TEACHING EVOLUTION ACCORDING TO THE

EXAM GUIDELINE. – PAPER 2 – 54 MARKS

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION STATES THAT ALL LIVING

ORGANISMS ARISE FROM A COMMON ANCESTOR.
(and NOT that we evolved from a chimpanzee! but we may
1share a common ancestor)

❑ Definition of biological evolution: It is a process (gradual or rapid in modern times) by which

populations change over time into a different or more complex form, in response to a change in
their immediate environment.

❑ Difference between a hypothesis and a theory:

HYPOTHESIS: A prediction of a physical phenomenon that can be tested using observations/

experiments.
THEORY: A widely held explanation of a phenomenon that is supported by numerous
observations, experiments, and scientific evidence.
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION: is regarded as a scientific theory since various hypotheses
relating to evolution have been tested and verified over time.
NOT A LAW? Not all scientists support it
❑ Definition of a biological species and a population:

POPULATION: A group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same habitat at the
same period of time.
SPECIES: A group of Organisms that have the similar characteristics and are able to interbreed to
produce fertile offspring.(viable)

❑ EVIDENCE FOR ❑ EVIDENCE FOR ❑ EVIDENCE FOR OUT

EVOLUTION HUMAN EVOLUTION OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS

 Fossil record • Fossil record • Fossil record

 Modification by
descent  Cultural evidence  Cultural evidence
(comparative
anatomy
 Biogeography  Genetics  Genetics

 Genetics

Role of the following as evidence for evolution:

• Fossil record:
PALAENTOLOGY- the study of fossils
PALAENTOLOGIST- Scientists that study fossils.,.
FOSSILS- are the preserved remains or traces of organisms that once lived on earth.
Two basic approaches when dating fossils: pg 89 exam fever.

RELATIVE DATING: By recording the position of the fossils in the geological strata,
palaeontologists can deduce the relative age of fossils.
The oldest rock strata are found deepest in the earth whilst the youngest rocks occur near the
surface. Fossils of the organisms found in the deepest strata therefore lived on earth much longer
ago than those species which are fossilised near the surface.

ABSOLUTE DATING / RADIOACTIVE DATING: This is a far more accurate method of dating
fossils. It uses the decomposition rates of isotopes that occur in fossils to age them
- Carbon dating
- Argon dating etc
• Modification by descent (comparative anatomy) (homologous structures)

HOW DO SCIENTISTS USE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY / THE PENTADACTYL LIMB AS AN

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION?
The fact that all mammals have the same pentadactyl limb structure suggests that all
mammals descended or originated from a common ancestor and that the limbs have been
modified over time in the different species
Modification of skeletons by descent, is therefore evidence to support the theory of
evolution.
• Biogeography:
The study of geographical distribution of biological organisms.

The effect of continental drift on biogeography is that it provides evidence for the evolution
of ancient species. For example, fossils of Mesosaurus an extinct marine reptile have been
found on the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa. In geological strata.
Biogeography therefore provides evidence for evolution.

Flightless birds in southern hemisphere

HOW DO SCIENTISTS USE BIOGEOGRAPHY AS AN EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION?
- There are similarities between organisms on the closest mainland as compared to
organisms in a different biome.
- - and therefore, modern species have evolved from a common ancestor on the
mainland before continental drift.

• Genetics
The more similar the nucleotide sequences of organisms are, the more closely related
these organisms are. There is about 97% similarity between the sequence of DNA of a
human and a Chimpanzee and 99% similarity with other Humans. This suggests that
humans are more closely related to each other than any other animal but more closely
related to Chimpanzees than mice for example.
THEREFORE, WE MAY SHARE A COMMON ANCESTOR
REASONS FOR GENETIC VARIATION IN A POPULATION:

❑ A review of the contribution of each of the following to variation that exists amongst individuals
of the same species:

1. Mutations – involves a change in the structure of a nucleotide sequences / genes/

chromosome – change in the genotype- influence the phenotype..

2. Meiosis:

• Crossing over: during prophase I there is an exchange of genetic material between

homologous chromosomes (maternal and paternal chromosomes)

• Random arrangement of chromosomes – chromosomes arrange randomly at the equator

during metaphase 1 and metaphase 2.- new cells with different genetic make up

3. Random fertilisation of gametes – random fertilisation of the sperm cells and ova leading to
different combinations of genetic material in the offspring

4. Random mating of individuals in a species leads to variation within the species.

❑ Continuous and discontinuous variation

 CONTINUOUS VARIATION DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION

1.1. THEORIES OF EVOLUTION:

❑ Ideas on evolution in the order of their origin are as follows:

• Lamarckism
• Darwinism
• Punctuated Equilibrium

You should know the generic account of the evolutionary theories but you should also be able
to apply the generic account on any given example.

