Extension/cm 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Stretching 0 2 4 6 7.5 8.3 8.6
force/N

a) Plot the graph of extension against stretching force.

b) Identify the limit of proportionality of the spring on the graph.
c) Calculate the spring constant in elastic behaviour region.

GSCSL 2.2.3 USE THE EQUATION F = ke IN SIMPLE CALCULATIONS

Q; calculate the force constant of a spring which is stretched

a) 2mm by a force of 4N
b) 4cm by a mass of 200g

Q: a 16cm spring is stretched by a 12n load and the new length becomes 21cm. calculate the spring
constant of this spring.

Q: a spring with a spring constant of 600N/m is used for a scale to weigh fish. Calculate the mass of a
fish that would stretch the spring by 7.5cm from its normal length.

Q: below are two identical springs.

a) Calculate the spring constant of the springs.

b) Determine the original length of the spring.

Q: Determine the original length of the spring in the arrangement below if the spring has a spring
constant of 2N/cm.
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Q: calculate the force constant from the graph below.

Q: below shows 4 diagrams of the same spring which obeys Hooke’s Law

12cm x 16cm 19cm

20
g 30
35 M
g
g

a) Calculate length x.
b) Calculate the mass M.

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

- Marked lab report for 2.2.1
- Written assessor supervised test for 2.2.2 to 2.2.3