ECOSYSTEM

1) ECOSYSTEM:  Maintains Biodiversity:

a) complex network of living Preserves genetic diversity
organisms (plants, animals,  Economic Benefits:
microorganisms) interacting with Supports agriculture,
each other and their physical forestry, fisheries, tourism
environment (air, water, soil,  Cultural Significance:
sunlight) to create a self- Spiritual, recreational,
sustaining system. aesthetic value
b) Arthur Tansley (1871-1955), a iv) Components:
British ecologist, introduced the  Biotic Factors: Plants,
term "ecosystem" in 1935. animals, microorganisms
c) Tansley defined ecosystem as  Abiotic Factors: Light,
"the whole system... including not temperature, water, soil,
only the organism complex, but atmosphere
also the whole complex of  Producers: Photosynthetic
physical factors." organisms (plants, algae)
 Consumers: Herbivores,
ECOSYSTEM
carnivores, omnivores
 Decomposers:
NATURAL MAN-MADE
Microorganisms breaking
TERRESTR
AQUATIC down organic matter
IAL
v) Examples: Amazon Rainforest
e) MAN-MADE ECOSYSTEM:
d) NATURAL ECOSYSTEM: i) Made by man
i) +nt in nature ii) Characteristics:
ii) Characteristics:  Human-dominated: Human
 Biodiversity: Variety of activities shape ecosystem
species and habitats structure and function
 Complexity: Interconnected  Altered Energy Flow:
relationships between Energy input through
components human activities (e.g.,
 Dynamic Equilibrium: fertilizers)
Constant adaptation to  Modified Nutrient Cycles:
changing conditions Altered nutrient availability
 Self-Regulation: and cycling
Ecosystems maintain  Changes in Biodiversity:
balance through feedback Introduced species, altered
mechanisms species composition
 Energy Flow: Solar  Dynamic Equilibrium:
radiation, food chains, food Ecosystems adapt to
webs changing human influences
iii) Importance: iii) Importance:
 Supports Life: Provides  Food Production: Supports
essential resources (air, global food security
water, food)  Economic Growth:
 Regulates Climate: Contributes to local and
Influences global climate global economies
patterns

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 ECOSYSTEM

 Innovation: Encourages i) Human population growth:

technological Increased demand for resources.
advancements ii) Consumption patterns:
 Recreation: Provides Unsustainable consumption of
opportunities for leisure natural resources.
activities iii) Agricultural practices: Intensive
 Environmental farming, monocultures.
Management: Can mitigate iv) Urbanization: Urban sprawl,
environmental impacts infrastructure development.
through sustainable v) Industrial activities: Mining,
practices logging, manufacturing.
iv) Components: vi) Lack of regulations: Inadequate
 Built Infrastructure: environmental policies.
Buildings, roads, bridges vii) Poverty: Limited access to
 Cultivated Vegetation: sustainable practices.
Crops, ornamental plants d) Effects:
 Domesticated Animals: i) Biodiversity loss: Species
Livestock, pets extinction, reduced genetic
 Human Population: Urban diversity.
and rural residents ii) Ecosystem services disruption:
 Technology: Machinery, Impacts on air and water quality,
irrigation systems, soil formation.
fertilizers iii) Climate change exacerbation:
v) Examples: govind sagar lake (HP) Increased greenhouse gas
2) ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION: emissions.
a) refers to the decline or iv) Human health impacts: Increased
deterioration of an ecosystem's disease risk, mental health
health, productivity, and effects.
biodiversity. v) Economic consequences: Loss of
b) Types: ecosystem services, decreased
i) Habitat destruction: productivity.
Deforestation, land conversion, vi) Social impacts: Displacement of
infrastructure development. communities, cultural heritage
ii) Pollution: Chemical, noise, light, loss.
and plastic pollution. e) Consequences:
iii) Overexploitation: Overhunting, i) Ecological collapse: Irreversible
overfishing, overharvesting. ecosystem damage.
iv) Climate change: Rising ii) Loss of ecosystem resilience:
temperatures, altered Reduced ability to adapt to
precipitation patterns. change.
v) Invasive species: Non-native iii) Decreased ecosystem services:
species introduction. Impacts on human well-being.
vi) Soil degradation: Erosion, iv) Increased vulnerability: Increased
salinization, nutrient depletion. risk of natural disasters.
vii) Water degradation: v) Food insecurity: Decreased
Eutrophication, acidification, agricultural productivity.
pollution. f) Solutions:
c) Causes: i) Conservation efforts: Protected
areas, restoration ecology.
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 ECOSYSTEM

