Grammar Guide

Contenido
Passive voice.....................................3
Adjectives..........................................5
Adverbs.............................................8
Definite articles...............................12
Indefinite articles.............................15
Causative constructions..................17
Comparatives..................................19
Conditional......................................25
Direct and indirect discourse...........27
Near future......................................29
Future perfect.................................30
The simple future............................32
Auxiliary verbs................................33
Irregular preterits and past participles
........................................................34
Modal verbs.....................................50
Negation..........................................54
Nouns..............................................59
Personal pronouns...........................66
The imperative................................69
Present participles...........................70
Partitive article: "some"..................73
Habitual actions in the past.............75
Past conditional...............................76
Past progressive..............................78
Pluperfect........................................79
Prepositions.....................................81
Present perfect................................88
Present perfect progressive............90
Simple present (indicative).............91
The preterit.....................................95
Future progressive..........................98
Present progressive.........................99
Demonstrative adjectives and
pronouns.......................................102
Questions......................................105
Possession.....................................112
Reciprocal pronouns......................116
Reflexive pronouns........................117
Relative pronouns.........................119
The subjunctive.............................126
Superlatives..................................127
Prepositional Verbs........................132
Verbs.............................................136
Verbs with prepositions.................138
Questions......................................140

Passive voice
Events may be related in the active or
the passive voice. In the passive, the
person or thing receiving the action
becomes the grammatical subject.
For example (the entity receiving the
action is in boldface):
 active voice: Eric Rohmer
made this film.
 passive voice: This film was made
by Eric Rohmer.
One forms the passive by conjugating
the verb "to be" before the past
participle of the principal verb. the
tense of the verb "to be" will
determine the tense of action. When
an agent of the action (that is, the
person or entity performing the
action) must be described, one does
so by using the preposition "by":
 This industry will soon be
developed in the third world.
 Sorry, but this car has been
purchased by another customer.
English uses the passive voice
frequently, although it is best to avoid
it when possible. An option is to use
an impersonal subject, such as "one"
or "someone"
 (passive voice): This job needs to
be done.
 (active voice): Someone needs to
do this job.

Adjectives
 Forms
 Usage
 Related topics
Forms
Adjectives are generally invariable in
English and do not agree with nouns
in number and gender; nor do they
take case endings:
 a blue car
  the great outdoors
 a group of young women
However, a few adjectives have a
connotation which is slightly
masculine or feminine. Thus, one
says that a woman is beautiful while
a man would be called handsome.
Adjectives indicating religion or
nationality (or a region, state or
province) generally begin with a
capital letter, whether they refer to
people or objects:
 She is an American student.
 They go to a Catholic school.
 They enjoy Breton music.
Usage
In a noun cluster an adjective will be
placed, with very few exceptions, in
front of the noun it modifies. When
two adjectives precede a noun, they
can be connected by a comma (,) or
by the conjunction "and." In a series
of three or more adjectives, one
usually uses "and" before the last
adjective in the list.
Examples:
 I like short novels.
 That fellow will be
a competent worker.
 She
writes long and flowery letters.
 He works long, hard hours.
 She had
a mean, old and overbearing ste
p-mother.
An adjective may follow the noun
when it is in a predicate (after the
verb) or in a relative clause. (In
relative clauses the relative pronoun
may be implicit.)
Examples:
 He was a man (who was)
always happy to help others.
 She is a woman (who is) true to
herself.
 They were entirely satisfied.
Related topics
 Possessive adjectives
 Demonstrative adjectives
 Comparisons
 Superlatives

Adverbs
 Formation
 Position
 Related topics
Formation
1. Most adverbs are formed from the
adjective. One adds the ending "–ly"
to the adjectival form:

 intelligent –> intelligently

 slow –> slowly
 precise –> precisely
Some adverbs are irregular:
A. If the adjective ends with "–le,"
simply replace the "e" with "y":
 simple –> simply
 subtle –> subtly
B. The adverb corresponding to the
adjective "good" is irregular:
 good –> well
C. Some adverbs have the same form
as the adjective:
  high
 low
 hard
 better
 fast
D. In general, adverbs of time and
space have no corresponding
adjective; the same can be said of
adverbs of quantity:

 yesterday
 today
 tomorrow
 early
 soon
 late
 here
  there
 less
 more
 as
 very
 much
 a lot of
 little of
Position
When an adverb modifies a verb, it
generally comes at the end of the
clause (but before any prepositional
phrases or subordinated clauses):
 He writes poorly.
 She pronounced that word well..
 Joseph worked diligently.
 They worked hard before coming
home.
Exceptions: certain adverbs signaling
the speaker's opinion, such as
"probably," "undoubtedly,"
"surely," " certainly," etc., come at
the beginning of the sentence, or else
between the modal verb (or auxiliary)
and the principal verb:
 We are probably going to spend
the summer in Corsica.
 Certainly we would never do that!
 We will undoubtedly see a dirty
political campaign this year.
Adverbs of time and
space generally come at the end of
the sentence; however, they may be
placed at the beginning of the
sentence if the predicate clause is
long and complicated:
 I saw her yesterday.
 We're going to the beach today.
  She went to bed very early.
 Tomorrow we will try to get up
early to prepare for our trip.
Adverbs modifying adjectives or
an other adverb are placed before
the adjective or adverb they modify:

 She was really very happy to see

you.
 It was a brilliantly staged
performance.
Related topics
 Comparatives
 Superlatives

Definite articles
 General principles
 Omission of the article
  Use in negatives and
interrogatives
 Related topics
General principles
The definite article "the" (invariable
in form) designates a person, place,
or event which has been specified or
defined by the speaker:
 Here's the book I bought.
 The cat is on the roof.
 He said he would bring the money.
Omission of the definite article
The definite article does not always
precede nouns: sometimes indefinite
articles or partitive articles will be
used. Often, though, no article at all
is necessary, as in the following
cases:
1. As a general rule, the definite
article is omitted before abstract
nouns or nouns representing general
categories. It is often omitted after
verbs expressing opinions or
preferences:
 Truth is the highest good.
 I don't like animals.
 Cats are nicer than dogs.
 Time flies.
 She likes coffee, but she hates tea.
2. Generally, the article is omitted
before days of the week and dates:
 On Tuesdays the museums are
closed.
 On Saturdays I sleep in.
 Friday night we are going dancing.
 I was born on June 16, 1980.
3. Generally, the article is omitted
before names of countries, states,
cities, and regions:
  France is seventeen times smaller
than the United States.
 California is larger than Brittany.
Exception: Some names actually
include the definite article, such as
The Hague.
4. Generally, the article is omitted
before titles or nouns indicating
professions:
 President Mitterrand completed
two terms.
 We saw Professor Miller at the
restaurant.
 She met with Doctor Schmidt.
Use in negatives and
interrogatives
The use of the definite article does
not change in interrogatives and
negatives.
Related topics
  Indefinite articles
 Partitive articles

Indefinite articles
The indefinite article has two forms:
before singular nouns one uses "a"
(or "an" before most vowels); before
plural nouns one uses "some":
 a cat
 an accident
 some dogs
But: before vowels producing a "y"
sound (as in "you"), "a" is used,
rather than "an":

 a unit
 not a one
 a unicorn
As a general rule, the indefinite
article signals a person, thing or
event that has not been clearly
defined by the speaker. It does not
indicate a specific objection (which is
the role of the definite article); rather,
it indicates any one object out of
many possible ones (in the singular),
or any assortment or quantity from
many possible assortments or
quantities (in the plural). It is often
used after verbs of possession or
consumption:

 Give me a coffee, please.

 I have a book you might like.
 She has some cherries for sale.
In the negative, the plural indefinite
article changes: "some" is generally
replaced by "any" (this change also
occurs in negative questions):
 Don't you have any cookies ?
 They don't have any books for
sale.
 I have never had an accident.
Related topics
 Definite articles
 Partitive articles

Causative constructions
When one does not carry out an
action oneself but rather has the
action done by someone else, this is
expressed by a causative
construction. In English it is the verb
"to have" that introduces the
causative. The model will generally
be: "to have" (conjugated)+ direct
object (noun or pronoun)+ principal
verb (in its past participle form):
 We'll have a monument erected on
this site.
 I had my hair cut.
When one wishes to designate the
agent of the action (the person who
has carried out the described action),
there are two possibilities:
1. — "to have" (conjugated) + direct
object (noun or pronoun) +
principal verb (in its past participle
form) + "by" + agent (usually not as
a pronoun):
 The professor had the work done
by his lab assistants.
 I had it done by my employees.
2. — "to have" (conjugated) +
agent (as a direct object noun or
pronoun) + principal verb (in its
infinitive form) + the object (also in
the form of a direct object noun or
pronoun)
 The professor had his students
write an essay.
 I had him do it.
Note: Especially in spoken English,
the verb "to get" often replaces "to
have," in which case "to" is added to
the infinitive (but not before past
participles). This construction also
suggests that it may be (or have
been) difficult to produce a certain
reaction on the part of the agent:
 We'll get a monument erected on
this site.
 The professor got his students to
write an essay.
When one wishes to express a
change in temperament or in general
conditions, it is the construction "to
make + adjective" which is used:
 That letter made her sad.
 He makes me furious!
 That new
problem made negotiations
really hard!

