23/09/2024

Laboratory testing

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Laboratory testing
• Hydraulic conductivity

• Consolidation

• Shear strength

Seepage and consolidation

The rate at which water will flow through a

unit of soils or tailings is referred to as
Hydraulic Conductivity, K. This controls how
fast water can flow through tailings under
different conditions, and thus also how fast a
tailings can discharge water under loading –
say from other layers of tailings or
embankment placed above.

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Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity can be measured using Darcy’s

Equation:

Q=kiA

Where:
Q - flow rate
i – describes the hydraulic gradient
k - hydraulic conductivity
A - area of flow

Idealised seepage experiment

This tube is kept filled, so water level always 1m

higher than top of cube of sand
Cube of sand, confined on sides, open
at top, drainage media at bottom

1m
1m

1m

1m

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Q=kiA

A - area of flow
= 1m2

1m
1m

1m

1m

Q=kiA
i – hydraulic gradient
= head difference / drainage path length
= 1 m / 1m
=1

1m
1m

1m

1m

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Q=kiA

Q=kiA

1 1

1m
1m Therefore, Q = k

K is the speed of
1m flow under a unit
hydraulic gradient
(i = 1)

1m

Q=kiA

Q=kiA

2 1

1m
2m If we double the
hydraulic gradient i
– say by increasing
1m height of the tube -
we double the flow
rate

1m

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Measuring in the laboratory

There are a number of ways to measure hydraulic

conductivity in the laboratory:

- Direct measurements, in element tests:

- Constant head heads
- Falling head tests

- Inferring from the behaviour of consolidation tests

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Measuring in the laboratory

The focus of this module in terms of hydraulic conductivity

measurement will be constant head tests.

These find most common usage in tailings practice, as they

are amenable to being carried out as part of a
consolidation test. Consolidation tests are needed for
tailings characterization, and thus directly measuring
hydraulic conductivity in such tests is usually the most
efficient way to obtain what is needed. Constant head
tests are also very easy to carry out with the computer-
controlled pressure/volume controllers that are now
common in geotechnical and tailings laboratories.

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Measuring directly in the laboratory

Laboratory devices that allow us to apply a known difference of

pressure at two ends of an element of tailings allow us to
measure hydraulic conductivity.

These include:
- Rowe Cell or Slurry Consolidometers. These are useful as they
allow a wide range of densities and stresses to easily be
carried out on a single sample. The sample can start the test
as a slurry, analogous to field deposition

- Triaxial tests (“flexible wall permeameter”). This is often done

as part of a triaxial test carried out to measure strength.

13

Principle of constant head tests

The principles of the test Pressure

are generally the same, applied; volume
change
whether it be in a recorded
flexible wall permeater
(i.e. triaxial) or a slurry
consolidometer.

Pressure
applied; volume
change
recorded

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Principle of constant head tests

A differential pressure is Pressure applied; volume change

applied across the recorded (purpose-built pump)

specimen, causing flow

to occur.

Application of Darcy’s
Equation enables
permeability to be
calculated

Pressure applied; volume change

recorded (purpose-built pump)

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Slurry consolidometer

Load applied to
specimen

Porous discs at each end

of specimen, to allow
flow across specimen

Tailings

Pressure lines, to
apply differential
pressure across the
sample

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Flexible wall permeater

(inside a triaxial cell)

Porous discs at each end

of specimen, to allow
flow across specimen

Specimen prepared for a test

Note – the specimen will be confined by water
(cell pressure) prior to the test

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Example test

A 10 kPa pressure
Applying 10 kPa
gradient is applied
across a sample of
tailings in a flexible wall
permeater.

Behaviour observed as Flow induced

through sample
follows:

Applying 20 kPa

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Example test

Water leaves the base pump and enters the

Top pump
top pump as the test proceeds
Applying 10 kPa
After a small “ramp up” at start of test,
eventually a constant rate of change
between the two pumps is seen

Base pump
Volume inside pumps (cm3)

Top pump

Base pump
Applying 20 kPa
Time

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Example test

This represents the flow rate, Q

Top pump
Applying 10 kPa

Base pump
Volume inside pumps (cm3)

Top pump

Base pump
Applying 20 kPa
Time (s)

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Example test

This represents the flow rate, Q

Top pump
The diameter of the sample provides area, A Applying 10 kPa
Hydraulic gradient,
i = Δh / height

Base pump
Volume inside pumps (cm3)

Q
Area

Top pump
Base pump
Applying 20 kPa
Time (s)

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Calculations

Q=kiA
Top pump
Sample area = 40 cm2 = 0.004 m2 Applying 10 kPa
Sample height = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Pressure difference = 10 kPa
Flow rate = 0.1 cm3 / s = 1 x 10-7 m3/s

Calculating hydraulic gradient:

