Cambridge Advanced Subsidiary Level Notes

9231 Further Mathematics

Abrar Faiyaz Rahim, degrees pending

Contents
1 Further Pure Mathematics 1 (for Paper
1) 2
1.1 Roots of polynomial equations . . . . 2
1.2 Rational functions and graphs . . . . . 4
1.3 Summation of series . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Further Mechanics (for Paper 3) 11

2.1 Motion of a projectile . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Equilibrium of a rigid body . . . . . . 12

1
1 Further Pure Mathematics 1 Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =
(for Paper 1) 0 with roots α and β. To find certain values of
Sn , we must multiply the equation with a certain
1.1 Roots of polynomial equations power of x, to achieve a power of x in the equation
that equals the value of n desired.
Recall and use the relations between the roots and For example, when we want S−1 , we must first
coefficients of polynomial equations multiply the original equation by x−1 , giving us,
c
ax + b + =0
x
Quadratics
We can now plug x = α and x = β, since they
The quadratic equation follows, are roots,

ax2 + bx + c = 0 c
aα + b + =0 (1)
b c α
=⇒ x2 + x + = 0 c
a a aβ + b + = 0 (2)
β
which has roots α and β,
 
1 1
a(α + β) + 2b + + c=0 (1 + 2)
α β
(x − α)(x − β) = 0 =⇒ aS1 + 2b + cS−1 = 0
2
=⇒ x − (α + β)x + αβ = 0
here, if we know S1 , we can find S−1 .
hence, considering that, Sn = αn + β n , Note that, the coefficients are multiplied by
Sn , where n equals the power of x to which they
b are a coefficient, and the constant terms are mul-
Σα = S1 = α + β = − tiplied by 2.
a

c Cubics
Σαβ = αβ =
a
The cubic equation follows,
where Σα and Σαβ are referred to as sum of roots
and product of roots, respectively. ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
Furthermore, b c d
=⇒ x3 + x2 + x + = 0
a a a
Σα2 = S2 = α2 + β 2 = (Σα)2 − 2Σαβ
which has roots α, β, and γ,

1 1 1 α+β Σα (x − α)(x − β)(x − γ) = 0

Σ = S−1 = + = = 3 2
=⇒ x − (α + β + γ)x + (αβ + αγ + βγ)x − αβγ = 0
α α β αβ Σαβ
thus, using Sn = αn + β n + γ n ,
1 1 1 α2 + β 2 Σα2
Σ 2 = S−2 = 2 + 2 = =
α α β α2 β 2 (Σαβ)2 b
Σα = S1 = α + β + γ = −
a
Using Sn as defined above, we can use known values
of Sn to find values required. c
Σαβ = αβ + αγ + βγ =
a

2
 d If we are given a known polynomial whose roots we
Σαβγ = αβγ = − also know, we can find any other unknown polyno-
a
mial given that its roots are in terms of the roots of
Following this, the first given polynomial. We must first write out
the unknown polynomial in factorised form as per its
Σα2 = S2 = (α + β + γ)2 = (Σα)2 − 2Σαβ roots and compare with the initial polynomial, find-
ing values of the roots and arriving at the unknown
Σα3 = (Σα)3 − 3ΣαβΣα + 3Σαβγ polynomial. This is illustrated in the following:

Here too, values of Sn can be found in the method Given the quadratic x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 with roots
demonstrated in the Quadratics section. Note α and β, find the quadratic that has roots 2α and
that, in such cases the constant term is multiplied 2β.
by 3. The unknown quadratic is

(y − 2α)(y − 2β) = 0
Quartics 2
=⇒ y − (2α + 2β)y + 4αβ = 0

The quartic equation comparing with the original, we find

b c d e α + β = −3
x4 + x3 + x2 + x + = 0
a a a a
αβ = 5
has roots α, β, γ and δ. Due to the monstrous nature
of the equation, it is best to use Sn = αn +β n +γ n +δ n Solving simultaneously, we find
notation. y + 6y + 20 = 0 to be the quadratic asked
2

for in the question.

b
Σα = −
a
Alternatively, we can derive a relationship between
c the roots of both equations. For the same question
Σαβ =
a as above:

d The new quadratic has y = 2x =⇒ x = y/2

Σαβγ = −
a since each root of the new quadratic is twice that
of the given one. Thus, plugging the above into
e
Σαβγδ = the original equation:
a
 y 2 y
2 +3 +5=0
S2 = (Σα) − 2Σαβ 2 2
=⇒ y 2 + 6y + 20 = 0
Σαβγ
S−1 =
Σαβγδ
For roots raised to a certain power, we may use the
Use a substitution to obtain an equation whose roots above method or we can modify the original equation
are related in a simple way to those of the original such that the above method becomes more conve-
equation nient.