Comparatives
 General principles
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Nouns
 Verbs
 Related topics
General principles
Comparatives are used to compare
two things and to highlight the
superiority, inferiority, or equality of
one term compared to another. The
comparative can apply to adjectives,
adverbs, nouns, or even verbs.
Whatever the part of speech
concerned, the structure of the
comparison remains the same:
superiority more+term1 than+term
2inferiority less+term1 than+term2
eq.
(adj/adv) as+term1 as+term2equalit
y(nouns) as much+term1 as+term2
Note: Certain common adjectives,
and adverbs that do not end in –ly,
omit “more�? and take the ending –
er. Thus fast –> faster; big –> bigger,
small –> smaller, etc.
Adjectives
Adjectival comparisons follow these
models:
 Jean is taller than Catherine.
  Philippe is less tall than Jean.
 Leila is as tall as Jean.
Note: Monosyllabic adjectives, and
several common two-syllable
adjectives, take the ending "–er" and
do not include the adverb "more":
 young –> younger
 tall –> taller
 old –> older
If the adjective ends in "–y" the "y"
becomes "i":
 heavy –> heavier
 early –> earlier
 busy –> busier
 healthy –> healthier
 chilly –> chillier
If the adjective ends in "–e" only an
"r" is needed:
  wise –> wiser
 large –> larger
 simple –> simpler
 late –> later
If the adjective ends with "single
vowel + consonant" the consonant
is doubled and one adds "–er":

 red –> redder

 big –> bigger
 thin –> thinner
 hot –> hotter
Some very common adjectives have
irregular comparatives:
 good –> better
 bad –> worse
 far –> farther
Adverbs
Adverbial comparisons follow these
models:
 The students are working more
diligently than the professor.
 This fellow speaks less eloquently
than a schoolboy.
 They are all working as hard as
possible!
Note: In comparisons
indicating superiority, adverbs
ending in "–ly" do not take the
adverb "more," but only the ending
"–er". (However, these adverbs will
function normally in comparisons
using "less" or "as.")
 fast –> faster
 hard –> harder
And some adverbs have irregular
comparative forms :
 well –> better
  badly –> worse
 far –> farther
Nouns
Noun comparisons follow these
patterns:
 I have more work than you.
 He has less homework than the
rest of us.
 If only I had as much talent as she!
The comparative can signal quantities
of nouns:
 I have less than five francs in my
pocket.
 She has more than five hours
worth of work to do.
However, in comparisons of
inferiority, and when the quantity
represents a "countable" noun, one
should use the term " fewer" rather
than "less":
 He works fewer than ten hours per
week.
 Sam has fewer students than I do.
Verbs
"More," "less," and "as" can be used
as adverbs to modify verbs:
 He eats more than he used to.
 That boy reads less than his
friends.
 You ought to listen as much as you
talk.
Related topics
 Superlatives

Conditional
The conditional is formed using
the modal "would" in front of an
infinitive (dropping the word "to").
The conditional is used especially in
three contexts
1) Politeness
 I would like the menu, please.
 Would you have a couple of
minutes for me?
2) To indicate the "future within the
past":
 She said she would come to the
party.
 I thought he would arrive before
me.
3) In hypothetical constructions with
"if." When "if" is followed by the
preterit or the subjunctive, the
conditional is expected in the second
clause:
 If I had the time, I would do my
homework.
  If you told me the truth, I would
believe you.
The "if" of hypothetical expressions
can be implicit:
 In your position (= if I were you),
I wouldn't have stayed.
See related topics:
 Past conditional
 Modal verbs

Direct and indirect

discourse
When one reports what others have
said word for word, this is called
"direct discourse." It is generally
signaled by the presence of quotation
marks:
 Philippe said, "I'll come if I have
the time."
  My roommate said, "Clean the
place up, or get out of here!"
When one paraphrases the words of
others, writing them so as to avoid
direct quotation, this is called
"indirect discourse." Indirect
discourse entails certain changes:
A. Quotation marks are not used:
direct discourse: He told me,
"You're stupid"indirect
discourse: He told me that I was
stupid.
B. When the verb in the reported
discourse is conjugated, is it
generally preceded by "that";
however, the inclusion of "that" is
optional:
 She said that she would be late.
 OR: She said she would be late.
  They informed us that the plane
was delayed.
 OR: They informed us the plane
was delayed.
C. Imperative forms, when recounted
in indirect discourse, generally
become infinitive constructions:
direct discourse: He told me, "Write
to me."indirect discourse: He told
me to write him.
direct discourse: I told them, "Get
out of here!"indirect discourse: I
told them to get out of here.

D. When a quotation is put in indirect

discourse, care must be taken to
verify that verb tenses reflect the
change in temporal context:
direct discourse: She said, "I will
be on time."indirect discourse: She
said she would be on time.
direct discourse: When he called he
said, "I am at the airport"indirect
discourse: When he called he said
he was at the airport.

Near future
Especially in spoken English one finds
the near future used as a way of
describing imminent events. Strictly
speaking, the near future is not a
future tense, for it is formed by
combining the present tense of the
verb "to go," conjugated in
the present progressive, with the
infinitive of the principal verb.
 We are going to leave soon.
 I’ m going to give her a call.
Also used to express imminent
actions is the construction "to be
about to do something," also
conjugated in the present.
 I am about to lose my temper!
 The detective is about to stop the
criminal.
One can also conjugate these forms
in the past progressive in order to
express a "future within the past":
 He said he was going to do it.
 She was going to buy a new car,
but she never did.
 When I saw them, they were about
to make a decision.

Future perfect
Relatively rare in English, the future
perfect serves to express one future
action which precedes a future
moment or another future action.
Moreover, it asserts that these
actions will be completed before the
principal action. It is formed by
adding the modal "will"
al auxiliary "have," preceding
the past participle:
 She will have finished before eight
o'clock.
 Tomorrow morning
they will all have left.
 They will already have
finished eating by the time we get
there.
One can often use the simple
future instead of the future perfect,
but a nuance is lost: the simple
future does not emphasize the
completion of the first action:
 Tomorrow morning they will all
leave. (The future perfect would
 emphasize that they
will already have
departed before tomorrow
morning.)
 They will finish eating by the time
we get there. (They may finish just
as we arrive; the future perfect
would emphasize that they will
have finished before we arrive.)

The simple future

The simple future uses
the modal "will" followed by the
infinitive (dropping the preposition
" to"). It serves to express actions
which will take place at a specified
time, or to signal the beginning of an
action. (If, on the other hand, one
wishes to describe an action which is
in the process of occurring, it is
the future progressive which will be
used to express it.)
  I will meet you at five o'clock.
 She will go to the library this
evening.
 We will dance all night long.
One sometimes find
the modal "shall" in place of "will".
This usage, generally reserved for the
first person, is considered archaic:
 What shall I do ?
Note: this usage of "shall" to
indicate the future is different from
the commonplace usage of " shall" to
indicate desire or wishes. See modal
verbs.

Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary verb ("helping" verb) is
combined with the principal verb to
form certain tenses or moods. (See
also the modal verbs, which nuance
the meaning of the verbs they
accompany.) The only true auxiliary
verbs in English are "to be", "to
have" and "to do".
"To be" is an auxiliary verb for the
progressive tenses (See the present
progressive, the past progressive, the
future progressive):
 I am going home.
 She was fishing with her father.
 We will be calling on you later.
"To have" is an auxiliary verb for the
perfect tenses, including the present
perfect, the present perfect
progressive, the pluperfect, the future
perfect, the past conditional:
 We have finished.
 They hadn't waited for us.
"To do" is an auxiliary verb for
making questions and negations in
both present simple and the preterit:
  Do you have any money?
 Did you hear me?
 He doesn't want to help us.

