Department of Avionics

Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology

Analog Electronics - AV212C
Prepared by - Divya K M

1
1 Operational Amplifier
The operational amplifier is a very high-gain DC-coupled differential amplifier with a
single-ended output. You can think of the classic long-tailed pair (§2.3.8) with its two
inputs and single output as a prototype, although real op- amps have much higher gain
(typically 105 to 106 ), lower output impedance, and they allow the output to swing
through most or all of the supply range (you often use a split supply, for example ±5 V).
Operational amplifiers are available in literally thousands of types. Ihe output (Vout )
goes positive when the non-inverting input (Vin +) goes more positive than the inverting
input (Vin +), and vice versa.
The (+) and (−) symbols don’t mean that you have to keep one positive with respect
to the other, or anything like that; they just tell you the relative phase of the output
(which is important to keep negative feedback negative).
The op-amp power supply rails (VCC and VEE ) can be selected as required. In many
electronic circuits, op-amps operate with dual supplies (for example, VCC = +20 V, VEE =
+5 V or VCC = +12 V, VEE = −12 V). Alternatively, they can also be powered from a
single supply, such as VCC = +12 V and VEE = 0 V.

Figure 1: Operational amplifier

1.1 The golden rules

1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference
between the inputs zero by swinging in the direction dictated by the differential
polarity of the input terminals.

2. The input draws no current (IB = 0). Since the input impedance is infinite (Zi =
∞) and the output impedance is zero (Zo = 0), the op-amp does not draw current
from the source, yet it can still supply the load.

2
1.2 Basic opamp circuits
1. Non-inverting amplifier: Input is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the
op-amp. At node A, we have:
VA = Vin

Using voltage division at point A:

RG
VA = Vout ·
RG + RF

Therefore, the output voltage is:

 
RF
Vout = Vin · 1 +
R
| {z G }
Gain

Figure 3: Voltage follower

Figure 2: Non-inverting amplifier

A voltage follower is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier where the gain
is unity (Gain = 1). An amplifier of unity gain is sometimes called a buffer because
of its isolating properties (high input impedance, low output impedance). In this
configuration, the output voltage directly follows the input.

Vout = Vin

This simple circuit is often used in the laboratory to test whether an operational
amplifier (IC) is functioning correctly.

2. Inverting amplifier: Input is applied at inverting terminal of the opamp. Apply-

ing KCL at the inverting input node,

Ix = Iy

Vin − 0 0 − Vout
=
RG RF

3
 Figure 4: Inverting amplifier

Rearranging gives the output voltage:

RF
Vout = −Vin ·
RG
|{z}
Gain

’-’ 180◦ phase shift between input and output.

3. Summing amplifier: The summing Amplifier is one variation of inverting ampli-

fier. In inverting amplifier there is only one voltage signal applied to the inverting
input. A basic inverting amplifier can be transformed into a summing amplifier by
connecting several input terminals in parallel to the existing input.

Figure 5: Summing amplifier

If = I1 + I2 + I3
     
0 − Vout V1 − 0 V2 − 0 V3 − 0
= + +
RF R1 R2 R3

4
  
RF RF RF
Vout = − V1 + V2 + V3
R1 R2 R3
3
X RF
Vout = − Vn
n=1
Rn
Note: V1 , V2 , V3 can be AC signals as well.

A summing amplifier combines multiple input signals into a single output, and this
technique is used in PVRs, IMAX for tasks such as audio mixing, where the sounds
from different sources (like different channels or connected devices) are added to-
gether and then amplified for playback. By taking various audio signals, converting
them to appropriate voltage levels, and feeding them into a summing amplifier, a
unified audio output can be created.
It is the basis of digital-to-analog conversion, although a different input circuit (an
R–2R ladder) is usually used.

4. Differential amplifier: The differential amplifier is a voltage subtractor circuit

which produces an output voltage proportional to the voltage difference of two
input signals applied to the inputs of the inverting and non-inverting terminals of
an operational amplifier. Applying KCL at node x:

Figure 6: Differential waveform

I3 + I4 = I− = 0

V2 − Vx Vout − Vx
+ =0
R3 R4
Voltage division rule at node y:

R2
Vy = V1 ·
R1 + R2

5
 Solving for Vout gives:
   
R2 R4
Vout = V1 (R3 + R4 ) − V2
R1 + R2 R3

If R2 = R4 and R1 = R3 , then:
 
R4
Vout = (V1 − V2 )
| {z } R3
difference | {z }
gain

In old karaoke systems, a differential amplifier was used to cancel vocals and retain
only the music. Since vocals in many old stereo recordings were mixed equally
in both left (L) and right (R) channels (center-panned), feeding L and R into the
differential amplifier produced an output proportional to L − R. This subtraction
removed the common vocal component while leaving the instruments, which were
spread differently across channels, largely intact.

