Research Methods

Experiments
 An experiment is an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable (IV) is

manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable (DV).

 There are three types of experiments:

o Laboratory experiments: A research method in which there is an IV, DV, and strict controls. This looks for a

causal relationship and is conducted in a setting which is not the usual environment for the participant with

regard to the behaviour they are performing.

o Field experiments: This is conducted in a setting which is the normal environment for the participant with regard

to the behaviour they are performing. The researcher has control over a few variables, but it difficult to control

all variables.

o Natural experiments: An investigation looking for a causal relationship in which the IV cannot be directly

manipulated by the experimenter. Instead, they study the effect of an existing difference or change. This is not

a true experiment as the experimenter cannot manipulate the levels of the IV.

 Laboratory experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses
High levels of standardization hence it can be Artificial Environment hence it
replicated easily to test for reliability lacks ecological validity
High levels of control hence researches can be more Participants may show demand
confident that the IV is directly affecting the DV characteristics
 Field experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses
Situational variables are difficult to control
Realistic setting hence high ecological
so it is tough know if the IV is affecting the
validity
DV
Limited demand characteristics so Issues in breaking ethics since the
behaviour is more likely to be natural participants do not know that they’re taking
and valid part in a study
 Natural experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses
High ecological validity because the IV Difficult to know whether the IV caused an
 Strengths Weaknesses
is naturally occurring effect on the DV
Valid representation of a person’s Difficult to replicate to test for reliability as the
behaviour event is naturally occurring
 Each experiment consists of an experimental and control condition.

 An experimental condition is one or more of the situations in an experiment which represent the different levels

of the IV and are compared, either with one another or with the control condition.

 A control condition is a situation in which the IV is absent. This is compared to the experimental condition(s).

Self-Reports
 Self-reports consist of two main types — questionnaires and interviews.

 Questionnaires are a research method that involves asking questions, mainly written, to gain information from

the participants.

 There are four types of questionnaires:

o Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant likes or dislikes something.

o Rating scales: questions that require the participant to represent their answer on the numerical scale provided

to them.

o Open questions: questions which allow the participant to give detailed answers without any restrictions.

o Closed questions: questions which allow the participant to respond using a few, stated responses without the

opportunity to expand on their answers.

 Interviews are a research method using verbal questions asked directly to the participants.

 There are three types of interviews:

o Structured: an interview with questions in a fixed order which may be scripted. Consistency might also be

required in the interviewer’s posture, voice, etc., and hence these are highly standardized.

o Semi-structured: an interview with a fixed list of questions, however, the interviewer could add more questions

if required to clarify or get details on any previous answers.

o Unstructured: an interview in which most questions depend on the respondent’s answers. A list of topics may

be provided that need to be covered for the interview.

Strengths Weaknesses
Participants are more likely to give Participants may give
Questionnaires
truthful answers as it does not socially desirable answers
 Strengths Weaknesses
involve talking to someone face to
face
A large sample can answer the
Too many closed questions
questionnaire in a short time span
may force an answer that
which should increase the
does not reflect the
representativeness and
participant’s opinion
generalizability of the findings
Participants may be less
Lots of open questions will make
likely to give truthful answers
participants reveal reasons as
Interviews as they are face to face with
to why they behave in a particular
the interviewer or because of
way or have a particular opinion
social- desirability
Case Studies
 A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a person, family or institute, that produced in-depth data

specific to that instance.

Strengths Weaknesses
As researchers are focused on
As the research is focused on one person, the
one individual, they can collect
case is unique which makes generalisations
rich, in-depth data which adds
difficult
validity to the findings
Attachments may be formed between researcher
High ecological validity as
and participant which may reduce objectivity of
participants are studied in their
data collected and analysis of it. This could
everyday lives
reduce the validity of the findings.
Observations
 A research method that involves watching human or animal behaviour.

 An observer can be overt/covert or they can be participant/non-participant observers.

 Overt observers are when the participants know who the researcher is and that they are being observed. A

covert observer could be present in the group of participants observing them but they do not know who it is.

 A participant observer is one who watches from the perspective of being part of the social setting of the

participants. A non-participant observer does not become involved in the situation being studied.

 An observation can be structured/unstructured or naturalistic/controlled.

unstructured observation is one in which the observer records a range of behaviours, which is usually confined

to a pilot study to refine the behavioural categories.

 A naturalistic observation is a study conducted by watching the participants’ behaviour in their normal

environment without interference from the researcher in either social or physical environment. A controlled

observation is one which is conducted by watching the participants’ behaviour in a situation in which the social

or physical environment has been manipulated by the researcher.