Irregular preterits and

past participles
This alphabetical list shows the
irregular forms of the most common
verbs. Each entry includes the
infinitive, the preterit, and the past
participle. In cases where variant
forms exist, they will be shown at the
end of the entry. Literary or archaic
forms are marked by an asterisk (*).
The past participle is used in many
conjugations, including the present
perfect, the pluperfect, the past
conditional, and the future perfect.
 can = could [pret.], been able
[p.p.]
 may = might [pret.]
 to abide = abode [pret., p.p.]
 to arise = arose [pret.], arisen
[p.p.]
 to awake = awoke [pret.],
awakened [p.p.]
 to be = was, were [pret.], been
[p.p.]
 to bear = bore [pret.], borne [p.p.]
 to beat = beat [pret.], beaten
[p.p.]
 to become = became [pret.],
become [p.p.]
 to befall = befell [pret.], befallen
[p.p.]
 to begin = began [pret.], begun
[p.p.]
 to bend = bent [pret., p.p.]
 to beseech = besought [pret.,
p.p.]
 to bet = bet [pret., p.p.]
 to bid = bid [pret., p.p.]; bade
[pret.]*
 to bind = bound [pret., p.p.]
 to bite = bit [pret.], bitten [p.p.]
 to bleed = bled [pret., p.p.]
 to blow = blew [pret.], blown [p.p.]
 to break = broke [pret.], broken
[p.p.]
 to breed = bred [pret., p.p.]
 to bring = brought [pret., p.p.]
 to build = built [pret., p.p.]
 to burn = burned [pret., p.p.];
burnt [pret., p.p.]*
 to burst = burst [pret., p.p.]
 to buy = bought [pret., p.p.]
 to cast = cast [pret., p.p.]
 to catch = caught [pret., p.p.]
 to choose = chose [pret.], chosen
[p.p.]
 to cleave = cleaved [pret., p.p.];
cleft [pret., p.p.]*
 to cling = clung [pret., p.p.]
 to come = came [pret.], come
[p.p.]
 to cost = cost [pret., p.p.]
 to creep = crept [pret., p.p.];
creeped [pret.]
 to cut = cut [pret., p.p.]
 to deal = dealt [pret., p.p.]
 to dig = dug [pret., p.p.]
 to do = did [pret.], done [p.p.]
 to draw = drew [pret.], drawn
[p.p.]
 to dream = dreamed [pret., p.p.];
dreamt [pret., p.p.]*
 to drink = drank [pret.], drunk
[p.p.]
 to drive = drove [pret.], driven
[p.p.]
 to dwell = dwelled [pret., p.p.];
dwelt [pret., p.p.]*
 to eat = ate [pret.]; eaten [p.p.]
 to fall = fell [pret.], fallen [p.p.]
 to feed = fed [pret., p.p.]
 to fight = fought [pret., p.p.]
 to find = found [pret., p.p.]
 to flee = fled [pret., p.p.]
 to fling = flung [pret., p.p.]
 to fly = flew [pret.]; flown [p.p.]
 to forbid = forbad [pret.];
forbidden [p.p.]
 to forget = forgot [pret.]; forgotten
[p.p.]
 to forsake = forsook [pret.];
forsaken [p.p.]
 to freeze = froze [pret.]; frozen
[p.p.]
 to get = got [pret., p.p.]; gotten
[p.p.]
 to gild = gild [p.p.]
 to give = gave [pret.], given [p.p.]
 to go = went [pret.], gone [p.p.]
 to grind = ground [pret., p.p.]
 to grow = grew [pret.], grown
[p.p.]
 to hang = hung [pret., p.p.];
hanged (·éxécution·) [pret., p.p.]
 to have = had [pret., p.p.]
 to hear = heard [pret., p.p.]
 to hew = hewn [p.p.]
 to hide = hid [pret.]; hidden [p.p.]
 to hit = hit [pret., p.p.]
 to hold = held [pret., p.p.]
 to hurt = hurt [pret., p.p.]
 to keep = kept [pret., p.p.]
 to kneel = kneeled [pret., p.p.]
 to kneel = knelt [pret., p.p.]
 to know = knew [pret.], known
[p.p.]
 to lay = laid [pret., p.p.]
 to lead = led [pret., p.p.]
 to lean = leaned [pret., p.p.]
 to lean = leant [pret., p.p.]
 to leap = leaped [pret., p.p.]
 to leap = leapt [pret., p.p.]
 to learn = learned [pret., p.p.]
 to learn = learnt [pret., p.p.]
 to leave = left [pret., p.p.]
 to lend = lent [pret., p.p.]
 to let = let [pret., p.p.]
 to lie = lay [pret.], lain [p.p.]
 to light = lit [pret., p.p.]
 to lose = lost [pret., p.p.]
 to make = made [pret., p.p.]
 to mean = meant [pret., p.p.]
 to meet = met [pret., p.p.]
 to mow = mowed [pret.], mown
[p.p.]
 to pay = paid [pret., p.p.]
 to put = put [pret., p.p.]
 to quit = quit [pret., p.p.]
 to read = read [pret., p.p.]
 to rebuild = rebuilt [pret., p.p.]
 to recut = recut [pret., p.p.]
 to redeal = redealt [pret., p.p.]
 to redo = redid [pret.], redone
[p.p.]
 to relay = relaid [pret., p.p.]
 to remake = remade [pret., p.p.]
 to rend = rent [pret., p.p.]
 to repay = repaid [pret., p.p.]
 to reread = reread [pret., p.p.]
 to rerun = reran [pret.], rerun
[p.p.]
 to resend = resent [pret., p.p.]
 to reset = reset [pret., p.p.]
 to retake = retook [pret.], retaken
[p.p.]
 to reteach = retaught [pret., p.p.]
 to retell = retold [pret., p.p.]
 to rethink = rethought [pret., p.p.]
 to rewrite = rewrote [pret.],
rewritten [p.p.]
 to rid = rid [pret., p.p.]
 to ride = rode [pret.], ridden [p.p.]
 to ring = rang [pret.], rung [p.p.]
 to rise = rose [pret.], risen [p.p.]
 to run = ran [pret.], run [p.p.]
 to saw = sawed [pret., p.p.]; sawn
[p.p.]*
 to say = said [pret., p.p.]
 to see = saw [pret.], seen [p.p.]
 to seek = sought [pret., p.p.]
 to sell = sold [pret., p.p.]
 to send = sent [pret., p.p.]
 to set = set [pret., p.p.]
 to sew = sewed [pret., p.p.]; sewn
[p.p.]
 to shake = shook [pret.], shaken
[p.p.]
 to shave = shaved [pret., p.p.];
shaven [p.p.]
 to shear = sheared [pret., p.p.];
shorn [p.p.]
 to shed = shed [pret., p.p.]
 to shine = shone [pret., p.p.];
shined [pret.]
 to shoe = shod [pret., p.p.]
 to shoot = shot [pret., p.p.]
 to show = showed [pret., p.p.];
shown [p.p.]
 to shrink = shrank [pret.], shrunk
[p.p.]
 to shut = shut [pret., p.p.]
 to sing = sang [pret.], sung [p.p.]
 to sink = sank [pret.], sunk [p.p.]
 to sit = sat [pret., p.p.]
 to slay = slew [pret.], slain [p.p.]
 to sleep = slept [pret., p.p.]
 to slide = slid [pret., p.p.]
 to sling = slung [pret., p.p.]
 to slink = slunk [pret., p.p.]
 to slit = slit [pret., p.p.]
 to smell = smelled [pret., p.p.]
 to smell = smelt [pret., p.p.]
 to smite = smote [pret.], smitten
[p.p.]
 to sow = sowed [pret., p.p.]; sown
[p.p.]
 to speak = spoke [pret.], spoken
[p.p.]
 to speed = sped [pret., p.p.]
 to spell = spelled [pret., p.p.]
 to spell = spelt [pret., p.p.]
 to spend = spent [pret., p.p.]
 to spill = spilled [pret., p.p.]
 to spill = spilt [pret., p.p.]
 to spin = spun [pret., p.p.]
 to spit = spat [pret., p.p.]
 to split = split [pret., p.p.]
 to spoil = spoiled [pret., p.p.];
spoilt [pret., p.p.]
 to spread = spread [pret., p.p.]
 to spring = sprang [pret.]; sprung
[p.p.]
 to stand = stood [pret., p.p.]
 to steal = stole [pret.], stolen
[p.p.]
 to stick = stuck [pret., p.p.]
 to sting = stung [pret., p.p.]
 to stink = stank [pret.], stunk
[p.p.]
 to stride = strode [pret.], stridden
[p.p.]
 to strike = struck [pret., p.p.];
stricken [p.p.]
 to string = strung [pret., p.p.]
 to strive = strove [pret.], striven
[p.p.]
 to swear = swore [pret.], sworn
[p.p.]
 to sweep = swept [pret., p.p.]
 to swell = swelled [pret.], swollen
[p.p.]
 to swim = swam [pret.], swum
[p.p.]
 to swing = swung [pret., p.p.]
 to take = took [pret.], taken [p.p.]
 to teach = taught [pret., p.p.]
 to tear = tore [pret.], torn [p.p.]
 to tell = told [pret., p.p.]
 to think = thought [pret., p.p.]
 to thrive = thrived [pret., p.p.]
 to throw = threw [pret.], thrown
[p.p.]
 to thrust = thrust [pret., p.p.]
 to tread = trod [pret.], trodden
[p.p.]
 to undo = undid [pret.], undone
[p.p.]
 to unlearn = unlearned [pret.,
p.p.]; unlearnt [pret., p.p.]*
 to unwind = unwound [pret., p.p.]
 to wake = woke [pret.], woken
[p.p.]
 to wear = wore [pret.], worn [p.p.]
 to weave = wove [pret.], woven
[p.p.]; weaved [pret.]
 to weep = wept [pret., p.p.]
 to win = won [pret., p.p.]
 to wind = wound [pret., p.p.]
  to withdraw = withdrew [pret.],
withdrawn [p.p.]
 to wring = wrung [pret., p.p.]
 to write = wrote [pret.], written
[p.p.]

Modal verbs
 General principles
 Contractions
 Question tag phrases: "isn't it,"
"wasn't it," etc.
 Related topics
General principles
The auxiliary modals "would",
"may", "might", "should", " must",
"ought to", "can", "could", "will",
" shall" are invariable. They exist
only in the present, and unlike most
verbs in the simple present, their
form does not change in the third
person singular.
Modal verbs are auxiliaries, or
"helping" verbs: they are used in
conjunction with another verb (in
infinitive form) as a way to modify its
meaning. Modals can nuance the
meaning of the principal verb in a
number of ways:
– Possibility or
ability, by "can" or "could"
 I can do this job.
 Could you please do the dishes?
–Possibility or
permission by "may" or "might" of
ten translated in other languages by
a different mood, such as
the subjunctive).
 I may finish my paper tonight.
 You may come with us, if you wish.
  It might be helpful to have a map.
– Obligation, or moral obligation, by
"must", "ought to" o "should":
 Students must hand in their work
on time.
 You ought to see a doctor.
 You should never play with fire.
Note that "must" can also indicate
probability:
 You must be exhausted!
 He must play tennis pretty well.
The modal verb "would" is used to
express the conditional:
 If he had time, he would pick up
some groceries.
The modal verb "will"
expresses future:
 The train will arrive in an hour.
Contractions
After a pronoun subject, "would" is
often contracted into "–'d" ("I'd",
" we'd", "she'd", etc.) while "will" is
contracted into "–'ll" (" I'll", "you'll",
"they'll", etc.). After all modal verbs,
the word " not" of the negative can
be contracted into "–n't"
("wouldn't", " shouldn't", etc.).
Exceptions: "will not" becomes
"won't". "Can not" can also be
written "cannot"; in its contracted
form, the "n" is not doubled: "can't".
Note: The contraction of the modal
verbs "shall," "ought," and "may," is
considered slightly archaic or literary.
examples of contractions:
 I wouldn't (would not) do that, if I
were you!
 They'll (they will) never believe it!
  She won't (will not) bother you
anymore.
Question tag phrases ("isn't it,"
"wasn't it," etc.)
Modals can be used in a negative
interrogative form after an affirmative
expression. The function of such an
expression is to prompt the listener to
reassert or reaffirm what has been
stated:
 You would like to go with
us, wouldn't you?
 You can understand that, can't
you?
The modal verb used in the
interrogative tag is generally the
same as the modal found in the main
clause; the subject pronoun is also
repeated.
After a negative sentence, the
modal tag phrase is in
the affirmative:
 You wouldn't want to try it, would
you?
 She won't be back, will she?
Related topics
 Conditional
 Future
 Subjuntive
 Questions
 Negation

