SYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION: KEYS AND DATA

ENCRYPTION STANDARD, TRIPLE ENCRYPTION, SECRET

KEY ENCRYPTION

ASSYMETRIC ENCRYPTION, RSA ALGORITHM,

DIGITAL SIGNATURE, VPN
 Symmetric Encryption
• or conventional / private-key / single-key
• sender and recipient share a common key
• all classical encryption algorithms are private-
key
• was only type prior to invention of public-key
in 1970’s
• and by far most widely used
 Some Basic Terminology
• plaintext - original message
• ciphertext - coded message
• cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
• key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
• encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
• decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
• cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
Symmetric Cipher Model
 Requirements
• two requirements for secure use of symmetric
encryption:
– a strong encryption algorithm
– a secret key known only to sender / receiver
• mathematically have:
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)
• assume encryption algorithm is known
• implies a secure channel to distribute key
Model of Symmetric Cryptosystem
 Cryptography
• characterize cryptographic system by:
– type of operations used for transforming plaintext
to ciphertext
• substitution – in which each element in the plaintext is
mapped into another element
• transposition – in which elements in the plaintext are
rearranged
– number of keys used
• single-key or private
– way in which plaintext is processed
• block / stream
CLASSICAL ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES
=> Symmetric Encryption ( Where Key should be
same at Sender and Receiver side to Encrypt and Decrypt message)

Techniques

Substitution Cipher Transposition Cipher Tech.

Tech. ( Transposition means Encryption by
( Talking in later permutation of alphabets )
slides )
Substitution Cipher
• Definition
► It means the letters of the plain text are replaced by other letters or by
numbers or symbols.

►Basic example

Plain text = NAME

Cipher text = IWPX

►Here we can say that N replaced by I , I replaced by W,

M replaced by P , E replaced by X.
Substitution Techniques

► Basically there are many substitution techniques but here we are talking
about two important techniques

Monoalphabetic Cipher
(One to One Substitution) Polyalphabetic Cipher (One to
many Substitution)
Caesar Cipher
• Before talking about Monoalphabetic Cipher we need to know
about Caesar Cipher
• It is also called Shift cipher or Additive Cipher .
• In this cipher each letter in the plain text is replaced by a letter
corresponding to a number of shift in the alphabet.
• ALGO
We have Key = n(number), p=plain text, c = cipher
text;
Encryption (C) = E( k , p ) = (p + k)mod26
Decryption (P) = D( k , c ) = (c - k)mod26
Monoalphabetic Cipher
• It’s a fixed substitution cipher technique
• Fixed means if we used ‘ X ’ for ‘ N ‘ then always we will
use ‘ X ‘ only in place of ‘ N ‘.
• In monoalphabetic cipher , relation between a character
in the plaintext to a symbol in the cipher text is always
one-to-one
• For example we have given alphabetic letter table with
corresponding cipher text
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
N O A T R B E C F U X D Q G Y L K H V I J M P Z S W
Monoalphabetic cipher example

Plain Text
Cipher Text

Ex :- We can use the KEY in given above table to encrypt the message

Plain Text :- “ this message is easy to encrypt but hard to find the key “

Corresponding Cipher Text :-

“ICFVQRVVNEFVRNVSIYRGAAHSLIOJICNHTIYBFGTICRXRS “
Polyalphabetic Cipher
• There is no fixed substitution.
• Each occurrence of a character may have a different substitute it
means we can use more than one substitution for the same letter
• The relationship between a character in the plain text to a character
in the cipher text is one-to-many.
Example:-

M y na m e O Z RS W D
Vigenere Cipher
• It is a polyalphabetic substitution cipher
• The encryption is done using a 26x26 matrix or that matrix called
vigenere table

• Example :- Basic steps

We have
Plain text = P( size ‘n’)
Key = K(size ‘m’)

Now if (n>m) :- we divide the plain text into some blocks( where each
block size is equal to ‘m’(size of key))
Vigenere Example
• We have two method to encrypt the plain text
• Method :- 1 Using Vigenere table (used to find cipher text)
Cont..