5. T-network in feedback loop: Using T-network in feedback to get large closed

loop gain. Other networks such as star, delta,π-network, Z network can also be
used.

Figure 7: T-network in feedback

Applying KCL at node x:

Ix = −Iy 1
Vin − 0 0 − Vy
=
R1 R2
Applying KCL at node y:
Iy1 + Iy2 + Iy3 = 0

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 Vy − 0 Vy − 0 Vy − Vout
+ + =0
R2 R4 R3
Solving for Vout gives:
R2 R3
!
R2 + R3 + R4
Vout = −Vin ×
R1
| {z }
Very large gain from very small R’s

When dealing with extremely small signals, such as in the microvolt range (e.g.,
1 µV ), direct measurement is not practical because the voltage is too low to be
detected accurately. To overcome this, the signal is amplified by providing a very
high closed-loop gain — for example, on the order of 106 . However, achieving such
a large gain with a single feedback resistor is not feasible, since it would require an
impractically large resistance value. Instead, a combination of resistors is used to
realize the required high gain, making it possible to amplify the small input signal
to a measurable level. Try this simple circuit in the lab:

1. Connect a long wire to the non-inverting (+) input of an operational amplifier

(op-amp). Leave the other end of the wire dangling in the air.
2. Connect an LED to the output of the opamp(OP741)
3. Power the op-amp using appropriate supply voltages.

Figure 8: Noise effect

Observation : The long, floating wire acts as an antenna, picking up ambient elec-
tromagnetic noise from the environment. This noise is fed into the op-amp’s non-
inverting input and gets amplified. As a result, the op-amp’s output voltage fluctu-
ates. These fluctuations can drive the LED, causing it to blink or flicker. This visual
flickering indicates the presence and amplification of environmental noise signals.

6. Low pass filter: Low Pass Filter only allows low-frequency signals to pass while
blocking high frequencies.

7
 Figure 9: Low pass filter

 
XC ∥ RF
Vout = −Vin
RG
RF
At ω = 0 : XC = ∞ =⇒ Vout = −Vin
RG
At ω = ∞ : XC = 0 =⇒ Vout = 0

Similarly, if XC is connected in parallel with RG , the circuit forms a high-pass filter.

 
RF
Vout = Vin 1+
XC ∥ RG

Figure 10: High pass filter

7. Transimpedance amplifier: A resistor can act as a simple current-to-voltage

converter because the voltage across it is proportional to the current through it.
However, since it has resistance, it presents a load to the current source, which can
be a problem if the source cannot supply enough voltage to maintain a constant

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 current(Loading effect). This is especially important for sensitive devices like pho-
todiodes or solar cells, where the generated current can drop as voltage increases.
In such cases, using just a resistor can distort the measurement, and more advanced
circuits like transimpedance amplifiers are preferred.

Figure 11: Transimpedance amplifier

Vout = −I · RF

Vout : Current converted to voltage information, I : Photodiode or source current, RF :

Gain

8. Current source: With an op-amp and external transistor it is possible to make

a simple high-quality current source for a load returned to ground. Irrespective to
the value of Load resistor RL constant current IL will flow through the load.

Figure 12: Current source

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 R2
Vin = VCC ·
R1 + R2

R1 1 VCC R1
IL = VCC · · =
R1 + R2 R R(R1 + R2 )

1.3 Basic cautions for op-amp circuits

1. In all op-amp circuits, golden rules I and II (§1.1) are obeyed only if the op-amp is
in the active region, i.e., inputs and outputs are not saturated at one of the supply
voltages.
overdriving/saturation one of the amplifier configurations will cause output clipping
at output swings near VCC or VEE. When the output is clipped, the inputs will
no longer be maintained at the same voltage. Vin+ ̸= Vin−
The op-amp output can not swing beyond the supply voltages (typically it can
swing only to within 2 V of the supplies. i.e., VCC-2V to VEE+2V
A few opamps are rail to rail opamps, can swing upto VCC to VEE, but if it is not
mentioned mentioned so in datasheet, assume itis not rail to rail opamp.