Negation
 "Not"
 Negative questions
 Negative constructions ("never",
"no one", "nothing", etc.)
"Not"
The most common way to put a
phrase in the negative is by using
"not." Generally, "not" must follow
an auxiliary verb ("to be", "to do") or
a modal ("shall", "must", "might",
"will", etc.), even if this verb adds no
meaning to the sentence. When no
other modal is present or appropriate,
the verb " to do" is used.
Here are some sample phrases in
both affirmative and negative form:
 I want to play the piano. –> I do
not want to play the piano.
 He will arrive on time. –> He will
not arrive on time.
 They should go out together. –>
They should not go out together.
Note: Most often, the adverb "not"
will be contracted to "–n't" after
an auxiliary or modalverb:
  is not –> isn't
 should not –> shouldn't
 does not –> doesn't
 must not –> mustn't
 has not –> hasn't
 will not –> won't
Questions
The same structure (placing "not"
after the verb) will hold for questions:
 Is n't it time to leave?
 Would n't you care for a drink?
Note: If one chooses not contract
"not" to "–n't", the adverb "not" will
be placed after the subject in the
question. This style is considered
literary:
 Is it not time to leave.
 Would you not care for a drink?
Using "not" instead of the contraction
can produce certain stylistic effects:
To stress the negative meaning
of the sentence:
 "He will not come to your house" is
stronger than "He won't come to
your house"
To affect a literary style, especially
in the formation of a questions:
 Will you not come by and see us?
Negative constructions
Other negative constructions are
possible. Because English does not
allow double or triple negatives, it is
important to avoid using "not" with
other negative constructions. When
"not" is included, use the affirmative
forms of other adverbs:
No more / not... any more
 I want no more of your money
  I do n't want any more of your
money.
No one / not... anyone
 No one called tonight.
 I do n't want to
see anyone tonight.
Never / not... ever
 She never wants to see him again.
 She does n't ever want to see him
again.
Nothing / not... anything
 He does nothing at all.
 Ca n't you do anything right?
Nowhere / not... anywhere
 Where are you going? — Nowhere.
 I do n't want to go anywhere.
Not a single / not... a single
 Not a single letter arrived today.
  He does n't have a single idea
what we're doing.
Neither... nor...
 We neither ate nor drank during
the ceremony.
 I
like neither tomatoes nor zucchini.
Only (always placed before the
element one wishes to limit):
 She only has seven dollars.
 We were only playing.
 They were the only ones to come.

Nouns
 Gender
 Plural
 Related topics
Gender
In English nouns rarely change form,
even to indicate gender. As a general
rule, only nouns referring to people
and some animals reflect gender in
their form. By the same token, unlike
many other languages, the adjectives
modifying nouns will remain
unchanged.
Example:
 My poor little dog died.
However, certain nouns — especially
those referring to people – may have
different forms to indicate masculin
or feminine usage:
 man — woman
 gentleman — lady
 actor — actress
 uncle — aunt
 father — mother
The same can be said of certain male
and female animals:
 a buck, a doe
 a ram, a ewe
 a bull, a cow
 a stallion, a mare
In other cases, the word "male" or
"female" is added, if it is considered
necessary to be specific:
 a female cat
 a male giraffe
Note: If the gender of the person or
animal is known, one will generally
use the pronoun "he" or "she" to refer
to it, as appropriate. When the
gender is left unstated, the pronoun
"he" is generally used when speaking
of people, or "it" when speaking of
animals. Some objects are also
considered to be gendered in certain
usages: some people may refer to a
boat or a car as "she."
Certain nouns (especially the names
of professions) are traditionally
associated with men or women, in
which case one signals exceptions to
the tradition by adding "woman" (or
"lady") or "man" to the term:
 They are in a group of male
dancers.
 My wife prefers to see a woman
doctor.
Plurals
As a general rule, the plural is formed
by adding "-s" to the singular form of
nouns.
 shoe –> shoes
 book –> books
 river –> rivers
Nouns ending in "s" or "s" will
generally take the ending "-es" :
 bus –> buses
 kiss –> kisses
Words ending in "y" will generally
take the ending "-ies" in place of the
"y":
 party –> parties
 supply –> supplies
Certain words have very irregular
forms in the plural:
 one man –> two men
 one woman –> two women
 one person –> two people
 one foot –> two feet
 one mouse –> two mice
 one goose –> two geese
 one tooth –> two teeth
  one wife –> two wives
 one child –> two children
 one knife –> two knives
 one thief –> two thieves
 one dwarf –> two dwarves
(or: dwarfs)
 one potato –> two potatoes
 one leaf –> two leaves
 one life –> two lives
 one loaf –> two loaves
 one half –> two halves
A small set of words do not change
form in the plural:
 one moose –> two moose
 one sheep –> two sheep
 one aircraft –> two aircraft
Words of Greek or Latin origin which
have retained their original endings
will generally take the plural form
associated with the language they
are drawn from:
 one alumnus –> two alumni
 one syllabus –> two syllabi
 one alumna –> two alumnae
 one alga –> many algae
 one criterion –> many criteria
 one forum –> many fora
(or: forums)
 one thesis –> two theses
 one hypothesis –> two hypotheses
 one phenomenon –> two
phenomena
 one cactus –> two cacti
(or: cactuses)
  one diagnosis –> two diagnoses
 one oasis –> two oases
 one analysis –> two analyses
A few nouns are invariable or
collective, always indicating a plural
meaning:
 She gave me some information.
 Michelle has a lot of clothes.
Capital letters
Certain nouns are generally
capitalized, including: days of the
week and months; names of holidays,
cities (or states, etc.) and religions;
nouns of nationality:
 Minneapolis
 Jewish
 Monday
 April
Related topics
  Adjectives
 Definite articles
 Indefinite articles
 Partitive articles

Personal pronouns
 Forms
 Subject pronouns
 Predicate pronouns
 Order of pronouns
 Related topics
The following are the different forms
for personal pronouns in English:
person subject object1st I
me2nd you you3rd it, he, she it, him,
her1st plural we us3rd plural they
them
Use of the subject pronoun
Subject pronouns reflect the nouns
they replace. Since English nouns
rarely show gender, the pronouns
"he" and "she" are generally used
only for people or animals; in the
case of objects or impersonal
expressions, the pronoun "it" will be
used.
Examples:
 She wants to eat.
 You look tired.
 It is hard to cook well.
Use of predicate pronouns
Predicate pronouns will always have
the same form whether they are used
as direct, indirect, or prepositional
objects. The forms are: "me", "you",
"it", "him", "her", " us", "them".
Whatever the form of the sentence
(affirmative, negative, interrogative),
direct objects — or the pronouns
replacing them — will follow the verb:
 Did you buy it?
 You didn't buy it.
 You bought it.
Prepositional objects will come after
their preposition:
 Will you come to the store with
me?
 He left without her.
Indirect objects will generally come
after the proposition "to," except if
the pronoun precedes the direct
object, in which case the proposition
"to" disappears:
 I have spoken to her.
 I gave this present to them.
 But: I gave them this present.
Order of pronouns
When a verb is followed by two or
more pronouns, the following
sequence is observed:
object object subj. verb obj. indir
ect [Link] gave it to me for
Christmas
Examples:
 Don't tell that to him.
 He couldn't sell the car to them.
Exception: As noted above, one may
omit the preposition "to" in front of
an indirect object, in which case the
indirect object pronoun precedes the
direct object:
 He gave me it for Christmas.
 Don't tell him that.
 He couldn't sell them the car.
Related topics
 Relative pronouns
  Reflexive pronouns
 Reciprocal pronouns
 Demonstrative pronouns
 Possessive pronouns

The imperative
Imperatives are used to issue
commands. They use the infinitive of
verbs (dropping the word "to"); in the
first person plural ("we"), the
infinitive is preceded by "let's" (or:
"let us"):
 Speak!
 Finish your homework!
 Let's eat!
 Close the door!
The negative imperative is formed by
placing "don't" (or "do not") before
the imperative form; in the first
person plural one uses "let's not" (or
"let us not"):
 Let's not forget who helped us.
 Don't leave me!
 Don't walk on the grass!
 Please don't eat the daisies!
The imperative has no effect on the
word order of the rest of the
sentence.

Present participles
Formation
The present participle is formed by
adding the ending "–ing" to the
infinitive (dropping any silent "e" at
the end of the infinitive):
 to sing –> singing
 to talk –> taking
 to bake –> baking
  to be –> being
 to have –> having
Use
A. The present participle may often
function as an adjective:
 That's an interesting book.
 That tree is a weeping willow.
B. The present participle can be used
as a noun denoting an activity (this
form is also called a gerund):

 Swimming is good exercise.

