Lecture 1

Introduction to the Microprocessor and

Computer
 A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The Mechanical Age
• Ancient people invented the calculating
machine abacus before 500 BC to keep
track of storehouses of grain still in use
today
• In 1642 Pascal invented a calculator of
gears and wheels (each gear contained 10
teeth)
• When moved one complete revolution,
a second gear advances one place
(same principle used in automobile odometer)
The Electrical Age
• 1800s saw advent of the electric motor. Faraday
• Also a multitude of electrically motor-driven adding
machines based on the Pascal mechanical calculator.
• In 1889, Herman Hollerith developed the punched card
for storing data.
• In 1896 Hollerith formed Tabulating Machine Company.
• developed line of machines using punched cards for
tabulation
• Tabulating Machine Co. was formed into International
Business Machines Corporation (IBM).
• Mechanical-electric machines dominated information
processing world until 1941.
• German inventor Zuse, invented the first modern
electromechanical computer.
• In 1936 Zuse constructed a mechanical version of his
system.
• In 1939 constructed first electromechanical computer
system, called the Z2.
• His Z3 calculating computer probably invented for
aircraft and missile design. (during World War II)
• Z3 a relay logic machine clocked at 5.33 Hz.
– far slower than latest multiple GHz
microprocessors
• First electronic computer placed in operation to break
secret German military codes 1943.
• System invented by Alan Turing (vacuum tubes),
• it could not solve other problems, not programmable
• A fixed-program computer system (special-purpose
computer)
• First general-purpose, programmable electronic
computer system developed 1946 (Pennsylvania)
• Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC), a huge machine.
– over 17,000 vacuum tubes; 500 miles of wires
– weighed over 30 tons
– about 100,000 operations per second
• Programmed by rewiring its circuits.
– process took many workers several days
– workers changed electrical connections on plug-
boards like early telephone switchboards
• Required frequent maintenance.
– vacuum tube service life a problem
• 1947, William Shockley, develop the transistor at Bell
Labs.
• Followed by 1958 invention of the integrated circuit
(IC) that led to development of digital integrated
circuits in the 1960s. RTL, or resistor-to-transistor logic
• First microprocessor at Intel Corporation in 1971.
 Programming Advancements
• Once programmable machines developed, programs and
programming languages began to appear in order to
control the computer.
• The first, machine language, was constructed of ones
and zeros using binary codes.
– stored in the computer memory system as groups of
instructions called a program
• Mathematician John von Neumann develop a system to
accept instructions and store them in memory.
• Computers are often called von Neumann machines in
his honor.
• Once systems such as UNIVAC became
available in early 1950s, assembly language
was used to simplify entering binary code.
• Assembler allows programmer to use
mnemonic codes such as ADD for addition In
place of a binary number such as 0100 0111
• 1957 first high-level programming language
called FLOWMATIC.
– computers became easier to program
• In same year, IBM developed FORTRAN
FORmula TRANslator) to solve mathematical
problems.
• First successful, widespread programming language for
business applications was COBOL (COmputer Business
Oriented Language).
• Another once-popular business language is RPG (Report
Program Generator).input, output, and calculations
• Some common modern programming languages are
BASIC, C#, C/C++, Java, PASCAL, and ADA.
• Visual BASIC, has made programming in the Windows
environment easier.
• C# language is gaining headway.
• Scientific community uses primarily C/C++.
• Recent survey of embedded system developers showed C
was used by 60% (30% used assembly language, 10%
basic and java)
• These languages allow complete control over the
• C/C++ replacing some low-level machine
control software or drivers normally reserved
for assembly language.
• Assembly language still plays important role.
– many video games written almost exclusively
in assembly language
• Assembly also interspersed with C/C++ to
perform machine control functions efficiently.
– some newer parallel instructions found on
Pentium and Core2 microprocessors only
programmable in assembly language
 The Microprocessor Age
• World’s first microprocessor the Intel 4004.
• A 4-bit microprocessor-programmable
controller on a chip.
• Addressed 4096, 4-bit-wide memory locations.
– a bit is a binary digit with a value of one or zero
– 4-bit-wide memory location often called a nibble
• The 4004 instruction set contained 45
instructions.
• Fabricated with P-channel MOSFET
technology.
• Executed instructions at 50 KIPs (kilo-
instructions /sec).
• 4-bit microprocessor debuted in early game
systems and small control systems.
• Main problems were speed, word width, and memory size.
• Evolution of 4-bit microprocessor ended when Intel
released the 4040, an updated 4004.
– operated at a higher speed; lacked improvements in word
width and memory size
• Texas Instruments and others also produced 4-bit
microprocessors.
– still survives in low-end applications such as microwave ovens
and small control systems
– Calculators still based on 4-bit BCD (binary-coded decimal)
codes
• In 1971 Intel released 8008.
– extended 8-bit version of 4004 microprocessor
• Addressed expanded memory of 16K bytes.
• Contained additional instructions, 48 total.
• Provided opportunity for application in more advanced
systems.
• Intel introduced 8080 microprocessor in 1973.
– first of the modem 8-bit microprocessors
• Motorola Corporation introduced MC6800 mp
about six months later.
• 8080—and, the MC6800—ushered in the age
of the microprocessor.
– other companies soon introduced their
own versions of the 8-bit microprocessor