 General:

Strengths Weaknesses
If the participants are aware of the observation, they
If participants are unaware of
may not act ‘naturally’ but show more socially
the observation taking place -
desirable behaviour. This can reduce the validity of
increases ecological validity
the findings
As behaviours are ‘counted’, It may be difficult to replicate the study if it is
data can be analysed naturalistic as many variables cannot be controlled
statistically with minimal bias which reduces the reliability
 Participant observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
High ecological validity as the participants are There are ethical problems of
observed in a real-life setting informed consent
As the observers become involved with the The presence of an outsider can
group, they are more likely to understand the change the behaviours of the group
motives and reasons for behaviours which members. This lowers the validity of
increases the validity of the findings the findings
 Non-participant observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
It can be difficult to make detailed observations
Participants behaviour will not be
and to produce qualitative data that allows
affected by observation because the
understandings as to why the behaviours are
observer is out of sight
occurring
Researchers’ observations are more
likely to be objective as they are
detaching from the people they are
observing
 Structured observation:
 Strengths Weaknesses
The behavioural checklist allows The sampling of observed behaviour tends to
objective quantitative data to be be restricted and does not give an idea of the
collected which can then be analysed reasons as to why the behaviours are
statistically occurring
 Unstructured observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
They can generate in-depth, rich Observers may easily be drawn to eye
quantitative data that can help explain catching behaviours and hence may not fully
why behaviours are occurring represent all the behaviours
 Naturalistic observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
As participants are unaware that they are
Very little control over extraneous
being watched, they should behave more
variables which makes it difficult to
naturally, removing the chances of demand
draw a cause and effect relationship
characteristics
Replication may be difficult as there
High ecological validity as the observation cannot be a totally standardised
takes place in a natural setting procedure, hence making it difficult to
test for reliability
 Controlled observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
As the set-up is controlled, the observers can be
An artificial situation can easily
more confident about what is causing the
influence participants’ behaviour
behaviours
Less chance of extraneous variables affecting Low ecological validity as the
participants’ behaviour setting is artificial
Correlations
 A research method which looks for a causal relationship between two measured variables. A change in one

variable is related to a change in the other, although, the changes cannot be assumed to be causal. None of

the variables are manipulated, they are only measured.

 A positive correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one variable accompanies an increase in the

other.

 A negative correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one variable accompanies a decrease in the

other.
 No correlation refuters to a situation where no definite trend occurs and the two mentioned variables do not

appear to be related to each other.

Strengths Weaknesses
The researchers easily establish a Issues of causality because there could be a third
cause and effect relationship variable affecting the changes
Correlations do not require any
Correlations are restricted to research that are
manipulation so can be used
quantitative and so they cannot be used to
where experiments are unethical
measure why behaviours are occurring
or impractical
Hypotheses and Aims
 An aim tells you the purpose of the investigation. It is generally expressed in terms of what the study intends to

show. It is written before the experiment is carried out and does not predict the outcomes.

 A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a difference between levels of the IV in an experiment or a

relationship between variables in a correlation.

 An alternative hypothesis is the testable statement which predicts the difference or relationship between the

variables in a particular investigation.

 There are three types of hypothesis.

o A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis is a statement predicting the direction of a relationship between variables.

o A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis is a statement predicting only that one variable will be related to the

other, not the direction of the relationship.

o A null hypothesis is a testable statement stating that any difference or correlation in the results is due to

chance.

Variables
 Independent variable (IV): the factor under investigation in an experiment which is manipulated to create two or

more conditions and is expected to be responsible for changes in the DV.

 Dependent variable (DV): the factor in an experiment which is measured and is expected to change under the

influence of the IV.

 Operationalization is the definition of variables so that they can be accurately manipulated, measured or

quantified and replicated.

Experimental Design
 This is the way in which participants are allocated to the different levels of the IV.
 An independent measures design is an experimental design in which a different group of participants is used

for each IV level. If the IV is naturally occurring, the researcher must use it.

 A repeated measures design is an experimental design in which participants perform at every IV level. It

cannot be used if the IV is naturally occurring. It also uses counterbalancing (ABBA design).

 A matched pairs design is an experimental design in which participants are arranged in pairs. Each pair is

similar in important ways to the study, and one member performs at a different level of the IV.

 Independent measures design:

Strengths Weaknesses
As participants take art on only one condition, they There may be participant
are less likely to guess the aim of the study, hence variables affecting the DV rather
reducing the effects of demand characteristics than the IV
More participants are required for
There are no order effects that can reduce the
this type of design as compared
validity of the findings
to repeated measures
 Repeated measures design:

Strengths Weaknesses
Eliminates any participant There is a chance of demand characteristics as
variables as all of them take part participants may work out the aim or change their
in all conditions behaviour.
Fewer participants are needed Order effects can affect the findings of the study
as compared to independent and reduce its validity. This could be overcome
measures using counterbalancing.
 Matched pairs design:

Strengths Weaknesses
Matching participants as closely
as possible on measurable
Trying to match participants’ similar traits is very
traits may help control for
time-consuming.
individual differences affecting
the results.
This design is better suited Trying to match people exactly is impossible as
when a repeated measures there will always be individual differences from one
design may not work due to an person to another. Therefore, the study may lack
order effect that may affect internal validity if these differences affect the IV
results. rather than the experimental condition.
The sample may be smaller as trying to find a large
 Strengths Weaknesses
sample of people matching similar traits may be
difficult. This may mean the findings may lack
external validity.
Controlling of Variables
 It is essential to control variables to be certain about the findings of a study.