Message = GIVEMONEY
Key = LOCK Encryption

Plaintext G I V E M O N E Y
Key L O C K L O C K L
Ciphertext R W X O X C P O J

Decryption

Ciphertext R W X O X C P O L
Key L O C K L O C K L
Plaintext G I V E M O N E Y
Cont..
• Method – 2 :- When we don’t have vigenere table
We can express the vigenere cipher in the following manner :-

Plain text (P) = p0,p1,p2…….p(n-1)

Key (K) = k0,k1,k2……..k(m-1)

Cipher text (C) = E(K,P) = E[(k0,k1…k(m-1)) , (p0,p1….p(n-1))]

=> (p0+k0)mod26 , (p1+k1)mod26……(p(m-1)+k(m-
1))mod26

General equation
Encryption :-
C(i) = [ p(i) + k(i) ] mod 26

Decryption :-
P(i) = [ C(i) – k(i) ] mod 26
 Cont..
• Example :-
Key = “ deceptive ’’
Plain text = ‘ wearediscoveredsaveyourself ’
Cipher text = ‘ ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ ’
Expressed numerically , we have the following results.

Key 3 4 2 4 15 19 8 21 4 3 4 2 4 15
Encryption Plain text 22 4 0 17 4 3 8 18 2 14 21 4 17 4
Cipher text 25 8 2 21 19 22 16 13 6 17 25 6 21 19

Key 3 4 2 4 15 19 8 21 4 3 4 2 4 15
Decryption Cipher text 25 8 2 21 19 22 16 13 6 17 25 6 21 19
Plain text 22 4 0 17 4 3 8 18 2 14 21 4 17 4
 VERNAM CIPHER

• The ultimate defense against such a cryptanalysis is to

choose a keyword that is as long as the plaintext and has no
statistical relationship to it.
• Such a system was introduced by an AT&T engineer named
Gilbert Vernam in 1918.
• His system works on binary data (bits) rather than letters.
• The system can be expressed succinctly as follows (Figure 2.7):
• ci = pi ki
• where
pi = ith binary digit of plaintext
ki = ith binary digit of key
ci = ith binary digit of ciphertext
= exclusive-or (XOR) operation
• Because of the properties of the XOR, decryption simply
involves the same bitwise operation:
• pi = ci ki
Block Ciphers and The Data
Encryption Standard (DES)
 Traditional Block Cipher Structure
• Many symmetric block encryption algorithms
in current use are based on a structure
referred to as a Feistel block cipher.
• For that reason, it is important to examine the
design principles of the Feistel cipher.
 Stream Ciphers
• A stream cipher is one that encrypts a digital data
stream one bit or one byte at a time.
• Examples of classical stream ciphers are the
autokeyed Vigenère cipher and the Vernam cipher.
• In the ideal case, a one-time pad version of the
Vernam cipher would be used, in which the
keystream (ki) is as long as the plaintext bit stream
(pi).
• If the cryptographic keystream is random, then this
cipher is unbreakable by any means other than
acquiring the keystream.
• Accordingly, for practical reasons, the bit-stream
generator must be implemented as an
algorithmic procedure, so that the cryptographic
bit stream can be produced by both users.
• In this approach the bit-stream generator is
a key-controlled algorithm and must
produce a bit stream that is
cryptographically strong.
• That is, it must be computationally impractical
to predict future portions of the bit stream
based on previous portions of the bit stream.
• The two users need only share the generating
key, and each can produce the keystream.
 Block Cipher Principles

• A block cipher is one in which a block of plaintext is treated as a

whole and used to produce a ciphertext block of equal length.
• Typically, a block size of 64 or 128 bits is used.
• The two users share a symmetric encryption key.
• Using some of the modes of operation a block cipher can be used to
achieve the same effect as a stream cipher.
 Feistel Cipher Structure
• Horst Feistel devised the feistel cipher
– based on concept of invertible product cipher
• partitions input block into two halves
– process through multiple rounds which
– perform a substitution on left data half
– based on round function of right half & subkey
– then have permutation swapping halves
Feistel Cipher Structure
 Feistel Cipher Design Elements
• block size – 64 bits
• key size – 128 bits
• number of rounds – 16 rounds
• subkey generation algorithm -
• round function
• fast software en/decryption
• ease of analysis
 Data Encryption Standards
•Data encryption standard (DES) has been found vulnerable
to very powerful attacks and therefore, the popularity of DES
has been found slightly on the decline.
•DES is a block cipher and encrypts data in blocks of size of 64
bits each, which means 64 bits of plain text go as the input to
DES, which produces 64 bits of cipher text.
•The same algorithm and key are used for encryption and
decryption, with minor differences.
•The key length is 56 bits
The basic idea is shown in the figure.
• We have mentioned that DES uses a 56-bit key. Actually, the
initial key consists of 64 bits. However, before the DES process
even starts, every 8th bit of the key is discarded to produce a
56-bit key. That is bit positions 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, and 64
are discarded.