3
 The cubic 2x3 + 7x2 − 1 = 0 has roots α, β, γ.
1.2 Rational functions and graphs
Find the cubic with roots α2 , β 2 and γ 2 .
Here, y = x2 . We can manipulate the given Sketch graphs of simple rational functions, includ-
equation such that substituting this relationship ing the determination of oblique asymptotes, in cases
is made simpler. where the degree of the numerator and the demoni-
nator are at most 2
2x3 + 7x2 − 1 = 0

2 2 A rational function is that which can be defined as an
=⇒ 2x3 = (1 − 7x) algebraic fraction with polynomials as its numerator
=⇒ 4x6 = 1 − 14x2 + 49x4 and denominator. An asymptote is generally a line
that a curve approaches but never touches. Functions
hence, of the form:
4y 3 + 49y 2 + 14y − 1 = 0 ax + b
f (x) =
cx + d
have asymptotes that are vertical and horizontal,
High n values fo Sn can be found conveniently us- which are found as below,
ing the substitution method. We must formulate an-
other polynomial of the same degree as that given but cx + d > 0
with roots of a higher power. As such the n values d
required for the Sn with the new polynomial would =⇒ x > −
c
be lower for the same result. Observe:
thus, the vertical asymptote is:
Given x4 + x3 − 5 = 0, find S4 .
d
Considering that the given quartic has roots x=−
α, β, γ and δ, we consider another such that the c
roots are y = x2 . For this quartic, Sn = α2n +
β 2n + γ 2n + δ 2n .[1] In this case, S2 of the new Let f (x) = y
polynomial equals S4 for the given polynomial.
ax + b
So, we find the new polynomial: y=
cx + d
dy − b
=⇒ x =
x4 − 5 = −x3 a − cy
=⇒ x8 − 10x4 + 25 = x6
=⇒ y 4 − y 3 − 10y 2 + 25 = 0 a − cy > 0
a
=⇒ y <
c
Hence, S1 = 1 and S2 = 12 − 2(−10) = 21. thus, the horizontal asymptote is
Thus S4 = 21 .
a
y=
c

For curves with a quadratic denominator, we ob-

[1] Moregenerally, for a polynomial with roots y = xm , Sn = serve the following:
αmn + β mn ... and so on.

4
 x
Given y = , determine its coordi- y
(x − 1)(x − 2)
nate intercepts, asymptotes, turning points and
hence sketch the curve.
For the coordinate intercepts, we simply plug
in x = 0 and y = 0, getting finding that the curve
passes through the origin (0, 0) . x
It is easy to see that the vertical asymptotes −1 1 2 3 3.5
are x = 1 and x = 2, and for |x| → ∞, y = 0, the
horizontal asymptote.
The turning points of the curve may
be found by differentiating and solving
the derivative for zero, for which we find
√ √
(2 + 2, 1) and (2 − 2, 1) . We plug x values
slightly greater and less than that of the turning
points to see if the curve increases or decreases For a curve which has quadratics as both numera-
on either side. tor and denominator:
To find the “gap” in the curve, we cross mul- ax2 + bx + c
y= 2
tiply to find a quadratic equation: dx + ex + f
2
=⇒ (dy − ay)x + (ey − by)x + (f y − cy) = 0
yx2 + (−1 − 3y)x + 2y = 0
using the discriminant, b2 − 4ac and setting it to less
whose discriminant is as follows: than zero gives us values of y such that the curve does
not exist.
(−1 − 3y)2 − 4(y)(2y) = y 2 + 6y + 1 We may also observe the following:
if we set the discriminant to less than zero, we find ax2 + bx + c
y=
an equality in terms of y where the curve does not dx2 + ex + f
exist. (x2 )(a + b/x + c/x2 )
= 2
(x )(d + e/x + f /x2 )
y 2 + 6y + 1 < 0
a + b/x + c/x2
√ √ =
−3 − 2 2 < y < −3 + 2 2 d + e/x + f /x2

Thus, for √
the lower bound of this inequality, we thus, as |x| → ∞, y → a/d, and hence the horizontal
have x = 2. Now we may sketch the curve: asymptote is:
a
y=
d
Oblique Asymptotes
Curves with a quadratic numerator and a linear de-
nominator produce an oblique asymptote – which is
simply a straight line, along with a veritical asymp-
tote whose equation is easy to determine.
To find the equation of the oblique asymptote, we
simply write the given curve in partial fraction form.