Figure 13: Operating region of opamp

2. The feedback must be arranged so that it is negative. This means (among other
things) that you must not mix up the inverting and non-inverting inputs.
feedback : If output increases then your differential input should reduce.

3. There must always be feedback at dc in an op-amp circuit. Otherwise the op-amp

is guaranteed to go into saturation.

4. Many op-amps have a relatively small maximum differential-input voltage limit.

The maximum voltage difference between the inverting and non-inverting inputs
may be limited to as little as 5 volts in either polarity. Breaking this rule will cause
large input currents to flow, with degradation or destruction of the op-amp.

10
 Figure 14: Drop in output voltage(2 V)

1.4 Power booster

Operational amplifiers are inherently limited in their output drive capability and
can typically supply only a few milliwatts of power, generally in the range of 1–2 W.
For applications where the load demands higher power, such as in audio amplifiers
for speakers, wireless communication modules, or television circuits, the op-amp
alone becomes insufficient. To overcome this limitation, the op-amp is often used
in conjunction with external power transistors. In this configuration, the op-amp
provides the necessary voltage gain and control, while the transistors supply the
required current to deliver higher power to the load.

Figure 15: Power booster Figure 16: Current sink and source

In this case a non-inverting amplifier has been drawn, though a follower can be
added to any op-amp configuration. Notice that feed-back is taken from the emitter;
thus feedback enforces the desired output voltage in spite of the VBE drop. This
circuit has the usual problem that the follower output can only source current.

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1.5 Linear voltage regulator
An op-amp can provide the gain for a feedback voltage regulator (Figure 4.29).
The op-amp compares a sample of the output with the zener reference, changing
the drive to the series “pass transistor” as needed. This circuit supplies a stable
10 V output (“regulated”), at up to 1 A load current.

Figure 17: Linear voltage regulator

The voltage divider that samples the output could be a potentiometer, for ad-
justable output voltage.
Suppose the output voltage increases. As a result, the voltage at point Vx also
rises, which raises the potential at the inverting terminal of the op-amp. This
voltage is then compared with the fixed reference voltage provided by the zener
diode (for example, 5.6 V). Since the inverting input voltage has increased, the op-
amp output decreases. Consequently, the base drive to the transistor T1 is reduced,
causing it to conduct less current. This reduction in current lowers the output
voltage, thereby bringing it back toward the regulated value. The efficiency of
Linear voltage regulator is given by

Vout · IIout Vout

η= =
Vin · Iin Vin
Hence, the efficiency does not depend on the load current.
Rz should be sufficient to maintain the Vz voltage for all the input ranges.

Vin − Vz
Rz =
Iz

where Iz can be obtained from the Zener diode datasheet.

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 The 2N3055, with a current gain (β) of 20–40, is a high-power transistor that
cannot be driven directly by an op-amp. To overcome this limitation, a low-power
transistor such as the 2N3725, with a higher current gain (β of 100–250), is first
driven by the op-amp. This low-power transistor in turn drives the high-power
transistor. Such a configuration is known as a Darlington pair. Depending on the
application, Darlington pairs may be formed using different transistor combinations,
such as NPN–NPN, NPN–PNP, PNP–PNP, or PNP–NPN.
Vout = 10 V, and the load current is 1 A. The power dissipated in the transistor
is given by
P = (Vin − Vout ) · IL = (18 − 10) · 1 = 8 W.

This represents a significant amount of power loss. To safely dissipate this heat,
Darlington pair transistors are always mounted on a heat sink. The heat sink pro-
vides a larger surface area, allowing the generated heat to be effectively transferred
to the surrounding atmosphere.

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1.6 Departure from ideal op-amp performance
Characteristics of an Ideal Op-Amp:

1. Infinite Input Impedance: The op-amp draws no current at its input [Link]
you connect a sensor (like a temperature sensor) to the input of an ideal op-amp,
the sensor will not be loaded because the op-amp does not “steal” any current from
it. This ensures accurate sensing.

2. Zero Output Impedance (Open-Loop): The op-amp can deliver any amount
of current to the load.

3. Infinite Voltage Gain (Differential Gain): The op-amp amplifies the difference
between its two inputs (V1 − V2 ) with an infinitely large gain. Even a very tiny
difference of 1 µV between V1 and V2 would produce a very large output (ideally
infinite). In practice, feedback resistors are used to control this gain and keep the
output stable.