• Thus, the discarding of every 8th bit of the key produces a 56-
bit key from the original 64-bit key
• DES is based on the two fundamental attributes of
cryptography: substitution (also called confusion) and
transposition (also called diffusion).
• DES consists of 16 steps, each of which is called a
round. Each round performs the steps of substitution
and transposition.
steps in DES:
Steps in DES:

• In the first step, the 64-bit plain text block is handed over
to an initial Permutation (IP) function.
• The initial permutation is performed on plain text.
• Next, the initial permutation (IP) produces two halves of
the permuted block; saying Left Plain Text (LPT) and Right
Plain Text (RPT).
• Now each LPT and RPT go through 16 rounds of the
encryption process.
• In the end, LPT and RPT are rejoined and a Final
Permutation (FP) is performed on the combined block
• The result of this process produces 64-bit cipher text.
• Initial Permutation (IP): As we have noted, the initial
permutation (IP) happens only once and it happens
before the first round.
• It suggests how the transposition in IP should
proceed.
•
Round Function
• The heart of this cipher is the DES function, f. The DES function
applies a 48-bit key to the rightmost 32 bits to produce a 32-bit
output.
Expansion Permutation Box − since right input is 32-bit and
round key is a 48-bit, we first need to expand right input to 48
bits. Permutation logic is graphically depicted in the following
illustration .
• The graphically depicted permutation logic is
generally described as table in DES specification
illustrated as shown −
 XOR (Whitener). − After the expansion permutation, DES does XOR
operation on the expanded right section and the round key. The round key is
used only in this operation.
 Substitution Boxes. − The S-boxes carry out the real mixing (confusion).
DES uses 8 S-boxes, each with a 6-bit input and a 4-bit output. Refer the
following illustration −
The S-box rule is illustrated below −
 There are a total of eight S-box tables. The output of all eight s-boxes
is then combined in to 32 bit section.
Straight Permutation − The 32 bit output of S-boxes is then subjected to the
straight permutation with rule shown in the following illustration:
Key Generation
• The round-key generator creates sixteen 48-bit keys out of a 56-bit cipher
key. The process of key generation is depicted in the following illustration −
Parity Drop the preprocess before key expansion is a compression transposition step
that we call parity bit drop. It drops the parity bits (bits 8, 16, 24, 32, …, 64) from the
64-bit key and permutes the rest of the bits according to Table 6.12. The remaining 56-
bit value is the actual cipher key which is used to generate round keys. The parity drop
step (a compression D-box) is shown in Table
 Avalanche Effect
• A desirable property of any encryption
algorithm is that a small change in either the
plaintext or the key should produce a
significant change in the ciphertext.
• In particular, a change in one bit of the
plaintext or one bit of the key should produce
a change in many bits of the ciphertext.
• This is referred to as the avalanche effect.
• Table 3.3 shows the result when the fourth bit of the
plaintext is changed, so that the plaintext is
12468aceeca86420.
• The second column of the table shows the
intermediate 64-bit values at the end of each round
for the two plaintexts.
• The third column shows the number of bits that
differ between the two intermediate values.
• The table shows that, after just three rounds, 18 bits
differ between the two blocks.
• On completion, the two ciphertexts differ in 32 bit
positions.
Triple DES
Triple DES
What is Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange?
• A method for two parties to securely generate a shared secret over a
public channel.
Step 1: Public Parameters
• Both parties agree on two public values:
• Prime number p = 17
• Primitive root g = 3

• These values are known to everyone, including attackers.