5
 and hence the asymptotes of such a curve are
3x2 + x + 3
Given y = , find its asymptotes and
x+1 e
sketch the curve. x=−
We first perform long division on the given d
fraction:
3x − 2 y = Ax + B

2
x+1 3x + x + 3 Inequalities
− 3x2 − 3x
− 2x + 3 Given an inequality such that f (x) < k, we can solve
2x + 2 the inequality but the resulting range may not accu-
rately reflect the true answer.
5 2x2
Consider y = , such that y < 2. We rear-
therefore, 2x + 3
5 range to get x − 2x − 3 < 0, whose solution gives
2
y = 3x − 2 +
x+1 −1 < x < 3. We now sketch the curve:
Thus, the asymptotes are x = −1 and y
y = 3x − 2 . For y = 0 the curve gives x = 1
and for x = 0 the curve gives y = 3, thus the
intercepts with the coordinate axes are (1, 0) and
(0, 3).

y x
−1 3

x
1
Notice that there is another interval below the x-
axis, which satisfies the given inequality (the line y =
2 is shown by the horizontal dashed line). Thus the
correct answer to the question would be −1 < x < 3
and x < −3/2[2]
So, in general, finding all the information about the
curve and sketching it before solving the inequality
In general, a curve is the safest method to solve inequalities involving
rational functions.
ax2 + bx + c
y=
dx + e Understand and use relationships between the graphs
of y = f (x), y 2 = f (x), y = 1/f (x), y = |f (x)| and
can be rewritten as y = f (|x|)
C
y = Ax + B + [2] x = −3/2 is an asymptote to the curve.
dx + e

6
 Consider functions of the form, n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 2n3 + 3n2 + n
r2 = =
6 6
y 2 = ax + b r=1
√
=⇒ y = ± ax + b n  2
X n(n + 1)
3 1 4 1 3 1 2
r = = n + n + n
therefore, the curves must be such that, 2 4 2 4
r=1

ax + b > 0 Thus, for a general expression which may have the

form,
Such curves have an x-intercept at −b/a and then n
turn like a sideways parabola to whichever direction
X
ar3 + br2 + cr + d
the above inequality points. r=1
Below is the curve of y 2 = 2x + 3, where a, b, c and d are constant terms, the sum is,
y aΣr3 + bΣr2 + cΣr + dn[3]

Use the method of differences to obtain the sum of a

finite series
x
If the lower limit of a sum is 1, we may plugin what-
ever the given upper limit is into the standard result.
For example,
2n
X (2n)(2n + 1)(4n + 1)
r2 =
r=1
6

The above has an x-intercept of x = −3/2. However, if the lower limit is anything other than
For curves such that y = |f (x)|, the part of the 1, suppose x, we simply subtract the sum from 1 to
curve below the x-axis is simply reflected above the x − 1 from the sum from 1 to the upper limit. That
x-axis. is,
For curves such that y = f (|x|), the part to the n n n
right of the y-axis is reflected to the left of the y- X
r=
X
r−
X
r
axis. x 1 x−1

This is the method of differences. Note that, the

1.3 Summation of series sum being subtracted has a lower limit of x − 1 be-
cause such that the lower limit of the first sum is
Use the standard results for Σr, Σr2 , Σr3 to find
being included in the sum.
related sums

Below are the standard results of the above summa- Recognise, by direct consideration of a sum to n
tions, terms, when a series is convergent, and find the sum
n to infinity in such cases
X n(n + 1) n2 + n
r= =
r=1
2 2 [3] Σr, when unspecified refers to
Pn
r
r=1

7
 Convergent series usually come down to the sum of 1.4 Matrices
a fractional expression. For example, the sum
Carry out operations of matrix addition, subtraction
and multiplication, and recognise the terms zero ma-
n
X 1
r trix and identity (or unit) matrix
r=1

expands out to For a matrix M, which has m rows and n columns,

we say that the matrix has an order or size of m × n.
1 1 1
+ + + ··· Generally, this matrix is represented mathematically
1 2 3 as  
a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n
We see that, as the fraction gets smaller and  a21 a22 a23 · · · a2n 
smaller, the value by which the sum increases gets  
smaller and smaller. Thus, this sum is convergent. M =  a31 a32 a33 · · · a3n 
 
 .. .. .. .. .. 
However, we are not required to find out an expres-  . . . . . 
sion in terms of n. am1 am2 am3 ··· amn
where aij is an element in the matrix which is in the
Consider another sum
ith column and jth row.
n 
A matrix which has the same number of columns

X 1 1
r
−
r+1 and rows is called a square matrix.
r=1

which then expands out to Matrix Addition and Subtraction

Two matrices can only be added or subtracted if they

     
1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − + − + ···+
1 2 2 3 3 4 are of the same order, where elements in the same col-