ii) Sustainable practices: Eco- vi) Predation: Predator-prey

friendly agriculture, forestry, interactions, population
fishing. regulation
iii) Climate change mitigation: vii) Competition: Interactions
Renewable energy, carbon between organisms for resources
sequestration. viii) Symbiosis: Mutualistic
iv) Ecosystem-based adaptation: relationships between organisms
Enhancing ecosystem resilience.  Understanding ecosystem
v) Policy and regulation: structure and function is
Strengthening environmental crucial for managing natural
laws. resources, conserving
vi) Education and awareness: biodiversity, and mitigating
Promoting environmental literacy. climate change.
vii) Community engagement: 4) BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES:
Involving local communities in refer to the pathways by which energy
conservation efforts. and nutrients flow through ecosystems,
3) STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF involving interactions between living
ECOSYSTEM: organisms (bio), the Earth's crust and
a) Structure: minerals (geo), and the atmosphere
i) Biotic Components: Living (chemical).
organisms (plants, animals, a) Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle):
microorganisms) the continuous process by which
ii) Abiotic Components: Non-living water is circulated between the
factors (light, temperature, water, Earth's oceans, atmosphere, and
soil, atmosphere) land.
iii) Producers (Autotrophs): i) Phases :
Photosynthetic organisms (plants,  Evaporation: Water from
algae) oceans, lakes, rivers, and
iv) Consumers (Heterotrophs): the ground surface
Herbivores, carnivores, evaporates into the
omnivores, decomposers atmosphere.
v) Decomposers: Microorganisms  Condensation: Water vapor
breaking down organic matter cools and condenses into
vi) Detritivores: Organisms feeding clouds, fog, or dew.
on dead organic matter  Precipitation: Water falls to
b) Fuctions: the ground as rain, snow,
i) Energy Flow: Energy transfer sleet, or hail.
through food chains and food  Runoff: Precipitation flows
webs over land into streams,
ii) Nutrient Cycling: Exchange of rivers, and lakes.
nutrients between organisms and  Infiltration: Precipitation
environment seeps into the soil and
iii) Water Cycle: Evaporation, becomes groundwater.
condensation, precipitation  Percolation: Infiltrated
iv) Primary Production: Conversion of water moves downward
sunlight into organic matter through soil layers.
v) Decomposition: Breakdown of  Transpiration: Plants
organic matter, nutrient release absorb water and release it
as water vapor.
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 ECOSYSTEM

ii) Processes Involved:  Floods: Excessive

 Evapotranspiration: precipitation and runoff.
Combination of evaporation  Water Scarcity: Insufficient
and transpiration. water for human
 Interception: Precipitation consumption and
is caught by vegetation or ecosystems.
other surfaces.  Ecosystem Disruption:
 Deposition: Precipitation Impacts aquatic and
settles on surfaces. terrestrial ecosystems.
 Snowmelt: Snow melts and  Food Security: Affects
becomes runoff or agricultural productivity
infiltration. and food availability.

iii) Water Cycle Components:

 Atmosphere: Holds water
vapor and precipitation.
 Oceans: Largest water
reservoir, covering 71% of
Earth's surface.
 Lakes and Rivers:
Freshwater bodies that
store and transport water. b) Carbon Cycle: refers to the
 Groundwater: Water stored movement of carbon between the
beneath Earth's surface. atmosphere, oceans, land, and
 Soil Moisture: Water held in living organisms.
soil pores. i) Phases:
 Vegetation: Plays a crucial  Photosynthesis: Plants,
role in transpiration and algae, and phytoplankton
interception. absorb CO2 from the
iv) Importance: atmosphere, converting it
 Supports Life: Provides into organic carbon
water for plants, animals, compounds (glucose).
and humans.  Respiration: Living
 Regulates Climate: organisms (plants, animals,
Influences temperature, microorganisms) release
precipitation, and weather CO2 through cellular
patterns. respiration.
 Maintains Ecosystems:  Decomposition:
Supports aquatic and Microorganisms break
terrestrial ecosystems. down dead organic matter,
 Agriculture: Essential for releasing CO2.
crop growth and irrigation.  Fossil Fuel Combustion:
 Hydroelectric Power: Water Burning fossil fuels (coal,
cycle drives hydroelectric oil, gas) releases CO2.
power generation.  Ocean Absorption: Oceans
v) Consequences of Disruption: absorb CO2 from the
 Droughts: Reduced atmosphere.
precipitation and water
availability. ii) Process involved:

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 ECOSYSTEM

 Carbon Sequestration:
Removal of CO2 from the
atmosphere.
 Carbon Emission: Release
of CO2 into the
atmosphere.
 Carbon Storage: Holding
carbon in various reservoirs
(oceans, soil, vegetation).
 Carbon Flux: Movement of c) Oxygen cycle: describes the
carbon between reservoirs. movement of oxygen between the
iii) Importance: atmosphere, oceans, land and
 Regulates Climate: living organisms
Influences global also known as the Oxygen
temperature and weather Exchange Cycle
patterns. i) Phases:
 Supports Life: Provides  Photosynthesis: Plants,
energy and organic algae and phytoplankton
compounds for living produce oxygen (O2) from
organisms. carbon dioxide (CO2) and
 Maintains Ecosystem water (H2O) using sunlight.
Balance: Supports nutrient  Respiration: Living
cycling and ecosystem organisms (plants, animals,
health. microorganisms) consume
 Affects Ocean Chemistry: oxygen and release carbon
Influences ocean pH and dioxide.
marine life.  Decomposition:
iv) Consequences of Disruption: Microorganisms break
 Climate Change: Global down dead organic matter,
warming, sea-level rise, consuming oxygen and
and extreme weather releasing carbon dioxide.
events.  Aerobic Respiration:
 Ocean Acidification: Oxygen is used to break
Decreased ocean pH down organic matter,
affects marine life. releasing energy.
 Ecosystem Disruption:  Anaerobic Respiration:
Impacts nutrient cycling, Oxygen is not used, and
biodiversity, and organic matter is broken
ecosystem services. down through
 Food Security: Affects fermentation.
agricultural productivity ii) Processes Involved:
and food availability  Oxygen Production:
Photosynthesis and
phytoplankton activity.
 Oxygen Consumption:
Respiration, decomposition
and aerobic respiration.

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 ECOSYSTEM

 Oxygen Transport:
Diffusion, circulation and
atmospheric mixing.
 Oxygen Storage: Dissolved
oxygen in oceans and
lakes.
iii) Components:
 Atmosphere: Holds
approximately 21%
oxygen.
 Oceans: Store oxygen in d) Nitrogen cycle: describes the
dissolved form. movement of nitrogen through
 Terrestrial Ecosystems: the atmosphere, soil, water and
Support oxygen-producing living organisms
plants. i) Phases:
 Soil: Supports aerobic and  Nitrogen Fixation:
anaerobic respiration. Conversion of atmospheric
 Living Organisms: Produce nitrogen (N2) into usable
and consume oxygen. forms (ammonia, NH3, or
iv) Importance: nitrate, NO3-) by bacteria,
 Supports Life: Essential for algae or plants.
aerobic respiration.  Ammonification:
 Maintains Ecosystem Breakdown of organic
Balance: Regulates nutrient matter, releasing ammonia
cycling and energy flow. (NH3).
 Influences Climate: Impacts  Nitrification: Conversion of
atmospheric composition. ammonia (NH3) into nitrite
 Affects Water Quality: (NO2-) and then nitrate
Supports aquatic life. (NO3-) by bacteria.
v) Consequences of Disruption:  Assimilation: Uptake of
 Hypoxia: Low oxygen levels nitrate (NO3-) or ammonia
harm aquatic life. (NH3) by plants and
 Ecosystem Disruption: microorganisms.
Impacts nutrient cycling  Ammonia Oxidation:
and energy flow. Conversion of ammonia
 Respiratory Problems: Low (NH3) into nitrite (NO2-).
oxygen levels affect human  Denitrification: Reduction
health. of nitrate (NO3-) to
 Food Security: Impacts nitrogen gas (N2).
agricultural productivity.  Decomposition: Breakdown
of organic matter, releasing
nitrogen compounds.
ii) Processes Involved:
 Nitrogen Fixation:
Biological (bacteria, algae)
or non-biological (lightning,
industrial processes).