A number g is a primitive root modulo p if the smallest integer k such that

• 𝑔 ≡ 1 mod 𝑝
is k = p - 1.
• In our case:
• p = 17
• So we need to check whether 3^k mod 17 gives all values from 1 to 16 (i.e., 16 distinct results).
Step 2: Private Keys
• Each party chooses a private secret:
• Alice's private key: a = 4
• Bob's private key: b = 3

• These values are kept secret and never shared.

Step 3: Exchange Public Values
• Each calculates and sends:
• Alice calculates A = g^a mod p = 3^4 mod 17 = 81 mod 17 = 13
• Bob calculates B = g^b mod p = 3^3 mod 17 = 27 mod 17 = 10

• Alice sends A = 13 to Bob

• Bob sends B = 10 to Alice
Step 4: Compute Shared Secret Key
• Both compute the same shared secret:
• • Alice: S = B^a mod p = 10^4 mod 17 = 10000 mod 17 = 4
• • Bob: S = A^b mod p = 13^3 mod 17 = 2197 mod 17 = 4

• Shared secret key = 4

Visual Summary of Key Exchange
• Public: p = 17, g = 3

• Alice: a = 4 Bob: b = 3
• A = 3^4 mod 17 = 13 B = 3^3 mod 17 = 10

• → Sends A = 13 ← Sends B = 10

• S = 10^4 mod 17 = 4 S = 13^3 mod 17 = 4

• Shared Key = 4
 PUBLIC KEY
CRYPTOGRAPHY
&
RSA ALGORITHM
Public-Key Cryptography
• probably most significant advance in the 3000 year history of
cryptography
• uses two keys – a public & a private key
• asymmetric since parties are not equal
• uses clever application of number theoretic concepts to function
• complements rather than replaces private key crypto
• developed to address two key issues:
• key distribution – how to have secure communications in
general without having to trust a KDC with your key
• digital signatures – how to verify a message comes intact
from the claimed sender
• public invention due to Whitfield Diffie & Martin
Hellman at Stanford Uni in 1976
• known earlier in classified community
Public-Key Cryptography
• public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography involves the use of
two keys:
• a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and can be used to encrypt
messages, and verify signatures
• a private-key, known only to the recipient, used to decrypt messages, and
sign (create) signatures
• is asymmetric because
• those who encrypt messages or verify signatures cannot decrypt messages or
create signatures
Public-Key Cryptography
Public-Key Characteristics
• Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys where:
• it is computationally infeasible to find decryption key knowing only algorithm
& encryption key
• it is computationally easy to en/decrypt messages when the relevant
(en/decrypt) key is known
• either of the two related keys can be used for encryption, with the other used
for decryption (for some algorithms)
Public-Key Cryptosystems
Public-Key Applications
• can classify uses into 3 categories:
• encryption/decryption (provide secrecy)
• digital signatures (provide authentication)
• key exchange (of session keys)
• some algorithms are suitable for all uses, others are specific to one
Security of Public Key Schemes
• like private key schemes brute force exhaustive
search attack is always theoretically possible
• but keys used are too large (>512bits)
• security relies on a large enough difference in
difficulty between easy (en/decrypt) and hard
(cryptanalyse) problems
• more generally the hard problem is known, but is
made hard enough to be impractical to break
• requires the use of very large numbers
• hence is slow compared to private key schemes
RSA