 Traveling is fun.
C. The present participle can indicate
an action that is taking place,
although it cannot stand by itself as a
verb. In these cases it generally
modifies a noun (or pronoun), an
adverb, or a past participle:
 Thinking myself lost, I gave up all
hope.
 Washing clothes is not my idea of
a job.
 Looking ahead is important.
D. The present participle is used in
progressive verb tenses, which
indicate continuing actions or actions
in progress (the present progressive,
the future progressive, the present
perfect progressive):
 I am eating my dinner.
 He was walking across the park.
 We will be calling you tomorrow.
E. The present participle may be used
with "while" or "by" to express an
idea of simultaneity ("while") or
causality ("by"):
  He finished dinner while
watching television.
 By using a dictionary he could find
all the words.
 While speaking on the phone, she
doodled.
 By calling the police you saved my
life!
F. The present participle of the
auxiliary "have" may be used with
the past participle to describe a past
condition resulting in another action:
 Having spent all his money, he
returned home.
 Having told herself that she would
be too late, she accelerated.
Partitive article: "some"
When the article "some" appears
before a plural noun it functions like
an indefinite article:
 He has some tickets for the game.
 Some students decided not to
attend the class.
However, when "some" appears
before a singular noun, it is being
used as a partitive. This is to say that
a part of something is indicated, or a
partial (or indeterminate) quantity is
referred to. It is often used after
verbs of possession or consumption:
 Do you have some time?
 We're going to buy some milk.
 I heard some bad news.
 She has some money to spend.
 Would you like some help ?
Note: After expressions of quantity,
the partitive article is not used:
 Students buy a lot of pastries.
 Today people have more activities
than before.
In negative expressions, the partitive
article "some" generally becomes
"any" (this change will also occur in
negative interrogatives):
 She doesn't have any money.
 They didn't have any milk.
 Don't you have any money?
The word "any" is not strictly
necessary in the negative, and it may
often be omitted:
 I never have accidents.
 They didn't have milk.
Related topics
 Definite articles
  Indefinite articles

Habitual actions in the

past
To describe habitual, repeated
actions in the past, one generally
uses the construction used to +
verb. Thus:
 When I was little, we used to
go camping a lot.
 When my father was in school,
they used to slap children who
didn't behave.
 I used to work days, but now I
work the night shift.
In spoken English, one often uses the
common construction with
the modal "would," followed by the
main verb:
  When we were kids, we would
haze each other quite a bit.
 When I was little, we would
go camping a lot.
 When my father was in school,
they would slap children who
didn't behave.
See also:
 The preterit
 The past progressive

Past conditional
The past conditional is expressed
using the modal "would" before a
past infinitive (= "have" + past
participle). This construction serves
to express missed opportunities and
past hypotheses:
 She told me that she would have
liked to come and see us.
  In your position, I would have
done the same thing.
One finds it often in hypothetical
constructions with "if." When "if" is
followed by the pluperfect, the
conditional past is expected in the
second clause:
 If I had had the time, I would have
done my homework.
 If you had told me the truth,
I would have believed you.
 If he had worked harder, he' d
have received a better grade.
Note: In certain regions (principally
in the United States) one hears the
conditional past in both clauses of
hypothetical expressions:
 If you would have told me he was
going to win, I wouldn't have
believed you.
This usage is not recommended in
writing.
See related topics:
 Conditional
 Modal verbs

Past progressive
The past progressive is a past tense
which emphasizes the ongoing nature
of the action described. It is formed
by using the auxiliary "to be" with
the present participle:
 I was working.
 He was eating his dinner when the
phone rang.
 The cat was meowing last night
while we tried to sleep.
Normally, if an idea could be
expressed with the expression "was
in the process of doing" or with "was
in the midst of doing," the past
progressive will be more appropriate
than the simple past. Consequently,
verbs indicating belief, emotion,
possession, etc., are rarely
conjugated in the past progressive:
 I thought that was right. ["I was in
the process of thinking..." would
be awkward.]
 Cheryl owned her own house.
["Cheryl was in the midst of
owning..." would be awkward.]
Note: Do not use the past
progressive in order to
describe habitual actions in the past.

Pluperfect
The pluperfect is formed with the
preterit of the auxiliary "to have,"
followed by the past participle of the
principle verb:
  He had always wanted to travel in
Africa.
 She had already left when Philippe
arrived.
 I bought the book that Corinne had
recommended to me.
Usage
The pluperfect expresses the
precedence of one action compared
to another. The earlier action will be
described by the pluperfect; the later
will generally be described by the
preterit. When one action precedes
another, the pluperfect is not
absolutely necessary. Witness this
sentence, which provides a list of
actions in chronological order (all
expressed by the preterit):
 The alarm rang, I got up, and I ate
breakfast.
It is usually only when one seeks to
emphasize the precedence of one
action that the pluperfect will be
used. Often one finds such adverbs as
"already," which reinforces the
impression of precedence.
 She learned to love the dog
that had bitten her the week
before.
 When I got home,
I had already heard the bad news.
 The children ate all the cookies
that their father had bought.
In certain phrases one action may be
left implicit:
 She had already thought of that.
The pluperfect is often used in in
hypothetical expressions with "if," in
conjunction with the past conditional:
  I would not have come if I had
known he was ill.
With the adverb "just" the pluperfect
indicates the immediate past in a
past context:
 He had just eaten lunch when I
arrived.

Prepositions
 Space
 Geography
 Means of transportation
 Time
 "To" with indirect objects
 Related topics
Space
In their simplest form, prepositions
are used to indicate position (in time
or space) of one thing with respect to
another:
  I put the book on the table.
 She arrived before the others.
 He came toward me.
There are many prepositions. Here is
a partial list, with examples:
 to — He gave the book to his
friend.
 at — They arrived at his house at 5
o'clock.
 of — It was the third day of the
month.
 from — That young women
comes from Thailand.
 on — She put the plate on the
table.
 under — The cat crawled under the
bed.
 over — The boy threw the
rock over the tree.
 underneath — The rabbit
escaped underneath the fence.
 before — (time) She
arrived before the movie started.
 after — He called his
mother after he finished shopping.
 in front of — His mother parked her
car in front of his apartment.
 behind — The dog ran behind the
house.
 for — He went to the store for more
milk.
 toward — The criminal
walked toward him with a gun.
 against — Everyone
was against that idea.
 around — The athletes
ran around the track six times.
  close to — He placed the food close
to the squirrel.
 far from — He placed the food far
from the lion.
 next to — He was hot, so he sat
down next to the air conditioning.
 facing — She sat down on the other
side of the table, facing him.
 in the midst of — I don't know
where to find any free time in the
midst of these emergencies.
Usage of prepositions
The use of prepositions is one of the
most complex aspects of English, and
it is impossible to cover all cases.
Some general guidelines, however,
may be helpful.
Geography
Movement toward a town, country,
state, or continent is generally
expressed by the preposition "to";
presence in a city, state, etc. is
expressed by "in"; movement away
from a city, state, etc., is expressed
by "from" (if the verb requires a
pronoun):
 When are you going to Canada.
 He went to Asia last year.
 I spent three years in London.
 She was born in Normandy.
 He comes from Mexico.
Transportation
As a general rule, the preposition
"by" is used to describe how one has
traveled. The prepositions "in" and
"on" describe one's presence inside a
vehicle. In the case of small vehicles
(a car, a helicopter...), the preposition
"in" is required:
 I came by bike.
  Traveling by plane is my favorite.
 I was already on ( in) the train
when he arrived.
 She is waiting for me in the car.
Time
To designate an hour the preposition
"at" is used:
 Let's meet at six o'clock.
 They arrived at 4:45.
For dates and days of the week, one
uses "on":
 His birthday is on Monday.
 It happened on March 3, 1997.
For months one uses "in":
 My birthday is in September.
 We will begin work in August.
To express duration, the preposition
"for" is used; "in" can be used to
express the time it will take to
complete a task:
 I am going away for a few days.
 He worked with them for three
years.
 I can read that book in a day.
Indirect objects
The preposition "to", which generally
precedes an indirect object,
will disappear before a noun (or
pronoun) when the indirect object
precedes a direct object. ("To" will be
retained when the indirect
object follows a direct object.)
Examples:
 She gave John the ticket.
 But: She gave the ticket to John.
or:
 He sent her a letter.
  But: He sent a letter to her.
 or: He sent it to her.
This can also be seen in certain
phrases in which the direct object is
implicit.
 I already told it to him.
 But: I already told him (the news).
Related topics
 Verbs with prepositions
 Prepositional verbs