1 1
 
1 1
 umn and row are added. Below is a general example
− + − for a 3 × 2 matrix, which can be extended to a matrix
n−1 n n n+1
of any order
 
from which we cancel the terms as above, and we
can see that the only terms that remain uncan-
   
a11 a12 b11 b12
1 A = a21 a22  , B = b21 b22 
celled are 1 and − . Thus the expression a31 a32 b31 b32
n+1
comes out to
thus  
n 
X 1 1

1 a11 + b11 a12 + b12
− =1− A + B = a21 + b21 a22 + b22 
r r+1 n+1
r=1 a31 + b31 a32 + b32

where, as n → ∞, and  
a11 − b11 a12 − b12
1 A − B = a21 − b21 a22 − b22 
1− =1−0=1
∞+1 a31 − b31 a32 − b32

For sums with an fraction with a quadratic func- Matrix Multiplication

tion in the denominator, we must factorise and split
the fraction into partial fractions, before undergoing For a scalar multiplied to a matrix, all the elements
the process shown above. of the matrix are multiplied by that scalar.

8
 For matrices that are multiplied, the process is sig- Thus, AB = BA when one of the matrices being
nificantly more complicated, below is the case for a multiplied is a zero matrix, since the product is also
pair of 2 × 2 matrices. a zero matrix.
    Also, note that
a b e f
A= ,B=
c d g h Am An = An Am = Am+n

thus if Am = B, AB = BA.
 
ae + bg af + bh
AB =
ce + dg cf + dh In a square matrix, the line of elements that goes
from the top left corner to the bottom right corner
Note that, for a matrix product to be calculated, is called the diagonal. The line of elements that goes
the number of columns of the first matrix must be from the top right to the bottom left is called the off
the same as the number of rows of the second matrix. diagonal.
To find each new element in the product matrix, we The square matrix where the diagonal consists of
undergo the following procedure: 1 and the rest of the matrix is 0 is called the iden-
1. Take a row from the first matrix. tity matrix. It is represented by I. The property of
the identity matrix is that, when it is multiplied to
2. Take a column from the second matrix. another matrix, the matrix remains unchanged

3. Multiply the matching numbers, (1st with 1st, AI = IA = A

2nd with 2nd and so on).
Recall the meaning of the terms ‘singular’ and ‘non-
4. Add those products up. singular’ as applied to square matrices and, for 2 × 2
and 3 × 3 matrices, evaluate determinants and find
So if, 
1 2
 
5 6
 inverses of non-singular matrices
E= ,F=
3 4 7 8
A matrix with repeated rows is called a singular ma-
then, trix. Such matrices cannot have inverse matrices. A
  matrix which can have an inverse is known as a non-
EF =
1×5+2×7 1×6+2×8 singular matrix. These definitions apply for square
3×5+4×7 3×6+3×8 matrices.
For a matrix A, its inverse is represented A−1 .
 
19 22
=
43 50 This is such that

Generally, matrix multiplication is said to be non- AA−1 = I

commutative, which means
Determinants
AB 6= BA
The determinant of a matrix, written det(A) for a
The matrix in which all the elements are zero is matrix A is used to determine whether the inverse
known as the zero matrix. It can be of any size and of that matrix will exist. If det(A) = 0, the inverse
is represented of the matrix does not exist, otherwise it does. The
determinant for a 2 × 2 matrix is the product of the
elements on the diagonal subtracted by the product
 
0 0 0 ···
0 0 0 · · · of the elements on the off diagonal. That is, for
0mn = 0 0 0 · · ·
 
 
.. .. .. . . a b
 
. A=
. . . c d

9
the determinant is
a b
det(A) = = ad − bc
c d

10
2 Further Mechanics (for Paper the downward direction, −g. Hence
3) vy = u cos θ − gt