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 ECOSYSTEM

 Nitrogen Transformation:  Climate Change: Excess

Conversion between nitrogen oxides contribute
nitrogen forms. to global warming.
 Nitrogen Transport:  Respiratory Problems:
Movement through water, Nitrogen dioxide exposure
air or living organisms. affects human health.
 Nitrogen Storage:
Accumulation in soil, water
or living organisms.
iii) Components:
 Atmosphere: Holds
approximately 78%
nitrogen.
 Soil: Stores nitrogen in
organic and inorganic
forms.
 Water: Contains dissolved
nitrogen compounds.
 Living Organisms: Use
nitrogen for growth and e) Sulfur cycle: describes the
metabolism. movement of sulfur through the
 Microorganisms: Play a atmosphere, oceans, soil and
crucial role in nitrogen living organisms.
fixation, ammonification i) Phases:
and denitrification.  Volcanic Emissions:
iv) Importance: Release of sulfur dioxide
 Supports Life: Essential for (SO2) into the atmosphere.
amino acid synthesis and  Biogenic Emissions:
protein production. Release of dimethyl sulfide
 Maintains Ecosystem (DMS) from marine
Balance: Regulates nutrient phytoplankton.
cycling and energy flow.  Fossil Fuel Combustion:
 Influences Climate: Impacts Release of sulfur dioxide
atmospheric composition. (SO2) from burning fossil
 Affects Water Quality: fuels.
Supports aquatic life.  Oxidation: Conversion of
sulfur dioxide (SO2) to
sulfate (SO42-).
 Reduction: Conversion of
v) Consequences of Disruption: sulfate (SO42-) to hydrogen
 Eutrophication: Excess sulfide (H2S).
nitrogen promotes harmful  Assimilation: Uptake of
algal blooms. sulfate (SO42-) by plants
 Water Pollution: Nitrogen and microorganisms.
contamination affects  Deposition: Precipitation of
aquatic life. sulfate (SO42-) and sulfur
 Soil Degradation: Nitrogen dioxide (SO2) to land and
imbalance affects soil water.
fertility. ii) Processes Involved:

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 ECOSYSTEM

 Sulfur Fixation: Conversion  Soil Degradation: Sulfur

of sulfur dioxide (SO2) to imbalance affects soil
sulfate (SO42-). fertility.
 Sulfur Reduction:  Climate Change: Excess
Conversion of sulfate sulfur dioxide (SO2)
(SO42-) to hydrogen sulfide contributes to global
(H2S). warming.
 Sulfur Oxidation:
Conversion of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) to sulfur
dioxide (SO2).
 Sulfur Transport:
Movement through water,
air or living organisms.
iii) Components:
 Atmosphere: Holds sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and sulfate
(SO42-).
 Oceans: Store sulfur in
dissolved form.
 Soil: Supports sulfur-
reducing bacteria.
 Living Organisms: Use
sulfur for growth and f) Phosphorus Cycle: describes the
metabolism. movement of phosphorus through
 Fossil Fuels: Contain sulfur the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and
compounds. living organisms
iv) Importance: i) Phases:
 Supports Life: Essential for  Weathering: Phosphorus
amino acid synthesis and release from rocks and
protein production. minerals through erosion
 Maintains Ecosystem and weathering.
Balance: Regulates nutrient  Erosion: Phosphorus
cycling and energy flow. transport through water
 Influences Climate: Impacts and wind.
atmospheric composition.  Deposition: Phosphorus
 Affects Water Quality: settlement on land and
Supports aquatic life. water.
v) Consequences of Disruption:  Assimilation: Uptake of
 Acid Rain: Excess sulfur phosphorus by plants and
dioxide (SO2) contributes microorganisms.
to acid rain.  Mineralization: Conversion
 Air Pollution: Sulfur dioxide of organic phosphorus to
(SO2) affects human inorganic forms.
health.  Immobilization: Conversion
 Eutrophication: Excess of inorganic phosphorus to
sulfur promotes harmful organic forms.
algal blooms.