• by Rivest, Shamir & Adleman of MIT in 1977

• best known & widely used public-key scheme

• based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field over

integers modulo a prime

RSA Key Setup
• each user generates a public/private key pair by:
• selecting two large primes at random - p, q
• computing their system modulus n=p.q
• note ø(n)=(p-1)(q-1)
• selecting at random the encryption key e
• where 1<e<ø(n), gcd(e,ø(n))=1
• solve following equation to find decryption key d
• e.d=1 mod ø(n) and 0≤d≤n
• publish their public encryption key: PU={e,n}
• keep secret private decryption key: PR={d,n}
RSA Use
• to encrypt a message M the sender:
• obtains public key of recipient PU={e,n}
• computes: C = Me mod n, where 0≤M<n
• to decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:
• uses their private key PR={d,n}
• computes: M = Cd mod n
• note that the message M must be smaller than the modulus n (block
if needed)
Why RSA Works
• because of Euler's Theorem:
• aø(n)mod n = 1 where gcd(a,n)=1
• in RSA have:
• n=p.q
• ø(n)=(p-1)(q-1)
• carefully chose e & d to be inverses mod ø(n)
• hence e.d=1+k.ø(n) for some k
• hence :
Cd = Me.d = M1+k.ø(n) = M1.(Mø(n))k
= M1.(1)k = M1 = M mod n
RSA Example - Key Setup
1. Select primes: p=17 & q=11
2. Compute n = pq =17 x 11=187
3. Compute ø(n)=(p–1)(q-1)=16 x 10=160
4. Select e: gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7
5. Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160 Value is d=23 since
23x7=161= 10x160+1
6. Publish public key PU={7,187}
7. Keep secret private key PR={23,187}
RSA Example - En/Decryption
• sample RSA encryption/decryption is:
• given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)
• encryption:
C = 887 mod 187 = 11
• decryption:
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88
RSA Key Generation
• users of RSA must:
• determine two primes at random - p, q
• select either e or d and compute the other
• primes p,q must not be easily derived from modulus n=p.q
• means must be sufficiently large
• typically guess and use probabilistic test
• exponents e, d are inverses, so use Inverse algorithm to compute the
other
RSA Security
• possible approaches to attacking RSA are:
• brute force key search (infeasible given size of numbers)
• mathematical attacks (based on difficulty of computing ø(n), by factoring
modulus n)
• timing attacks (on running of decryption)
• chosen ciphertext attacks (given properties of RSA)
Factoring Problem
• mathematical approach takes 3 forms:
• factor n=p.q, hence compute ø(n) and then d
• determine ø(n) directly and compute d
• find d directly
• currently believe all equivalent to factoring
• have seen slow improvements over the years
• as of May-05 best is 200 decimal digits (663) bit with LS
• biggest improvement comes from improved algorithm
• cf QS to GHFS to LS
• currently assume 1024-2048 bit RSA is secure
• ensure p, q of similar size and matching other constraints
Digital Signature

• Digital Signature is a type of asymmetric cryptography

used to simulate the security properties of a signature in
digital, rather than written, form.

• Digital Signature is an electronic signature that can be used

to authenticate the identity of the sender of a message or
the signer of a document, and possibly to ensure that the
original content of the message or document that has been
sent is unchanged.

78
79
 How it work
Calculated
Message Hash

Message Sent thru’ Internet

Message
+
+
signature
Signature if
COMPARE OK
Hash Signatures
verified

SIGN hash Hash

With Sender’s
Private key
Decrypt
Signature
With Sender’s
Sender Receiver Public Key

80
 How it work ?

• The use of digital signatures usually involves two processes,

one performed by the signer and the other by the receiver of
the digital signature:

• Digital Signature Creation

• The process is performed by the sender of the message.

• Digital Signature Verification

• The process is performed by the receiver of the message.

81
 How it work ?

• Digital Signature Creation:

• Uses a hash result derived from and unique to both the signed
message and a given private key. For the hash result to be secure,
there must be only a negligible possibility that the same digital
signature could be created by the combination of any other message
or private key.

• Digital Signature Verification:

• is the process of checking the digital signature by reference to the
original message and a given public key, thereby determining whether
the digital signature was created for that same message using the
private key that corresponds to the referenced public key.

82
Digital Signature Framework

83
Key Requirements
• Each individual generates his own key pair, private and
public keys.

• Private key:
• Only known by the owner/sender
• Used to create the digital signature

• Public key
• It is known to everyone.
• Used to verify the digital signature.

84
Key Requirements
• Digital Certificate:
• Digital Identity that establishes your credentials when doing
business or other transactions on the Web
• Issued by a Certifying Authority (CA)
• Contains your name, serial number, expiration dates, public key,
signature of CA.

• Certificate Authority:
• Trusted Third Party.
• An organization which issues public key certificates.
• Assures the identity of the parties to whom it issues certificates.
• Maintains online access to the public key certificates issued.

85
Private Key Protection

86
 Benefits of Digital Signature

1. Authentication

• Digital signatures can be used to authenticate the source of messages.

When ownership of a digital signature secret key is bound to a specific
user, a valid signature shows that the message was sent by that user.

• The importance of high confidence in sender authenticity is especially

obvious in a financial context.