2.1 Motion of a projectile At the peak of the particle’s motion,

vy = 0
Model the motion of a projectile as a particle mov-
ing with constant acceleration and understand any =⇒ u sin θ = gt
limitations of the model u sin θ
=⇒ t =
g
A projectile is any object that, once it has been
thrown, propelled or dropped, continues to move un- Since air resistance is ignored, the time for the par-
der its own inertia and the force of gravity. From ticle to reach its peak is the same for the particle to
Advanced Level Mechanics, we know that drop back down to its original position, thus the total
time for the motion is
• s = ut + 12 at2
2u sin θ
• v = u + at t=
g
• v 2 = u2 + 2as Now, taking x as horizontal displacement and y as
vertical displacement, using s = ut + 12 at2 , we have
• s = 12 (u + v)t
2u sin θ
• s = vt − 12 at2 x = u cos θ
g
To predict the motion of projectiles, we make cer-
2
2u sin θ cos θ
=
tain assumptions. We assume the absence of air re- g
sistance, no rotational forces (spin) affect the projec- recalling that 2 sin θ cos θ ≡ 2 sin 2θ, we have
tile since we consider it to be a particle (no volume)
and that force due to gravity is constant. The path u2 sin 2θ
travelled by a projectile is known as a parabolic tra- x=
g
jectory.
The above is called the range of the projectile’s
Use horizontal and vertical equations of motion to motion. This value is at a maximum when θ = 45◦ ,
solve problems on the motion of projectiles, including i.e., when sin 2θ = 1.
finding the magnitude and direction of the velocity at The maximum height of the projectile is derived as
a given time or position, the range on a horizontal follows
plane and the greatest height reached 
u sin θ

y = (u sin θ)
g
Consider a particle thrown with initial speed u, at
an angle θ above the horizontal direction. Thus the 2
u2 sin θ
horizontal and vertical components of the velocity is =
g
u cos θ and u sin θ, respectively. Thus, from v = u+at
When an object begins its motion from a certain
vx = u sin θ height above the horizontal. We can use v 2 = u2 +
2as, for the x and y directions, which come out to
since there is no acceleration in the x-direction. The
acceleration in the y-direction is that of gravity, in vx2 = u2x

11
 vy2 = u2y − 2gs vy
v

Now, if the object is thrown from a height k above θabove

the horizontal, to find its velocity when it hits the vx
θbelow
ground we plug in s = −k into the above. In fact,
we can apply any value of s between the maximum v
vy
height of the projectile’s motion.
To find the speed at any instant, we have
From the above, we see that
vx
q
v= vx2 + vy2 tan θ =
vy
For a projectile launched below to horizontal, we into which, if we plug in the values of vx and vy , we
consider the downward direction as positive for con- obtain an equation in which θ can be solved for.
venience, and we apply into the equations of motion
and solve as needed. 2.2 Equilibrium of a rigid body
Derive and use the Cartesian equation of the tra- Calculate the moment of a force about a point
jectory of a projectile, including problems in which
the initial speed and/or angle of projection may be The moment of a force F , about a point O is F × d,
unknown where d is the perpendicular distance from the point
O to the line of action of the force F . If the distance
We know that the horizontal part of the motion between the force and the point O is zero, there is no
is x = ut cos θ, which implies t = x/u cos θ. If we turning effect. The unit of moment is Newton metres:
substitute this into the vertical part of the motion, Nm. Thus,
which is y = ut sin θ − 12 gt2 , we get τ = Fd
For a force applied at an angle θ from the perpen-
gx2
y = x tan θ − 2 sec2 θ dicular of the line drawn from the pivot to the force
2u the moment comes out to be

When the particle is at ground level, y = 0, which τ = F d cos θ

means
Here, we are simply finding the component of the
gx2 force perpendicular to the distance, F cos θ, and mul-
x tan θ − 2 sec2 θ = 0 tiplying the distance d to it.
2u
g In general, there are two types of moments about
 
=⇒ x tan θ − 2 x sec2 θ = 0
2u a pivot: clockwise and anticlockwise moment. If the
u2 sin 2θ totals of the two moments about a pivot comes out to
x = 0 and x = be equal, the object is said to be in rotatonal equilib-
g
rium. If the clockwise moment is greater, the object
turns clockwise and same for if the anticlockwise mo-
Across the parabolic motion of the projectile, the ment is greater.
angle of its velocity changes. Given that we are asked
to find the position of an object when it is at an Use the result that the effect of gravity on a rigid body
angle θ above or below the horizontal, we may use is equivalent to a single force acting at the centre of
the following

12
mass of the body, and identify the position of the cen-
tre of mass of a uniform body using considerations
of symmetry

Consider a rod of length 2 m and mass 5 kg. We add

a mass of 3 kg to one end. This rod hangs from a
point O, which is the end opposite to where the mass
is added. Thus the total moment, which is clockwise
for this rod is

τ = (1)(5g) + (2)(3g)
= 11g

If we now consider the force coming from a point

whose distance from O is x̄

τ = 11g
=⇒ (5g + 3g)(x̄) = 11g
11
=⇒ x̄ =
8
Thus, the total moment of the rod may be said to be
that of one force, 8 N at a distance of 11/8 m from
O.
Consider a two-dimensional case such as a frame-
work with masses added. This gives us coordinates
for the centre of mass.

13