Structural Geology: Faults, Types Of Faults, Fold And Fold Type, Domes, Basins,
Erosional Process, Quantitative Analysis Of Erosional Land Forms.
Engineering Geology and Geomorphology
Module 4:
Structural geology: Faults, types of faults, fold and fold type, domes, basins, erosional
process, quantitative analysis of erosional land forms.
2
Structural Geology
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional (3-D) distribution of rock
units with respect to their deformational histories.
The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of rock
geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation (strain) in
the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress field that resulted in the
observed strain and geometries.
This understanding of the dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the geologic past; a common
goal is to understand the structural evolution of a particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock
deformation (e.g., mountain building, rifting) due to plate tectonics.
3
Strike and Dip
Strike:
When a bedding plane (or a joint plane, or a fault plane) is cut by a horizontal
plane, a line of intersection will be obtained at the surface. This direction is known
as the strike, or the direction of the strike, or the line of the strike.
Dip
The dip direction is the direction along
which the inclination of the bedding
plane occurs. The dip amount is the
angle of inclination between the
bedding plane and a horizontal plane.
4
Parts Of Fold & Connected Terminology
Limbs
Limbs are the sides of a fold. An individual
fold will have two limbs; whereas, in a
series of folds, the central limb is common
to any two adjacent folds.
Crest and Trough
Most of the folded rocks are composed of
two general forms of folds, i.e. (i) up folded
bends,and (ii) down folded bends.
The line running through the highest points
in an up-arched fold defines the crest; and
a corresponding line running through the
lowest points on the same bed, in a down-
arched fold, is called the trough.
The crest or trough may or may not
coincide with the axis of the fold. 5
Parts Of Fold & Connected Terminology (cont.)
Axial plane
Axial plane is the imaginary plane
bisecting between the two limbs of a fold,
thus dividing the fold into two parts, as
symmetrically as possible. Axial plane may
be vertical, inclined, or even horizontal.
Axis of the Fold
The line of intersection of the axial plane
with any bed of the fold is termed as the
axis of the fold or fold axis.
Plunge or Pitch of the Fold
When the fold axis is inclined, the angle
which it makes with the horizontal, as
measured in a vertical plane, is called
the angle of plunge, or plunge of the
fold. Such folds with inclined fold axes
are known as plunging folds or pitching
folds.
6
Parts Of Fold & Connected Terminology (cont.)
Addition
Figure:
7
Types of Fold 8
Anticline
Syncline
Monocline
Chevron fold
Recumbent fold
Isoclinal fold
Plunging and Non-plunging fold
Dome and Basin
Additional Information with Photo:
[Link]
Types of Fold (cont.) 9
Anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its
oldest beds at its core. The term is not to be confused
with antiform, which is a purely descriptive term for any fold
that is convex up. Therefore if age relationships between
various strata are unknown, the term antiform should be
used.
A syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to
the center of the structure. Synclines are
typically a downward fold.
Types of Fold (cont.) 10
Monocline is a local warping in which the otherwise
horizontal strata, exhibit an abruptly steep inclination.
This inclination of a monocline may sometimes
become enormous (i.e. almost vertical from
horizontal) so that a large difference of elevation
between the strata on either side of the bend is
introduced.
Chevron folds are a structural feature characterized
by repeated well behaved folded beds with straight
limbs and sharp hinges. Well developed, these folds
develop repeated set of v-shaped beds.
They develop in response to regional or local compressive stress. Inter-
limb angles are generally 60 degrees or less. Chevron folding preferentially
occurs when the bedding regularly alternates between contrasting
competences.
Types of Fold (cont.) 11
Recumbent fold has an essentially
horizontal axial plane. linear, fold axial plane
oriented at low angle resulting in overturned
strata in one limb of the fold.
Isoclinal folds are similar to symmetrical
folds, but these folds both have the same
angle and are parallel to each other. 'Iso'
means 'the same' (symmetrical), and
'cline' means 'angle,' so this name
literally means 'same angle.' So isoclinal
folds are both symmetrical and aligned in
a parallel fashion.
Types of Fold (cont.) 12
Plunging fold: When the axis is inclined to
the horizontal, it is called a Plunging fold.
The angle of inclination is called as the
angle of plunge.
Non plunging fold: When the fold axis
is horizontal, it is called a Non plunging
fold.
Types of Fold (cont.) 13
Causes of Folding
Folding of rocks may be caused by numerous factors or causes, which
may be divided into two main types
(1) Tectonic causes
(2) Non-tectonic causes.
Tectonic Causes of Folding
Tectonic causes are those which are produced due to the forces operating within the
Earths crust, such as:
(i) lateral compression caused by shrinkage;
(ii) igneous instructions; and
(iii) Salt instructions
14
Causes of Folding (cont.)
Tectonic Causes of Folding (cont.)
(i) lateral compression caused by shrinkage
(ii) igneous instructions
15
Causes of Folding (cont.)
Tectonic Causes of Folding (cont.)
(iii) Salt Intrusions
Non-Tectonic Causes of Folding
A few of these causes include:
(i) Land sliding;
(ii) creeping;
(iii) differential compaction;
(iv) isostatic settling;
(v) subsidence into solution cavities; and
(vi) glaciations; etc.
16
17
Causes of Folding (cont.)
Non-Tectonic Causes of Folding
A few of these causes include:
(i) Land sliding;
(ii) creeping
(iii) differential compaction
Causes of Folding (cont.)
Non-Tectonic Causes of Folding (cont.)
(iv) isostatic settling
(v) subsidence into solution cavities
(vi) glaciations
18
19
Study Questions:
1. What are folds and faults?
2. Draw a fold and describe its different parts.
3. Classify fold on the basis of position of axial plane
4. Define fault. Describe the fault terminology with figure
5. Define fold. Describe the various types of fold with neat sketches.
6. What are the different parts of folds and faults? Explain briefly with neat sketches.
7. Describe briefly the causes of folding.
8. Discuss the techniques to improve the quality of faulted or fractured rock beds.
9. What engineering problems are created by presence of these features in the earth crust?
10. **Define the following terms : Hade and Heave (ii)Throw and Sliken sides (iii) Crest and
Trough (iv) Limb and Axial plane of fold
11. Discuss briefly the causes of folding.
12. Describe the following terminologies of a fold: (i) Limbs (ii) Axial plane (iii) Axis of the fold
(iv)Plunge (v)Crest and Trough
13. Differentiate between the following: (i) Strike and Dip (ii)Outliers and Inliers (iii)Plunging
and Non-plunging fold (iv)Normal fault and Thrust fault (v) Dome & Basin (vi) Anticline &
Syncline
14. What are the factors affecting runoff?