87
 Benefits of Digital Signature

2. Integrity:
• In many scenarios, the sender and receiver of a message may have a
need for confidence that the message has not been altered during
transmission.

• Although encryption hides the contents of a message, it may be possible

to change an encrypted message without understanding it.

• If a message is digitally signed, any change in the message will invalidate

the signature.

• Furthermore, there is no efficient way to modify a message and its

signature to produce a new message with a valid signature, because this
is still considered to be computationally infeasible by most cryptographic
hash functions.

88
Paper Signature vs. Digital Signature

Parameter Paper Electronic

May be forged Can not be copied
Authenticity

Signature independent Signature depends on

Integrity of the document the contents of the
document

a. Handwriting a. Any computer

Non- expert needed user
repudiation b. Error prone b. Error free

89
Drawbacks of Digital Signature
• The private key must be kept in a secure manner.

• The process of generation and verification of digital

signature requires considerable amount of time.

• For using the digital signature the user has to obtain

private and public key, the receiver has to obtain the
digital signature certificate also.

90
VPN(Virtual Private Network)
AND IP security
VPN
• A virtual private network (VPN) extends a private network across a
public network, and enables users to send and receive data across
shared or public networks as if their computing devices were directly
connected to the private network.
• A virtual private network (VPN) that creates a safe and encrypted
connection over a less secure network, such as the internet.
• To ensure safety, data travels through secure tunnels and it is known
as tunneling.
Connection without VPN Connection with VPN
VPN working
Types of VPN
• Remote access VPN
• Site-to-site VPN
Remote access VPN
• It allows a user to connect to a private network and access its
services and resources remotely.
• The connection between the user and the private network happens
through the Internet and the connection is secure and private due
to tunnel.
• Example: A corporate employee, while traveling, uses a VPN to
connect to his/her company’s private network and remotely access
files and resources on the private network.
Site-to-site VPN
• It is also called as Router-to-Router VPN and is mostly used in the
corporates.
• When multiple offices of the same company are connected using
Site-to-Site VPN type, it is called as Intranet based VPN.
• When companies use Site-to-site VPN type to connect to the office
of another company, it is called as Extranet based VPN.
• It create a virtual bridge between the networks at geographically
distant offices and connect them through the Internet and maintain
a secure and private communication between the networks.
VPN Tunneling
• Tunneling is a protocol that allows for the secure movement of data
from one network to another.
• Tunneling involves allowing private network communications to be
sent across a public network, such as the Internet, through a process
called encapsulation.
• The encapsulation process allows for data packets to appear as
though they are of a public nature to a public network when they are
actually private data packets, allowing them to pass through
unnoticed.
• Tunneling is also known as port forwarding.
Tunneling
VPN protocol
• Internet Protocol Security or IPSec
• Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)
• Point – to – Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS)
[Link] Protocol Security or IPSec
• It is used to secure Internet communication across an IP network.
• IPSec secures Internet Protocol communication by authenticating
the session and encrypts each data packet during the connection.
• IPSec operates in two modes, Transport mode and Tunneling mode,
to protect data transfer between two different networks.
• The transport mode encrypts the message in the data packet and
the tunneling mode encrypts the entire data packet.
• IPSec can also be used with other security protocols to enhance the
security system.
[Link] 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)

• Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol is a tunneling protocol that is usually

combined with another VPN security protocol like IPSec to create a
highly secure VPN connection.
• L2TP creates a tunnel between two L2TP connection points and IPSec
protocol encrypts the data and handles secure communication
between the tunnel.
3. Point – to – Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
• Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol creates a tunnel and
encapsulates the data packet.
• PPTP is one of the most widely used VPN protocol and has
been in use since the time of Windows 95.
• Apart from Windows, PPTP is also supported on Mac and Linux.
 4. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer
Security (TLS)
 SSL and TLS protocol is most commonly used by online shopping websites and service providers.
 SSL connections have https in the beginning of the URL instead of http.
Advantages of VPN
• Greater scalability
• Reduced long-distance telecommunications costs
• Remote controlling
• Security
• Online anonymity
• Unlock restricted content
Disadvantages of VPN
• Understanding of security issues
• Unpredictable Internet traffic
• Difficult to accommodate products from different vendors
• Complexity
• Less Bandwidth