 An extraneous variable is a variable which either acts randomly, affecting the DV in all levels of the IV, or

systematically, affecting only one level of the IV (called a confounding variable), so can obscure the effect of

the IV, making the results difficult to interpret.

 A situational variable is a confounding variable caused by an aspect of the environment.

 Participant variables are another confounding variable caused by the individual differences of participants.

 Control is a way to keep any potential extraneous variables constant. These are required to ensure that the

results of the study are reliable.

Types of Data
 There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative.

 Qualitative data is descriptive, in-depth data indicating the quality of a psychological characteristic.

Strengths Weaknesses
In-depth, detailed accounts given in the words Interpretation of data could be
of participants are collected. It can be argued subjective as these are words rather
that using qualitative data is not reductionist than numbers
There may be researcher bias - the
As the data comes directly from the participant,
researcher may only select data that
we can understand why the participant thinks,
fits into the hypothesis or aim of the
feels or acts in a particular way
study
 Quantitative data is the numerical data about the quantity of a psychological measure.

Strengths Weaknesses
As the data are numerical, it allows easier As the data are numerical, they miss out
comparison and statistical analysis to take on why participants chose the answers
place. that they did
Numerical data are objective and Using quantitative data can be seen as
scientific, so there is a minimal chance of reductionist as it involves researchers
psychologists miscalculating the data and reducing complex ideas and behaviours to
drawing invalid conclusions. a number or percentage.
Sampling of Participants
 A population is a group sharing one or more characteristics from which a sample is drawn.

 A sample is a group of people selected to represent the population in a study.

 The sampling technique is the method used to obtain the participants for a study from the population. There are

three types of sampling techniques.

o Opportunity sampling is when the participants are chosen because they are available at the time and place

where the research is taking place.

o Volunteer (self-selected) sampling is when participants are invited to participate in studies via advertisements

or emails.

o Random sampling is when all population members are allocated numbers, and a fixed amount of these are

chosen unbiasedly, for example, by picking out numbers from a hat.

Strengths Weaknesses
Large numbers of participants can
Researchers are unlikely to gain
Opportunity be obtained relatively quickly and
a wide variety of participants to
Sampling easily because researchers use
allow for generalisation
people who are around
Participants are more likely to Researchers are unlikely to gain
participate if they have already a wide variety of participants to
Volunteer
volunteered so the drop-out rate allow for generalisation because
Sampling
should be lower, making participants will only be of a
generalisations stronger certain type
Obtaining details of the TP to
Researchers can generalise the
use to draw the sample may be
target population (TP) with more
difficult - a representative
confidence
Random sample cannot be guaranteed
Sampling Researchers may gain a ‘perfect
sample’ but still have the
problem that participants will not
take
Validity
 Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing.

 Internal validity is how well an experiment controls confounding variables. This allows the researcher to be

more confident about the causal relationship.

is influenced by whether the situation represents the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to

real life.

 Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents the real-world situation.

 Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a measure appears to test what it claims to.

 Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a measure that has previously been validated.

 Generalizability is defined as how widely the findings of a study apply to other settings and populations.

 Demand characteristics are features of an experiment that give away the aims. This could cause participants to

change their behaviour and hence reduce the validity of the study.

 Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by an individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so

should be consistent between different researchers. This would increase the validity of the study.

 Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased by one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences and may

differ between researchers. Since this is not consistent, it may reduce the validity of the study.

Reliability
 This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent.

 Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are standardised so that each participant experiences the

same thing.

 External reliability is the extent to which the results of a procedure can be replicated from one time to another,

gaining consistent results.

 Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative

responses will produce the same records from the same raw data.

 There are two methods to test the reliability of a study: the split-half method and the test-retest method.

 The split-half method involves the results of the first half of the questionnaire or interview to be the same as the

results of second half when the questions are the same in both halves but presented in different a manner.

 The test-retest method is a way to measure the consistency of a test or task by using it twice and then

comparing the results of each time to check how similar they are.

Data Analysis
 Measures of Central Tendency: a mathematical way to determine the typical or average score from a data

set. This includes the mean, median and mode.

 Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set and dividing them by the number of scores in the data

set.

 Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked in order (ascending order).

 Mode is the most frequent score in a data set.

 Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the variation or spread within a data set. This includes the

range and the standard deviation.

 The range is between the most significant and negligible values with an addition 1.

 Standard deviation calculates the average difference between each score and the data set's mean.

 The normal distribution is an even spread of a symmetrical variable about the mean, median and mode. It

forms a bell-shaped curve and is symmetrical.

 Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories and total or average scores. There are gaps between

the columns as the data is not related linearly.

 A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.

 A scatter graph is a way to display data from a correlational analysis.