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 ECOSYSTEM

 Leaching: Phosphorus  Soil Degradation:

movement from soil to Phosphorus imbalance
water. affects soil fertility.
ii) Processes Involved:  Food Security: Impacts
 Phosphorus Fixation: agricultural productivity.
Conversion of phosphorus  Human Health: Excess
to insoluble forms. phosphorus intake can lead
 Phosphorus Mobilization: to health issues.
Release of phosphorus
from insoluble forms.
 Phosphorus Uptake: 5) ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION :
Absorption by plants and a) refers to the process of change in
microorganisms. the composition of species within
 Phosphorus Excretion: a biological community over time.
Release from living b) Types:
organisms. i) Primary Succession: Occurs in
iii) Components: areas without vegetation, such as
 Lithosphere: Rocks and after volcanic eruptions or glacial
minerals containing retreats.
phosphorus. ii) Secondary Succession: Occurs in
 Hydrosphere: Oceans, areas with remaining vegetation,
lakes, and rivers storing such as after forest fires or
phosphorus. deforestation.
 Atmosphere: Minimal iii) Tertiary Succession: Occurs in
phosphorus presence. areas with significant disturbance,
 Biosphere: Living such as after hurricanes or floods.
organisms using c) Factors Influencing:
phosphorus. i) Climate: Temperature,
 Soil: Phosphorus storage precipitation, and sunlight affect
and transformation. species composition.
iv) Importance: ii) Soil: Nutrient availability, pH, and
 Supports Life: Essential for texture influence plant growth.
DNA, RNA, ATP, and iii) Topography: Terrain affects water
phospholipid production. flow, erosion, and species
 Maintains Ecosystem distribution.
Balance: Regulates nutrient iv) Disturbances: Fire, floods, and
cycling and energy flow. human activities impact
 Influences Climate: Impacts community composition.
atmospheric composition. v) Species Interactions: Competition,
 Affects Water Quality: predation, and symbiosis shape
Supports aquatic life. community structure.
v) Consequences of Disruption: d) Importance:
 Eutrophication: Excess i) Biodiversity: Succession promotes
phosphorus promotes species diversity and adaptation.
harmful algal blooms. ii) Ecosystem Services: Succession
 Water Pollution: maintains ecosystem functions,
Phosphorus contamination such as nutrient cycling and
affects aquatic life. carbon sequestration.

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 ECOSYSTEM

iii) Climate Regulation: Succession i) Ecosystem Balance: Food chains

influences local climate maintain population sizes and
conditions, such as temperature ecosystem stability.
and precipitation patterns. ii) Nutrient Cycling: Decomposers
iv) Soil Formation: Succession release nutrients back into the
contributes to soil development ecosystem.
and nutrient enrichment. iii) Biodiversity: Food chains support
v) Ecological Resilience: Succession diverse species interactions.
enhances ecosystem resilience to iv) Ecological Resilience: Food chains
disturbances and climate change. help ecosystems adapt to
e) Examples: disturbances.
 Forest Regrowth: After v) Human Health: Food chains
clear-cutting, forests provide essential nutrients and
regrow through stages of food sources.
pioneer, succession, and c) Energy Flow:
climax communities. i) Energy Source: Sunlight powers
 Wetland Development: photosynthesis in producers.
Abandoned agricultural ii) Energy Transfer: Energy passes
fields or disturbed wetlands from one trophic level to the next
undergo succession, through consumption.
leading to diverse plant iii) Energy Loss: Energy is lost as
and animal communities. heat, waste, or unused biomass
 Glacial Retreat: Newly at each trophic level.
exposed terrain supports d) Types:
primary succession, leading i) Grassland Food Chain: Starts with
to establishment of plant plants, followed by herbivores
and animal communities. (e.g., deer), carnivores (e.g.,
6) FOOD CHAIN: represents the lions), and decomposers (e.g.,
sequence of organisms through which bacteria).
energy and nutrients are transferred in ii) Aquatic Food Chain: Begins with
an ecosystem. phytoplankton, followed by
a) Components: zooplankton, fish, and apex
i) Producers (Autotrophs): Plants, predators (e.g., sharks).
algae, and phytoplankton produce iii) Forest Food Chain: Starts with
energy through photosynthesis. trees, followed by herbivores
ii) Primary Consumers (Herbivores): (e.g., squirrels), carnivores (e.g.,
Eat producers (e.g., deer, owls), and decomposers (e.g.,
insects). fungi).
iii) Secondary Consumers iv) Detritus Food Chain: Begins with
(Carnivores): Eat primary dead organic matter, followed by
consumers (e.g., lions, birds). decomposers (e.g., bacteria),
iv) Tertiary Consumers (Apex detritivores (e.g., earthworms),
Predators): Eat secondary
consumers (e.g., sharks, wolves).
v) 5. Decomposers: Break down
dead organic matter (e.g.,
bacteria, fungi).
b) Importance:

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 ECOSYSTEM

and carnivores. i) Ecosystem Stability: Food webs

maintain population sizes and
ecosystem balance.
ii) Nutrient Cycling: Decomposers
recycle nutrients.
iii) Biodiversity: Food webs support
diverse species interactions.
iv) Ecological Resilience: Food webs
help ecosystems adapt to
disturbances.
v) Human Health: Food webs
provide essential nutrients and
food sources.
e) Types:
7) FOOD WEB: i) Terrestrial Food Web: Land-based
a) represents the complex network ecosystems
of relationships between ii) Aquatic Food Web: Freshwater or
organisms in an ecosystem, marine ecosystems
showcasing the multiple paths of iii) Marine Food Web: Ocean-based
energy and nutrient transfer. ecosystems
b) Characteristics: iv) Freshwater Food Web: River, lake,
i) Interconnectedness: Organisms or wetland ecosystems
are connected through multiple
feeding relationships.
ii) Multiple Trophic Levels:
Producers, primary consumers,
secondary consumers, and
decomposers interact.
iii) Omnivory: Organisms consume
multiple food sources, blurring
traditional trophic levels.
iv) Decomposition: Decomposers
break down organic matter,
recycling nutrients. 8) ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
c) Components: a) illustrates the energy flow and
i) Producers (Autotrophs): Plants, biomass distribution within an
algae, phytoplankton ecosystem
ii) Primary Consumers (Herbivores): b) also known as a trophic pyramid
Insects, zooplankton, deer or energy pyramid
iii) Secondary Consumers c) Characteristics:
(Carnivores): Fish, birds, lions i) Energy Flow: Energy decreases
iv) Tertiary Consumers (Apex with each trophic level (10%
Predators): Sharks, wolves, bears efficiency).
v) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi, ii) Biomass Decrease: Biomass
detritivores decreases with each trophic level.
vi) Detritivores: Earthworms, snails, iii) Population Size Decrease:
slugs Population sizes decrease with
d) Importance: each trophic level.
iv) Trophic Levels: Each level
represents a feeding position.
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 ECOSYSTEM

d) Types: iii) Omnivory: Doesn't accurately

i) Pyramid of Energy: Shows energy represent omnivorous species.
flow through trophic levels.
ii) Pyramid of Biomass: Represents
biomass distribution among
trophic levels.
iii) Pyramid of Numbers: Displays
population sizes at each trophic
level.
e) Components:
i) Producers (Base): Plants, algae,
phytoplankton (primary
producers)
ii) Primary Consumers (Herbivores):
Insects, zooplankton, deer
(secondary producers)
iii) Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores): Fish, birds, lions
(tertiary producers)
iv) Tertiary Consumers (Apex
Predators): Sharks, wolves, bears
(quaternary producers)
v) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi,
detritivores
f) Importance:
i) Ecosystem Understanding:
Illustrates energy flow and
biomass distribution.
ii) Energy Efficiency: Highlights
energy loss between trophic
levels.
iii) Food Web Dynamics:
Demonstrates predator-prey
relationships.
iv) Ecosystem Balance: Maintains
population sizes and ecosystem
stability.
v) Conservation: Informs
conservation efforts by identifying
key species.
g) Limitations:
i) Simplification: Oversimplifies
complex ecosystems.
ii) Energy Loss: Doesn't account for
energy lost as heat or waste.

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