4. Zero Common-Mode Gain:If the same voltage is applied to both input termi-
nals, the op-amp output will be zero. If V1 = V2 = 5 V, then the difference is zero,
so the output will also be zero. This helps in rejecting noise that is common to
both inputs (called common-mode noise).

5. Zero Offset Voltage When both inputs are exactly zero, the output is ideally
should be zero. but Real op-amps may produce a small error voltage here, called
offset voltage.

6. Infinite Slew Rate:The output of the op-amp can change instantaneously in re-
sponse to a change at the input.

These are independent of temperature changes and supply voltage change.

1. Input current : The input terminals of an op-amp, Vin+ and Vin− , will source or
sink a small current, known as the input bias current. For a JFET-input op-amp
such as the 411, the bias current is typically 50 pA (200 pA maximum) at room
temperature, and can rise to as much as 4 nA at 70◦ C. A typical BJT-input op-amp,
such as the OP27, has a bias current of about 15 nA, which varies only slightly with
temperature.
These input bias currents can cause voltage drops across the feedback resistors, bias
networks, and source impedance.
When a potential divider is designed to feed the input of an op-amp, it is usually
assumed that the op-amp input current is zero, since an ideal op-amp has infinite
input impedance and does not load the divider. In practice, however, real op-amps

14
 draw a small input bias current at their terminals, and this current flows through the
resistors of the divider, disturbing the intended voltage. Moreover, the input bias
current varies with temperature and the mismatch between the two input currents
(input offset current) further adds to the inaccuracy.

2. Input offset current : Input offset current is a fancy name for the difference of the
input currents between the two inputs. Unlike input bias current, this current is
due to manufacturing variations. Typically, the offset current is somewhere between
one-half and one-tenth the bias current.

3. Input impedance :Input impedance refers to differential input resistance (impedance

looking into one input, with the other input grounded). For FET-based op-amps,
the input impedance is approximately 1012 Ω, while for BJT-based op-amps, it is
around 2 MΩ.

4. Common mode input range : The inputs to an op-amp must stay within a certain
voltage range, typically less than the full supply range, for proper operation. If the
inputs go beyond this range, the gain of the op-amp may change drastically. For a
411 op-amp operating with ±15 V supply, the common-mode input voltage range
is ±11 V. In addition to this range, op-amps also have a minimum allowable input
voltage relative to the negative supply. For example, in the case of the 411, if VEE
is less than −10 V, then input voltage cannot be driven below −10 V.

5. Differential input range : Some bipolar op-amps allow only a limited voltage be-
tween the inputs, sometimes as small as ±0.5 V.

6. Output Impedance : Output impedance Ro refers to the op-amp’s intrinsic output

impedance without feedback. For the 411, it is about 40 Ω, but for some low-power
op-amps it can be greater than 100 Ω. Feedback reduces the output impedance
to an insignificant value; however, what usually matters more in practice is the
maximum output current.

7. Voltage gain and Phase shift : The open-loop voltage gain Avo (sometimes denoted
as AV OL , AV , GV , or GV OL ) of an op-amp is typically in the range of 105 to 106
at DC, which corresponds to about 100 dB to 120 dB when expressed in decibels.
This gain decreases with frequency, eventually reaching unity at a frequency usually
between 0.1 MHz and 10 [Link] roll-off characteristic is similar to that of a simple
RC low-pass filter, producing a constant 90◦ lagging phase shift from input to output
(in open-loop operation) for frequencies above the roll-off point. As the open-loop
gain approaches unity, the phase shift further increases to about 120◦ –160◦ . It is
important to note that if the phase shift reaches 180◦ while negative feedback is
applied, the feedback effectively becomes positive, which can lead to oscillations.

15
 8. Input offset voltage : Op-amps do not have perfectly balanced input stages due
to manufacturing variations. The problem is more pronounced in FETs, which
have poorer matching of input thresholds. If the two op-amp inputs are connected
together to create exactly zero differential input signal, the output will usually
saturate at either V + or V − (it is unpredictable which one). The difference in
input voltages required to bring the output to zero is called the input offset voltage,
VOS (as if there were a small battery of that voltage in series with one of the inputs).
Typical offset voltages are around 1 mV, but “precision” op-amps can have offset
voltages as small as 10 µV. Some op-amps provide provisions for trimming the
input offset voltage to zero.