Present perfect
 General principles
 Recent past
General principles
The present perfect describes an
action or emotion which began in the
past and which continues in the
present. It is formed by using the
auxilary "to have" with
the participle:
 I have always wanted to visit
Israel.
 Money has always been the
problem and not the solution.
 I have discovered the answer.
After such expressions as "since",
"for", "howlong", etc., one generally
uses the present perfect or even
the present perfect progressive:
 I have been in Paris for three
weeks
 He has been telling that story for
years!
 How long have you lived in
Quebec?
In the negative, the present perfect
expresses and action which has not
yet occurred:
  I haven't finished yet.
 She said she would call, but she
hasn't called.
Recent past
In conjunction with the word "just",
the present perfect or the preterit can
be used to express the recent past:
 I (have) just arrived.
 The film has just come out [or: The
film just came out].
Note: do not confuse this use of
"just" (which indicates the recent
past) with "just about", which
indicates, to the contrary, something
which will happen in the near future:
 I have just about finished. (= I
have almost finished; I will finish
soon.)
Present perfect
progressive
A close relative of the present
perfect, the present perfect
progressive, emphasizes the
continuation of a single action: it
indicates that the action is ongoing or
continuing at the moment one is
speaking. The form — relatively
complicated — consists of the past
auxiliary "to have" + "been" (the
past participle of "to be") +
the present participle of the principal
verb. For example:
 I have been trying to reach you all
afternoon.
 They have been working hard to
finish their project.
Simple present
(indicative)
The simple present is used to express
actions which take place in the
present or which occur regularly. It
also serves to express general or
absolute statements not anchored in
a particular time frame.
 I work at home.
 Politics are a dirty business.
 Jill speaks four languages fluently.
 On Sundays, we like to fish.
In the interrogative, the present is
generally introduced by a form of the
verb "to do" ("do / does"):
 Does your father like to cook?
 Do you have time to stop by my
place?
The appropriate form of the verb "to
do" will also be used for the negative:
 I do not (don't) work at home.
 No, he does not (doesn't) like to
cook.
After the conjunctions "when," "as
soon as," etc., the present is used,
even though actions expressed may
refer to the future:
 She'll come when she can.
 He'll pay us as soon as we finish.
The present is extremely regular in its
conjugation. As a general rule, one
uses the base form of the infinitive
(minus the preposition "to"). For the
third person singular ("he," "she,"
"it"), an "-s" is added if the verb ends
in a consonant, or "-es" if the verb
ends with a vowel:
To work
  I work
 you work
 he / she / it works
 we work
 they work
To go
 I go
 you go
 he / she / it goes
 we go
 they go
However: verbs ending with
"consonant + y" (for example, "to
try," "to cry," " to bury," etc.) will
end in "-ies" in the third person
singular:
To bury
 I bury
  you bury
 he / she buries
 we bury
 they bury
"To have", "to be"
The only irregular verbs in the
present are "to have," "to be," and
the modal verbs.
To have
 I have
 you have
 he / she has
 we have
 they have
To be
 I am
 you are
 he / she is
  we are
 they are
Related topics
 Negatives
 Questions
 Near future
 Prepositional verbs

The preterit
As a general rule, the preterit is
formed by adding the ending "–ed" to
the infinitive (dropping any
unpronounced "e" in final position,
and changing any final "y" to "i"):
 to walk –> walked
 to answer –> answered
 to want –> wanted
 to smile –> smiled
 to cry –> cried
The preterit forms of many common
verbs are irregular:
 to be –> was (singular), were
(plural)
 to have –> had
 to do –> did
 to make –> made
 to eat –> ate
 to go –> went
 to drink –> drank
 to think –> thought
 to bring –> brought
 to drive –> drove
 to write –> wrote
 to sing –> sang
 to build –> built
(For a complete list of this irregular
forms, see Irregular preterits and past
participles).
Usage
The preterit expresses actions which
were completed in the past. Unlike
those described by the present
perfect, these actions do not continue
in the present. Unlike the past
progressive, the preterit does not
describe the process or duration of
actions: it states them only as
completed actions:
 She went to the store this
afternoon.
 They called the police.
 He came, he saw, he conquered.
The duration of the action is of no
importance: the preterit may describe
an action lasting an instant or many
years. Thus verbs indicating belief,
emotion, possession, location, etc.
will often be expressed in the preterit:
 I lived in London for three years.
 She owned three dogs throughout
her childhood.
 I never trusted what they told me.
In the negative and interrogative,
the auxiliary verb "to do", —
conjugated in the preterit — will be
used with the infinitive to express the
past:
 Did you arrive in time?
 Didn't you eat yet?
 We didn't go to the movies after
all.
Related topics
 The past progressive
 Habitual actions in the past
Future progressive
The future progressive serves to
express an action which will be in the
process of occurring. It is formed by
putting the present progressive into
the future: will be + present
participle.
 I will be waiting for you at six
o'clock.
 He will be eating by the time you
arrive.
Hint for usage: How to choose
between the future progressive and
the simple future? If it is possible to
use the expression "will be in the
process of," it is the future
progressive that best expresses the
action. The future progressive
indicates that an action will
be continuing at a given moment; the
simple future suggests that the action
will be complete. Thus the verb tense
can nuance meaning. Consider these
sentences, both of which are
grammatically correct:
 I will be finishing my homework at
10:00. (This suggests that I may
finish my homework at 10:05 or
10:15; I will be nearing
completion, in the process of
completion.)
 I will finish my homework at 10:00.
(This suggests that I will finish at
10:00 sharp.)

Present progressive
 General principles
 Near future
 In negative constructions
 Related topics
General principles
The present progressive is a version
of the present which emphasizes the
fact that an action is still unfolding (or
is continuing) at the time one speaks.
It is formed by using the auxilary "to
be" with the present participle:
 I am working.
 He is eating his dinner.
 The cat is meowing.
Usually, the present progressive
indicates that one is "in the process
of" or "in the midst of" doing
something. If this is the idea one
wishes to communicate, the present
progressive will be preferable to the
simple present. If you cannot replace
the verb by a form of "to be in the
process of", the present progressive
should probably not be used.
Indications of emotion, belief, and
possession are rarely conjugated in
the present progressive:
 I think that is right. ["I am in the
process of thinking" would be
awkward.]
 Cheryl owns her own house.
["Cheryl is in the process of
owning" would be awkward.]
In certain situations the present
progressive can indicate an action
which will take place in the
immediate future:
 I am going to the movies this
evening.
 They are leaving tomorrow.
Near future
To emphasize the idea of future
action while using the present tense,
one may use the verb "to go"; it
indicates what one is going to do. In
this case the principle verb remains in
the infinitive:
 I know he is going to yell at me!
 They are going to regret that
decision.
Note: The near future can also be
used in past constructions, in which
case the verb "to go" is conjugated
in the past progressive:
 She was going to leave, but the
telephone rang.
Present progressive in the
negative
The word "not" comes after the
auxiliary "to be":
 He is not working very hard.
 You are not driving fast enough.
Related topics
 Negations
  Questions

Demonstrative
adjectives and
pronouns
Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives have two
singular forms (this, that) and two
plural forms (these, those). These
adjectives are used to designate
proximity to an object, or to
distinguish between an object that is
close (in time or space) and one that
is more remote. Usually "this" and
"these" signal proximity, while
"that" and "those" suggest distance:
 These books are too expensive.
 This car is responsive.
 That man irritates me!
  This hotel is more expensive
than that one.
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns have the
same form as the demonstrative
adjectives, but are used without the
nouns to which they refer. In the
singular, when designating a specific
object, the pronoun "one" is often
added:
 These tomatoes are fresher
than those.
 These are better than those.
 Would you like a little of this?
 That strikes me as really weird!
 The book is more interesting
than that one.
In front of a relative pronoun, the
demonstrative pronoun becomes
"the one" or "the ones" (when
speaking of things), or "he / she
who", "they who" (when speaking of
people):
 This film is the one that you hated
so much.
 He who eats well works well.
 This pen is the one with which the
President signed the new law.
Related topics
 Relative pronouns
 Subject pronouns
 Reflexive pronouns
 Object pronouns
 Reciprocal pronouns
 Possessive pronouns

Questions
 Simple questions
 "Do"
  Inversion
 Modal verbs ("will", "would", etc.)
 Interrogative adverbs ("how?",
"when", "why?", etc.)
 Interrogative pronouns ("who",
"whom", "what", etc.)
 "Which", "which one"
Simple questions
Simple questions (that is, questions
to which one can respond by a simple
"yes" or "no") may be formed in three
different ways:
1. "Do": one precedes an assertion
with "do" or "does" (or " don't" or
"doesn't" for a negative expression,
or "did", "didn't" for the past):
 Do you want to go to the movies?
 Does she work at IBM?
 Don't you travel quite a bit?
  Do they answer questions quickly?
 Didn't they want to eat?
But: One never places "do" or
"does" before the verb "to be" or
before modal verbs in questions; in
this case it is preferable to invert the
subject and verb:
 Are you coming to the reception?
 Was the meeting boring?
 Weren't you hungry?
2. Inversion: with certain verbs
(especially the verbs "to be", "to
do", " to have" and modal verbs)
questions are formed by inverting the
subject and object. (In the case of the
verb "to have," which is usually
combined with "do" in interrogatives,
inversion signals a literary style.)
 Is Jack home?
 Have you nothing to declare?
  Would you like to go to the
movies?
 Will they ever come to visit?
 Can the employees talk to the
boss?
 Won't you sit down?
3. Modal phrases: If a modal verb is
used in a sentence, or if it is strongly
implied, a modal phrase can be used
to make an interrogative form. The
modal phrase is typically an inversion
of the subject and verb, in the
negative, repeated at the end of the
sentence:
 It's time to go, isn't it?
 He'd like to come with us, wouldn't
he?
 You would like to go with
us, wouldn't you?
  You can understand that, can't
you?
In the case of a negative question,
the modal phrase would be in the
affirmative:
 You wouldn't want to try it, would
you ?
 She won't be back, will she?
(See also: negations)
Interrogative adverbs
Simple questions solicit a "yes" or
"no" answer. More precise questions
may be formed by using the
interrogative adverbs: when, why,
how, how much, where. Generally,
the interrogative adverb precedes the
rest of the question; then the order of
the sentence follows the rules
indicated for inversion or
for questions formed with "do /
does".
 Where are you going?
 Why do you want to take this
class?
 How much do you earn a month?
 How do these machines work?
 When do you expect to get home?
See also: Questions, Interrogatives
pronouns.
Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to
ask who has done what, to
whom, why, with what, etc. Normally
these pronouns are placed at the
beginning of the sentence; hen the
order of the sentence follows the
rules indicated for inversion or
for questions formed with "do /
does".
One chooses the pronoun based on
its function, according to the
following table:
gramm. gramm. obj. of
a subject object prepositionperso
n who whom whom thing what what
whatpronoun which(one) which(one)
which(one)of selection
subject (person): who + question
 Who did this painting?
 Who wants to get an ice cream?
subject (thing): what + question
 What interests you?
 What is good in this restaurant?
direct object (person): whom +
question
 Whom did you see in France?
 Whom are you going to meet at
this reception?
direct object (thing): what +
question
 What do you want to do this
evening?
 What are you preparing?
object of a preposition
(person): preposition + whom +
question
 About whom are you thinking?
 With whom did you go out?
Note: In spoken English, one often
places the preposition at the end of
the sentence, in which case one uses
" who" instead of "whom"
 Who are you thinking about?
 Who did you go out with?
object of a preposition
(thing): preposition + what +
question
  With what did you open it?
 In what way does that concern
you?
Note: In spoken English, the
preposition is often put at the end of
the sentence:
 What did you open it with?
 What did did they base their
opinion on?
Which, which one, which ones
The adjective "which" and its
pronominal forms ("which", "which
one", " which ones") ask that a
person make a choice. Usually these
pronouns will be placed at the
beginning of the sentence; then the
order of the sentence follows the
rules indicated for inversion o
para question formed with "do /
does".
  Which film do you want to see?
 Which date did you choose?
 Here are two pizzas. Which one do
you prefer?
 There are many different
Burgundy wines. Which ones do
you like?