Table 1–1 Early 8-bit microprocessors

• Only Intel and Motorola continue to create new,
improved microprocessors.
– IBM also produces Motorola-style microprocessors
• Motorola sold its microprocessor division.
– now called Freescale Semiconductors, Inc.
• Zilog still manufactures microprocessors.
– microcontrollers and embedded controllers instead of
general-purpose microprocessors
 What Was Special about the 8080?
• 8080 addressed four times more memory.
– 64K bytes vs l6K bytes for 8008
• Executed additional instructions; 10x faster.
– addition taking 20 µs on an 8008-based system
required only 2.0 µs on an 8080-based system
• TTL (transistor-transistor logic) compatible.
– the 8008 was not directly compatible
• Interfacing made easier and less expensive.
• The MITS Altair 8800, was released in 1974.
– number 8800 probably chosen to avoid copyright violations
with Intel
• BASIC language interpreter for the Altair 8800 computer
developed in 1975.
– Bill Gates and Paul Allen, founders of Microsoft Corporation
• The assembler program for the Altair 8800 was written by
Digital Research Corporation.
– once produced DR-DOS for the personal computer
 The 8085 Microprocessor
• In 1977 Intel Corporation introduced an updated version of
the 8080—the 8085.
• Last 8-bit, general-purpose microprocessor developed by
Intel.
• Slightly more advanced than 8080; executed software at
an even higher speed.
– 769,230 instructions per second vs 500,000 per second
on the 8080).
• Main advantages of 8085:
– Internal clock generator and system controller,
and higher clock frequency.
– higher level of component integration reduced
the 8085’s cost and increased its usefulness
• Intel has sold over 100 million of the 8085.
– its most successful 8-bit, general-purpose
microprocessor.
– also manufactured by many other companies,
meaning over 200 million in existence
• Applications that contain the 8085 will likely
continue to be popular.
• Zilog Corporation sold 500 million of their
8-bit Z80microprocessors.
• The Z-80 is machine language–compatible
with the 8085.
• Over 700 million microprocessors execute
8085/Z-80 compatible code.
 The Modern Microprocessor
• In 1978 Intel released the 8086; and 8088 in 1979.
• Both are 16-bit microprocessors.
• Execute instructions in as 400 ns (2.5 millions of instructions
/sec)
• 8086 & 8088 addressed 1M byte of memory.
– 16 times more memory than the 8085
- included multiply and divide
instructions.
- Number of instructions increased.
from 45 on the 4004,
to 246 on the 8085
over 20,000 variations on the 8086
• Increased memory size and additional instructions in
8086/8088 led to many sophisticated applications.
• These microprocessors are called CISC (complex
instruction set computers).
• 16-bit microprocessor also provided more internal register
storage space.
– additional registers allowed software to be
written more efficiently
• in 1981 when IBM chose the 8088 in its PC.
• Spreadsheets, word processors, spelling checkers, and
computer-based thesauruses were memory-intensive .
 The 80286 Microprocessor
• In 1983 Intel introduced the 80286.
• Give chance for databases and other applications.
• Almost identical to the 8086/8088.
– addressed 16M-byte memory system
– a few additional instructions.
– managed the extra 15M bytes of memory
– clock speed increased in 8.0 MHz version.
 The 32-Bit Microprocessor
• Led to the 80386 in 1986 by Intel.
• Intel’s first practical microprocessor to contain a 32-
bit data bus and 32-bit memory address.
• addressed up to 4G bytes of memory.
• Intel released 80386EX in 1995.
• Called an embedded PC.
– contains all components on a single integrated circuit
• 24 lines for input/output data.
• 26-bit address bus; 16-bit data bus.
• DRAM refresh controller.
• Programmable chip selection logic
• graphical user interface
• GUI often called a WYSIWYG (what you see is what you
get) display.
• Modern graphical displays contain 256,000 or pixels.
• VGA (Variable Graphics Array) resolution is 640 pixels
per scanning line by 480 lines.
– resolution used to display computer boot screen
• To display one screen of information, each picture element
must be changed.
– requires a high-speed microprocessor
• Microsoft Windows
• High-level languages, spreadsheets, and DBMS use real