Lamarckism (Jean Baptiste de Lamarck – 1744–1829)

❑ Lamarck explained evolution using the following two ‘laws’:

• The law of use and disuse: As an organism uses a structure or organ more regularly, it
becomes better developed or enlarged. If an organism does not use a structure or organ
frequently, it becomes less developed or reduced in size and may disappear altogether.

• The inheritance of acquired characteristics: Characteristics developed during the life of an

individual (acquired characteristics) can be passed on to their offspring.
❑Reasons why Lamarck’s theory was rejected:

• There is no evidence that acquired characteristics are inherited by offspring.

• Organisms did not evolve because they want to evolve
One cannot change ones DNA
According to Mendel, its is the genotype that determines the phenotype, not the other
way around.

Darwinism (Charles Darwin – 1809–1882)

.Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection:

• Organisms in a population produce a large number of offspring.

• There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.

• Some have favourable characteristics, and some [Link]
characteristics.
• When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is competition,
 then organisms with characteristics, which make them more suited, survive
• whilst organisms with unfavourable characteristics, which make them less suited, die.
• The organisms that survive, reproduce and thus pass on the allele/ genes for the
favourable characteristic to their offspring.
• The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with the favourable
characteristic.
The ones with the unfavourable characteristics will die and their genes will be eradicated
from the gene pool of the population / and they will become extinct
• In this way, the characteristics of a population gradually changes over time.

Long necked giraffes short necked giraffes competition occurs overtime only long necked giraffes

short necked became extinct

1.2. PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM

(Eldredge and Gould – 1972)
❑ Punctuated Equilibrium explains the speed at which evolution takes place:

• Evolution involves long periods of time where species do not change or change
gradually through natural selection (known as equilibrium).
 • This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of time where rapid changes
occur through natural selection

• during which new species may form in a short period of time.

1.3. SPECIATION:
❑ Biological species and population concept:

POPULATION: A group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same habitat at the
same period of time.
SPECIES: A group of Organisms that have the similar characteristics and are able to
interbreed to produce fertile offspring.(viable)

❑ Explain how speciation and extinction affect biodiversity:

• Speciation increases biodiversity since there is an increase in the number of species

• Extinction results in the loss of the number of species and therefore results in a
decrease in biodiversity
❑ Speciation through geographic isolation

You should know the generic account of speciation, but you should also be able to apply
the generic account on any given example.

Formation of new species allopatric / sympatric

 • If a POPULATION of a single species
• becomes separated by a geographical barrier (sea, river, mountain, lake)
• then the population splits into two.
• There is now no gene flow between the two populations.
• Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions/ the
selection pressure may be different
• natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations
• such that the individuals of the two populations become
• genotypically and phenotypically different
• Even if the two populations were to mix again
• they will not be able to interbreed.******
• The two populations are now different species.

We say speciation has occurred.

❑ Speciation through geographic isolation in ONE of the following:

• Galapagos finches
• Galapagos tortoises
• Plants on different land masses (linked to continental drift) - Baobabs in Africa and Madagascar -
Proteas in South Africa and Australia
• Any example of mammals on different land masses

NOTE: It is a POPULATION and not a SPECIES that becomes separated by a geographical

barrier. Refer to the definitions of a population and a species.

1.4. Reproductive isolating

mechanisms:
FIVE reproductive isolation mechanisms that keep species separate.

• Breeding at different times of the year eg…………………………

• Species-specific courtship behaviour
• Adaptation to different pollinators
• Infertile offspring
• Prevention of fertilization

1.5. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION:

❑ Artificial selection involving:
• A domesticated animal species eg. Bonsmara Cattle
• A crop species eg. Maize

Humans select organisms with a particular desirable characteristic and interbreed them with
other organisms that also have the same desirable characteristic to improve this characteristic
further in the offspring. They may also choose organisms with different desirable characteristics to
get offspring with a combination of these desirable characteristics.

Tabulate the differences between natural and artificial selection:

 Natural selection Artificial selection

The environment or nature is the selective force Humans represent the selective force

Selection is in response to satisfying human

Selection is in response to suitability to the needs
environment

Occurs within a species May involve one or more species (as in

crossbreeding)

1.6. Evolution in present times:

❑ Any ONE example of natural selection describes the role of mutations in evolution in present
times:

In a population of insects/bacteria/HI viruses/Galápagos finches

• mutations are a source of variation
• which may make some organisms more resistant
• to insecticides/antibiotics/antiretroviral medication.
• Those individuals that are not resistant will die, whereas
• those that are resistant, will survive
• to pass the resistant allele/resistance on to their offspring.
• This is known as natural selection
• As a result, individuals of the future generations will be resistant to the insecticides/
antibiotics/antiretroviral medication

• Use of insecticides and consequent resistance to insecticides in insects

• Development of resistant strains of tuberculosis-causing bacteria (MDR and XDR) to antibiotics,

due to mutations (variations) in bacteria and failure to complete antibiotic courses

• HIV resistance to antiretroviral medication

• Bill (beak) and body size of Galapagos finches.

Influenza.