Possession
 Possessive adjectives
 Possessive pronouns
 "To belong"
 The "s" of possession
 "Whose"
In English possession may be
expressed in five different ways:
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives agree with the
person to whom they refer:
  I –> my
 you –> your
 he, her, it –> his (masculine),
her (feminine), its (impersonal)
 we –> our
 they –> their
So,
 I have lost my keys.
 They are coming in their car.
 I met your grandparents.
 This car has lost its power.
Note: In English the possessive
adjective is used to refer to parts of
the body:
 She brushes her teeth twice a day.
 He broke his arm playing soccer.
 His stomach aches.
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns, like the
adjectives, agree with the person to
whom they refer. Singular and plural
share the same form:
 I –> mine
 your –> yours
 he, she, it –> his (masculine),
hers (feminine), its (impersonal)
 we –> ours
 they –> theirs
So,
 I have my likes, and she has hers.
 If you give me one of yours, I'll
give you one of mine.
 I like our house, but frankly, I am
jealous of theirs!
 That's mine!
The verb "to belong to"
The verb "to belong to" indicates
ownership or possession:
 That poodle belongs to Louise.
 The world belongs to you.
The "s" of possession
One may add "–'s" to any noun in
order to indicate possession:
 I just read Gustave's book.
 The front door's lock is broken.
 Many of the world's countries are
poor.
Note: Do not confuse the "s" of
possession with the contraction of the
verb "is":
 Fred's going to fetch it. (=
Fred is going to fetch it.)
 The train's late again. (=The
train is late again.)
"Whose" for indicating
possession
"Whose" will be placed before the
possession (the object possessed),
and will refer ownership to the
preceding noun:
 The man whose dog bit me said he
was sorry. (The dog belongs to the
man.)
 Here is the woman whose
daughter I intend to marry.(The
woman is the mother of the
daughter.)

Reciprocal pronouns
To show that two people, represented
by a single grammatical subject, are
acting on each other, one uses the
reciprocal pronouns "one another"
or "each other".
 They hate each other.
  They killed one another.
 We talk to each other often.
Related topics
 Relative pronouns
 Subject pronouns
 Reflexive pronouns
 Object pronouns
 Demonstrative pronouns
 Possessive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used to show
that the actions described by a verb
act upon the subject of the verb: the
subject and the object are thus the
same. The forms of reflexive
pronouns correspond to the forms of
the subject pronouns:
 I –> myself
  you (singular) –> yourself
 you (plural) –> yourselves
 he –> himself
 she –> herself
 it –> itself
 we –> ourselves
 they –> themselves
To use a verb reflexively, the
reflexive pronoun must follow the
verb (and, in the case of an
intransitive verb, it will follow any
preposition used with the verb). If
there are multiple verbs in the
sentence, the reflexive pronoun
follows the verb to which it applies:
 I told myself it would never
happen.
 She talks to herself all the time.
 Look at yourself in that mirror!
  I would like to give myself a raise.
At the end of a sentence, one can add
reflexive pronouns as a way of
accentuating the subject in the
sentence. In this case, the verb
does not have reflexive power:
 I would rather do that myself.
 Can you talk to him yourself?
Related topics
 Relative pronouns
 Subject pronouns
 Object pronouns
 Reciprocal pronouns
 Demonstrative pronouns
 Possessive pronouns

Relative pronouns
 General information
 Subject pronouns
  Object pronouns
 Possession ("whose")
 As prepositional objects
 Time
 Space
 Related topics
General information
Relative pronouns are used to join
two sentences. For example, the
following two sentences,
 I found an apartment. This
apartment has three rooms.
may be joined using a relative
pronoun:
 I found an apartment which has
three rooms.
Relative pronouns have many
different
forms: who, whom, whose, that, w
hich, that which, what. The
pronoun is selected based on the
following criteria:
1. What is the
grammatical function of the pronoun?
Is it a subject, a direct object, or a
prepositional object?
2. Does the pronoun refer to
a person or a thing (or a situation)?
3. Does the pronoun have an
antecedent, or does it represent
an unknown entity?
4. Does it represent a special case
(possession, time, or space)?
According to the role it plays, the
pronoun will take one of the following
forms:
specific specific unspecified perso
n thing thingsubject who that that
which which whatdir obj who that
that which whom which
whatsubject prep+whom
prep+which prep+what
that+prep+ which
Subjects
The pronoun "who" expresses a
grammatical subject when this
subject is a person; "that" or "which"
are used (indifferently by most
speakers) to represent subjects which
are things, events, situations, etc.
 There's the man who stole my
wallet!
 I read a novel that entertained me
a great deal.
 He made a
mistake which embarrassed him.
When the antecedent is vague or
totally absent, one uses "what" or
(less commonly) "that which":
  What interests me in this film is
the music.
 That which eludes us intrigues us
the most.
 I don't know what happened.
Objects
The pronoun "whom" (in spoken
language one often hears "who")
expresses a grammatical object when
this object is a person; "that" or
"which" are used (indifferently by
most speakers) to represent objects
which are things, events, situations,
etc.
 She is a person whom I respect a
great deal.
 He ordered a beverage which he
didn't drink.
 She is talking about the
trip that we're going to take.
Note: Use of the relative pronoun is
optional (except in the case of
"what" or "that which" when
referring to specific antecedents); the
same sentences as above may be
written correctly without the
pronoun:
 She is a person I respect a great
deal.
 He ordered a beverage he didn't
drink.
 She is talking about the trip we're
going to take.
When the antecedent is vague or
absent, on uses "what" or (less
often) "that which":
 You can do what you want.
 What they are doing seems useful.
Possession: "whose" / "of which"
The pronoun "whose" expresses
possession when the subject is a
person; it will often be replaced by
" of which" if it refers to an object,
an event, etc.:
 The tourist whose ticket had
expired filed a complaint.
 There is the man whose mother is
our mayor.
 That was a good article, the
point of which was to make us
think.
Prepositional objects
The preposition generally precedes
the appropriate pronoun:
 Here's the pattern with which I
made this shirt.
 The woman for whom I work is
quite strict.
  Here's the tree next to
which Newton was sitting.
 They went out for dinner, after
which they went home.
In spoken English, one often places
the preposition at the end of the
clause. Moreover, with the pronoun
" what" this structure is required,
even in written English:
 Here's the pattern which I made
this shirt with.
 The woman whom I work for is
quite strict.
 Here's the tree which Newton was
sitting next to.
 Tell me what you're
thinking about.
Time
The pronoun "when" is used with
nouns indicating time. However, it is
rarely necessary to include this
pronoun, and it is often omitted:
 I remember the day when we met.
 I remember the day we met.
 He arrived at the
moment when we were speaking
of him.
 He arrived at the moment we were
speaking of him.
Space
When more specific prepositions
(such as "on," "under,", etc.) are not
necessary, the general pronoun
"where" will suffice:
 Here's the house where my
parents were born.
 She doesn't know where she's
going.
Related topics
  Subject pronouns
 Object pronouns
 Reflexive pronouns
 Reciprocal pronouns
 Demonstrative pronouns
 Possessive pronouns

The subjunctive
The subjunctive is used only in select
phrases or situations in English. One
finds vestiges of it in certain
hypothetical expressions (using "if +
to be") and in certain set phrases. (In
many cases the subjunctive —
considered archaic or literary — is
replaced by the modal "would," used
to express the conditional.) Other
meanings often communicated by the
subjunctive in other languages will be
expressed by modal verbs in English.
In constructions using "if + to be"
the subjunctive will amount to using
the form "were" (instead of "was")
with the first and third persons
singular ("I" and "he," " she," or "it").
(In spoken English, and in much
informal writing, "was" will still be
used.)
 If I were Muriel, I'd never go back
there.
 If she were alone, I'd stop by to
see her.
 He acts as if he were crazy.
Set phrases and proverbs:
 God help us!
 Long live the king!
 Would that I were free!