numbers for data storage
• CAD systems as AUTOCAD, ORCAD
 The 80486 Microprocessor
• In 1989 Intel released the 80486.
• Highly integrated package.
• 1. 80386-like microprocessor.
• 2. 80387-like numeric coprocessor.
• 3. 8K-byte cache memory system.
• double-clocked microprocessor
• A triple-clocked version improved speed to 100 MHz with
memory transfers at 33 MHz.
• Expanded 16K-byte cache.
– in place of standard 8K-byte cache
• Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) produced a triple-clocked
version with a bus speed of 40 MHz and a clock speed of 120
MHz.
• The future promises rates 10 GHz or higher
 The Pentium Microprocessor
• Introduced 1993, was similar to 80386 and 80486 MPs.
• Originally labeled the P5 or 80586.
• Introductory versions operated with a clocking frequency
of 60 MHz & 66 MHz, and a speed of 110 MIPs.
• Double-clocked Pentium at 120 MHz and 133 MHz, also
available.
• Cache size was16K bytes from the 8K cache.
• Memory up to 4G bytes.
• 8K-byte instruction cache
• Data bus width increased to a full 64 bits.
• Data bus transfer speed 60 MHz / 66 MHz
 Pentium Pro Processor P6
• 21 million transistors, integer units, floating-
point unit, clock frequency 150 and 166 MHz
• Internal 16K level-one (L1) cache.
– 8K data, 8K for instructions
– Pentium Pro contains 256K level-two (L2) cache
• Pentium Pro uses three execution engines, to
execute up to three instructions at a time.
Pentium Pro execute 32-bit code.
often bundled with Windows NT rather
Pentium Pro can address 4G-byte or a
64G-byte memory system.
36-bit address bus if configured for a
64G memory system
 Pentium II and Pentium Xeon
Microprocessors
• Pentium II, released 1997, represents new
direction for Intel.
• Intel has placed Pentium II on a small circuit
board, instead of being an integrated circuit.
– L2 cache on main circuit board of not fast
enough to function properly with Pentium II
• Microprocessor on the Pentium II module
actually Pentium Pro with MMX extensions.
 Pentium III Microprocessor
• Faster core than Pentium II; still a P6 or Pentium Pro
processor.
• Available in slot 1 version mounted on a plastic cartridge.
• Also socket 370 version called a flip-chip which looks like
older Pentium package.
• Pentium III available with clock frequencies up to 1 GHz.
 Pentium 4 and Core2 Microprocessors
• Pentium 4 first made available in late 2000.
– most recent version of Pentium called Core2
– uses Intel P6 architecture
• Pentium 4 available to 3.2 GHz and faster.
– supporting chip sets use RAMBUS or DDR memory in
place of SDRAM technology
• Core2 is available at speeds of up to 3 GHz.
– improvement in internal integration, at present
the 0.045 micron or 45 nm technology
– shift from aluminum to copper interconnections inside the
microprocessor.
 Pentium 4 and Core2, 64-bit and
Multiple Core Microprocessors
• include a 64-bit core and multiple cores.
• 64-bit modification allows address of over 4G (109)
bytes of memory through a 64-bit address.
– 40 address pins in these newer versions allow
up to 1T (terabytes: 1000G) of memory to be accessed
• Intel manufactures dual and quad core versions;
number of cores will likely increase to 8 or 16.
• Increases speed of execution if program is written to
take advantage of multiple cores.( multi Threaded
Applications)
• Multiple cores are current solution to providing
faster microprocessors.
• Intel recently demonstrated Core2 containing
80 cores, using 45 nm fabrication technology.
• Intel expects to release an 80-core version
some time in the next 5 years.
• Fabrication technology will become slightly
smaller with 35 nm and possibly 25 nm
technology.
• In 2002, Intel released a new architecture 64 bits in
width with a 128-bit data bus.
• Named Itanium;
• The Itanium architecture allows greater parallelism.
• 128 general-purpose integer and 128 floating-point
registers; 64 predicate registers.
• Many execution units to ensure enough hardware
resources for software.
Figure 1–5a Conceptual views of the 80486, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III,
Pentium 4, and Core2 microprocessors.

Figure 1–5b Conceptual views of the 80486, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III,
Pentium 4, and Core2 microprocessors.