Figure 18: Voltage offset

9. Slew rate : Output of opamp (internally) has a capacitance this limits the rate at
which output voltage will swing. This limiting rate is called as slew rate of opamp.
For the 411 op-amp, the slew rate is approximately 15 V/µs. In comparison, low-
power op-amps typically have slew rates below 1 V/µs, whereas high-speed op-amps
can achieve slew rates of several hundred volts per microsecond. In the laboratory,
the slew rate of a device such as the LM741 can be measured by applying a sinusoidal
input and sampling at a sufficiently high frequency. However, for modern high-
speed op-amps(comparator opamp), the slew rates are so large that practical test
equipment may not be fast enough to capture them accurately, and the datasheet
becomes the only reliable source of this specification.
If a sinusoidal signal is applied to the op-amp(LM741) input and its frequency
is gradually increased, after certain frequency the output will eventually exhibit
a reduction in amplitude. This occurs because the op-amp’s slew rate limits its
ability to reproduce high-frequency signals without distortion.
A sine wave of frequency f hertz and amplitude A volts requires a minimum slew
rate of 2πAf V/sec.

10. Temperature dependence : Most of these parameters have some temperature de-
pendence. However, this usually doesn’t make any difference, since small variations

16
 Figure 19: Sine wave

in gain, is compensated by feedback. Furthermore, the variations of these parame-

ters with temperature are typically small compared with the variations from unit to
unit. The exceptions are input offset voltage and input offset current; these input
errors will matter, particularly if you’ve trimmed the offsets approximately to zero,
and will cause drifts in the output which can not be mitigated by feedback.

11. CMRR and PSRR : Op-amps are also limited by their finite common-mode re-
jection ratio (CMRR) and power-supply rejection ratio (PSRR). These parameters
reflect the op-amp’s inability to perfectly reject common-mode input variations and
fluctuations in the power supply. As a result, such disturbances can appear at the
output. Typically, the CMRR is on the order of 106 , while the PSRR is around 105 .

1.7 Effects of opamp limitations on circuit behavior

1. Gain and Bandwidth :The open-loop gain of an op-amp decreases with frequency,
forming an envelope curve within which the device can operate. By selecting ex-
ternal resistors R1 and R2 , the closed-loop gain can be set to a desired value, but
this comes at the expense of bandwidth due to the gain–bandwidth tradeoff. For
instance, an op-amp with an open-loop gain of 106 may be configured for a closed-
loop gain of 100, resulting in a bandwidth of about 5 MHz, whereas operating it at
a gain of 105 would restrict the bandwidth to around 100 Hz. To experimentally
measure the bandwidth, a sinusoidal input is applied (typically to the inverting
terminal) while adjusting R2 : as R2 decreases, the closed-loop gain reduces and the
corresponding bandwidth increases. The bandwidth is identified as the frequency
range over which the op-amp maintains a linear response without distortion, usually
defined by the −3 dB point (e.g., a gain drop from 60 dB to 57 dB). Thus, there is
always a compromise between gain and bandwidth. In applications requiring both
high bandwidth and large overall gain, cascading multiple op-amps with smaller
individual gains (e.g., three stages of gain 10 to achieve 1000) provides a practical
solution.

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 Gain × Bandwidth = constant

For the slew rate S, the output peak-to-peak amplitude Ap-p is limited as

S
Ap-p <
πf

This slew rate limitation can also be exploited to filter out sharp noise spikes from
the desired signal.

Figure 20: Gain vs bandwidth

2. Output current : Because an op-amp can only source or sink a limited amount
of output current, its ability to drive heavy loads is restricted. When the load
resistance connected to the output is small, the current demand increases according
to
Vout
Iout = .
RL
If this demand exceeds the op-amp’s maximum output-current capability, the device
is unable to maintain the desired voltage at the output. As a result, the maximum
output voltage swing is reduced (opamp can’t source that current), meaning the
op-amp cannot reach the full positive or negative supply limits under such loading
conditions.

3. Offset voltage : Because of the input offset voltage, an op-amp can produce a
nonzero output even when the input is zero. If you have same voltage at both
input terminals, it doesn’t add any error at output. but if the difference of voltage
appears then it causes significant error in the output signal.

Vout = G · Vos ,

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 where G is the closed-loop gain and Vos is the input offset voltage. For an inverting
amplifier with a gain of 100 and Vos = 2 mV, the output offset becomes

Vout = 100 × 2 mV = 200 mV.