Superlatives
 General principles
  Irregular forms
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Related topics
General principles
When comparing two things one uses
the comparative; however, for
comparisons in larger groups, it is the
superlative which must be used. The
superlative designates extremes: the
best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.
The superlative operates like
the comparative, with these
exceptions:
A. While the word "more" or the
ending "–er" signals the comparative,
it is the word "most" or the ending "–
est" that designates the
superlative. (See irregular forms,
below):
  He is the most efficient worker we
have.
 That is the poor est family in the
neighborhood.
B. The compared term (adjective or
adverb) will be preceded by the
definite article:
 He works the fastest of any
student I know.
 She is the tallest woman in town.
B. Unlike the comparative, the
superlative is not followed by "than":
instead, one uses "of," followed by
the context of the comparison
(although this context is sometimes
implicit):
 It's the best day of my life!
 She works the best of the whole
class.
 She's the one who arrived first.
Irregular forms: Adjectives
Monosyllabic adjectives (and several
common two-syllable adjectives) take
the ending "–est" in superlatives of
superiority, and thus will not use the
adverb "most." However, these same
adjectives will use "less," like other
adjectives, in superlatives of
inferiority:
 young –> youngest
 tall –> tallest
 old –> oldest
If the adjective ends in "–y" the "y"
becomes "i":
 heavy –> heaviest
 early –> earliest
 busy –> busiest
 healthy –> healthiest
 chilly –> chilliest
If the adjective ends in "–e" one adds
only "–st" :
 wise –> wisest
 large –> largest
 simple –> simplest
 late –> latest
If the adjective ends in "single
vowel +consonant," the consonant
is doubled and one adds "–est":

 red –> reddest

 big –> biggest
 thin –> thinnest
 hot –> hottest
Some very common superlatives
have irregular forms:
 good –> best
 bad –> worst
  far –> farthest
Some adjectives exist only in
superlative form:
 first
 last
Irregular forms: Adverbs
Adverbs not ending in "–ly" do not
use the adverb "–most" in the
formation of superlatives of
superiority, but use instead the
ending "–est." However, these same
adverbs will use "less," like other
adverbs, in superlatives of inferiority:
 fast –> fastest
 hard –> hardest
And some adverbs have irregular
forms:
 well –> best
 badly –> worst
  far –> farthest
Related topics
 Comparatives

Prepositional Verbs
 Single preposition verbs
 Sentence structure
 Multiple preposition verbs
 Sentence structure
 Related topics
Single preposition verbs
A great number of verbs in English
can be modified by the addition of a
preposition. Often the preposition will
nuance, or even dramatically change,
the meaning of the base verb. The
meanings are often idiomatic, and the
meaning expressed by any given
preposition may be very different
from one verb to another.
It would be impossible to list all such
verbs here (but you will find them in
the dictionary itself). These examples
will suffice to provide an illustration of
the principle:
 to speak — to say words
 to speak up — to speak loudly
 to speak down (to someone) — to
be condescending toward
someone
 to speak for (someone) — to speak
in someone's place
 to put — to set down
 to put up — to place up high
 to put up — to put in jars or cans
 to put away — to put something
back where it belongs
 to put down — to release one's
grasp of something
  to put out — to place outside, or to
take outside
 to put on — to wear
 to turn — to twist
 to turn on — to make something
function (a light, a motor)
 to turn off — to remove the power
to (a light, a motor)
 to turn around — to turn to face the
opposite direction
 to turn up — to augment the
sound, the light
 to turn down — to diminish the
sound, the light
 to turn out — to become
 to turn red, white, etc. — to change
colors
Sentence structure
When the sentence includes a noun
object, the object will follow the
preposition; if the object is replaced
by a pronoun, the
pronoun precedes the preposition:
 He turned on the television.
 He turned it on.
 She put away her books.
 She put them away.
Multiple preposition verbs
There are many prepositional verbs
that take two prepositions:
 to put up with (something,
someone) — to tolerate someone
 to go out with — to accompany
someone
 to go off on (a digression, an
adventure) — to begin, to start
 to run away from — to flee
Sentence structure
When the verb is followed by two
prepositions, the object follows the
two prepositions, whether the object
is a noun or a pronoun:
 How can you put up with him?
 Bill should not go out with Monica.
Related topics
 Prepositions
 Verbs with prepositions

Verbs
Verb conjugations reflect three
elements: the subject, the tense, and
the mood. The subject may be
singular or plural and may be in the
first person ("I" or "we"), in the
second person ("you"), or in the third
person "he," she," "it," or "they").
Verb tenses include different forms of
the past, present and future. The
term "mood" refers, generally, to the
attitude of the speaker toward his
subject. The different moods include
the indicative, the subjunctive (rare in
English), the conditional, and the
imperative.
 Auxiliaries ("to be", "to have")
 Past conditional ("I would have
worked...")
 Present conditional ("I would
work...")
 Future perfect ("We will have
finished...")
 Near future ("We are going to
finish...")
 Future progressive ("I will be
calling you...")
 Simple future ("We will leave....")
 Imperative ("Let's go!")
 Irregular participles
 Past progressive ("I was
working...")
 Habitual past ("I used to work...")
 Pluperfect ("I had worked...")
 Present perfect ("I have
finished...")
 Present perfect progressive ("I
have been finishing...")
 Present progressive ("I am
finishing...")
 Simple present ("I finish...")
 Preterit ("I worked...")
 Subjunctive ("If I were you...")
 Modal verbs ("would", "should",
etc.)
 Prepositional verbs ("to put down,
to put up with..." etc.)
Verbs with prepositions
Certain verbs and verbal expressions
are generally followed by a
preposition before their object (and
this preposition will generally be
shown in the dictionary).
However, the meaning of these
verbs is not dramatically changed by
the addition of the preposition. The
same cannot be said of the
prepositional verbs, dealt with
in another section.
Examples:
 to wait for
 to look for
 to look at
 to listen to
 to pay for
 to ask for
  to be happy with something
 to be mad at (or: with) someone
 to depend on
 to be interested in
 to thank fort
 to be busy with
Sample sentences:
 She's the one who paid for our
dinner!
 I'm not asking for anything!
 I'm busy with my own stuff.
 That depends on you.
See also
 Prepositions
 Prepositional verbs

Questions
 Simple questions
  "Do"
 Inversion
 Modal verbs ("will", "would", etc.)
 Interrogative adverbs ("how?",
"when", "why?", etc.)
 Interrogative pronouns ("who",
"whom", "what", etc.)
 "Which", "which one"
Simple questions
Simple questions (that is, questions
to which one can respond by a simple
"yes" or "no") may be formed in three
different ways:
1. "Do": one precedes an assertion
with "do" or "does" (or " don't" or
"doesn't" for a negative expression,
or "did", "didn't" for the past):
 Do you want to go to the movies?
 Does she work at IBM?
  Don't you travel quite a bit?
 Do they answer questions quickly?
 Didn't they want to eat?
But: One never places "do" or
"does" before the verb "to be" or
before modal verbs in questions; in
this case it is preferable to invert the
subject and verb:
 Are you coming to the reception?
 Was the meeting boring?
 Weren't you hungry?
2. Inversion: with certain verbs
(especially the verbs "to be", "to
do", " to have" and modal verbs)
questions are formed by inverting the
subject and object. (In the case of the
verb "to have," which is usually
combined with "do" in interrogatives,
inversion signals a literary style.)
 Is Jack home?
  Have you nothing to declare?
 Would you like to go to the
movies?
 Will they ever come to visit?
 Can the employees talk to the
boss?
 Won't you sit down?
3. Modal phrases: If a modal verb is
used in a sentence, or if it is strongly
implied, a modal phrase can be used
to make an interrogative form. The
modal phrase is typically an inversion
of the subject and verb, in the
negative, repeated at the end of the
sentence:
 It's time to go, isn't it?
 He'd like to come with us, wouldn't
he?
 You would like to go with
us, wouldn't you?
  You can understand that, can't
you?
In the case of a negative question,
the modal phrase would be in the
affirmative:
 You wouldn't want to try it, would
you ?
 She won't be back, will she?
(See also: negations)
Interrogative adverbs
Simple questions solicit a "yes" or
"no" answer. More precise questions
may be formed by using the
interrogative adverbs: when, why,
how, how much, where. Generally,
the interrogative adverb precedes the
rest of the question; then the order of
the sentence follows the rules
indicated for inversion or
for questions formed with "do /
does".
 Where are you going?
 Why do you want to take this
class?
 How much do you earn a month?
 How do these machines work?
 When do you expect to get home?
See also: Questions, Interrogatives
pronouns.
Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to
ask who has done what, to
whom, why, with what, etc. Normally
these pronouns are placed at the
beginning of the sentence; hen the
order of the sentence follows the
rules indicated for inversion or
for questions formed with "do /
does".
One chooses the pronoun based on
its function, according to the
following table:
gramm. gramm. obj. of
a subject object prepositionperso
n who whom whom thing what what
whatpronoun which(one) which(one)
which(one)of selection
subject (person): who + question
 Who did this painting?
 Who wants to get an ice cream?
subject (thing): what + question
 What interests you?
 What is good in this restaurant?
direct object (person): whom +
question
 Whom did you see in France?
 Whom are you going to meet at
this reception?
direct object (thing): what +
question
 What do you want to do this
evening?
 What are you preparing?
object of a preposition
(person): preposition + whom +
question
 About whom are you thinking?
 With whom did you go out?
Note: In spoken English, one often
places the preposition at the end of
the sentence, in which case one uses
" who" instead of "whom"
 Who are you thinking about?
 Who did you go out with?
object of a preposition
(thing): preposition + what +
question
  With what did you open it?
 In what way does that concern
you?
Note: In spoken English, the
preposition is often put at the end of
the sentence:
 What did you open it with?
 What did did they base their
opinion on?
Which, which one, which ones
The adjective "which" and its
pronominal forms ("which", "which
one", " which ones") ask that a
person make a choice. Usually these
pronouns will be placed at the
beginning of the sentence; then the
order of the sentence follows the
rules indicated for inversion o
para question formed with "do /
does".
 Which film do you want to see?
 Which date did you choose?
 Here are two pizzas. Which one do
you prefer?
 There are many different
Burgundy wines. Which ones do
you like