This shows that even a small input offset voltage can result in a significant output
error when the amplifier gain is large.
Solutions :

(a) If you don’t need gain at dc, use a capacitor to drop the gain to unity at dc.
In this case you could do that by capacitively coupling the input signal.

Figure 21: Blocking DC at input

(b) Trim the voltage offset to zero with the manufacturer’s recommended trimming
network (Connecting R to offset pin of opamp).
(c) Use an op-amp with smaller VOS .
(d) Trim the voltage offset to zero with an external trimming network.

4. Input bias current : Even with a perfectly trimmed op-amp, inverting amplifier
circuit will produce a nonzero output voltage when its input terminal is connected
to [Link] is because the finite input bias current, IB , produces a voltage drop
across the resistors, which is then amplified by the circuit’s voltage gain.
solution : Ensure that both inputs see the same dc driving resistance.

5. Input offset current : Only way to mitigate is to keep impedance same at both
input terminals. that is ensuring same amount of current flowing in both terminals.
Adding extra impedance will not affect the functionality of circuit.

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 Figure 22: External trimming circuit - Inverting and non-inverting opamp

Figure 23: Inverting amplifier with equal impedance at both input terminals

1.8 Limitations imply tradeoffs

The practical limitations of op-amp performance directly affect the choice of component
values and overall circuit design. For example, finite open-loop gain and input offset volt-
age limit the achievable accuracy of amplification, while input bias currents can introduce
errors in high-impedance networks, thereby reducing precision. Bandwidth and slew-rate
constraints restrict the speed at which the circuit can operate, often forcing a tradeoff
between high-frequency performance and stability. Similarly, limitations in output cur-
rent drive capability and voltage swing influence the choice of load resistances, impacting
efficiency and the required component size (e.g., larger resistors or external buffer stages).
From a cost perspective, achieving higher performance often requires precision resistors,
matched components, or specialized low-offset op-amps, increasing both design cost and
complexity. Furthermore, attempts to mitigate one limitation (such as improving offset

20
correction) may increase circuit complexity or component count, which in turn affects the
physical size of the design. Thus, op-amp non-idealities always lead to tradeoffs among
accuracy, precision, efficiency, size, cost, and complexity, requiring careful optimization
depending on the application requirements.
The cost of electronic components is also influenced by their quality and reliability.
Components are typically classified into different categories based on their operating
temperature range and application requirements:

1. Commercial grade: 0◦ C to 70◦ C

2. Industrial grade: −20◦ C to 125◦ C

3. Automotive grade: −40◦ C to 125◦ C

4. Military grade: −55◦ C to 155◦ C

5. Space grade: Radiation-tolerant, −55◦ C to 155◦ C

As the grade of the component increases, its reliability improves, but so does the
cost—in some cases up to seven times higher than commercial-grade parts. Additionally,
higher-grade components require more extensive testing and qualification, which further
increases their overall cost.
Here yesterday, gone today , When designing an amplifier, the process usually
begins with creating a schematic, selecting a suitable op-amp, building a prototype,
designing the PCB, and then testing to see if the circuit meets the required specifications.
Once this is done, the design is handed over to the production team, who check if the
product can actually be manufactured in large quantities. Building one or two prototypes
is relatively easy, but achieving the same performance in a million units is much more
challenging.
For example, using a trimpot might work in a prototype, but it is not practical for mass
production. Therefore, the designer must find a way to meet the specifications without
relying on such components. This is an iterative process, and it highlights the importance
of Design for Manufacturing (DFM), which means considering manufacturability right
from the design phase.
In higher-grade electronics, Design for Testing (DFT) also becomes important, ensur-
ing that every unit can be tested reliably in production.
Many electronic parts are discontinued because:

1. Obsolescence: Newer and better parts are released, so older ones are no longer
useful.

2. Low demand: If a part is not selling well, manufacturers stop producing it.

21
 3. Lost design data: Sometimes the original schematics or design files are no longer
available, so the part cannot be made again.

4. Company changes: If the manufacturer goes out of business or is taken over (for
example, Linear Technology was acquired by Analog Devices), certain parts may
be discontinued.

References
[1] Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill, The Art of Electronics, Third Edition, Cambridge
University Press. Chapter 4: Operational Amplifier (Sections 4.1–4.4).

[2] David A. Bell, Electronic Devices and Circuits, Third Edition, Prentice Hall of India.
Chapter 13: Operational Amplifiers and Op-amp Applications.

[3] Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, Sixth Edition, Oxford
University Press. Chapter 2: Operational Amplifiers.

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