1) First calculate Δh, in m:
= (10 kPa) / (9.8 kN/m3) Area
= 1.02 m

2) Then calculate i:
= 1.02 m / 0.2 m
= 5.1 Base pump
Applying 20 kPa

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Calculations

Q=kiA Top pump

k = Q / (i A) Applying 10 kPa

k = 1 x 10-7 / (5.1 x 0.004)

k = 4.9 x 10-6 m/s

Area

Base pump
Applying 20 kPa

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Relationship between pressure

differential and flow rate
Q=kiA Top pump
k = Q / (i A) Applying 10 kPa

k = 1 x 10-7 / (5.1 x 0.004)

k = 4.9 x 10-6 m/s

Area

Base pump
Applying 20 kPa

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Relationship between pressure

differential and flow rate

The previous example used a 10 kPa pressure difference for the

purpose of illustrating seepage through a sample and the
calculation of hydraulic conductivity, k.

It should be noted that in such a test, the measurement of k is

generally independent of the pressure differential applied. In
other words, if we apply a higher differential pressure, the flow
rate increases the same magnitude, and the k calculated using
Darcy’s equation remain the same.

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Relationship between pressure

differential and flow rate

Top pump

Area

Base pump

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Relationship between pressure

differential and flow rate
It should be noted that while, in theory, Darcy’s equation implies an identical
result regardless of the pressure differential applied, there are some practical
constraints:

- If too-high hydraulic gradients are applied, “piping” or channelization

within the specimen may occur. In this case, the hydraulic conductivity of
the sample as a whole is not being measured, rather the channels are
acting as preferential conduits

- If too-low hydraulic gradients are applied, it becomes difficult to accurately

measure the difference in pressure across the sample. This can lead to
errors in the result, and apparent divergence from theory.

These are test considerations that most laboratories who carry out this form
of testing should be aware of, but it is useful to check this in test results.

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Concept of “back pressure”

The previous summaries of laboratory tests used values such as 10

and 20 kPa for the top and bottom pressures used to induce flow
through the sample in constant head tests.

In reality, most constant head tests are first saturated using “back
pressure”. This involves increasing the pressure within the sample
to a high value (100 kPa or higher) to cause any air within the
specimen to dissolve within the water. This increases the quality of
saturation of the specimen, and thus the reliability of the
measurements made through constant head testing. Such a
procedure is particularly important for materials such as stiff clays.

Back pressure is also used within some forms of consolidation and

strength testing as discussed later in this module.

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Concept of “back pressure”

A Rowe cell forms a useful test Impermeable rubber

to outline the concept of back diaphragm
pressure. Top of cell (bolted down)
Loading chamber = 20 kPa
Imagine a sample in the device, Porous disc
under a load applied using
water pressure within the
loading chamber. The loading
chamber is separated from the Tailings sample
sample by means of an
impermeable rubber
diaphragm. The sample is in Porous disc
equilibrium under this load –
i.e. it is consolidated under a
20 kPa load

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Concept of “back pressure”

The porous discs are open to the

atmosphere, thus are at 0 kPa
Top of cell (bolted down)

The sample is therefore under Loading chamber = 20 kPa

20 kPa vertical effective stress 0 kPa Porous disc

Tailings sample
= 0 kPa
Vertical total stress σv= 20 kPa
0 kPa Porous disc
Pore pressure u= 0 kPa
Vertical effective = σv – u
= 20 – 0
= 20 kPa

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Concept of “back pressure”

Rather than being open to the

atmosphere, we can connect
the top and bottom porous discs
to pumps and elevate their
pressure to 100 kPa. The Top of cell (bolted down)
loading chamber we also Loading chamber = 120 kPa
increase to 120 kPa
100 kPa Porous disc

The sample is still under 20 kPa

vertical effective stress
Tailings sample
= 100 kPa
Vertical total stress σv= 120 kPa
Pore pressure u= 100 kPa 100 kPa Porous disc
Vertical effective = σv – u
= 120 – 100
= 20 kPa

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Concept of “back pressure”

This sample is now under a

“back pressure” of 100 kPa

Top of cell (bolted down)

Loading chamber = 120 kPa
100 kPa Porous disc

Tailings sample
= 100 kPa
Vertical total stress σv= 120 kPa
Pore pressure u= 100 kPa 100 kPa Porous disc
Vertical effective = σv – u
= 120 – 100
= 20 kPa

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Concept of “back pressure”

This sample is now under a

“back pressure” of 100 kPa

Top of cell (bolted down)

In this context, a constant head
test is carried out still with a Loading chamber = 120 kPa

differential pressure of 10 kPa – 100 kPa Porous disc

for example 100 and 90 kPa.

Flow

90 kPa Porous disc

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Consolidation testing

Previous discussions on testing to determine hydraulic conductivity involved

only passing water through the specimen under a gradient. In the process of
consolidation, water is leaving a sample as part of the process of volume
change under an applied load. The rate of consolidation is thus controlled by
two aspects of a soil:
1) Hydraulic conductivity (how fast water can flow through/out of it)
2) Stiffness – how much the soil will compress under that load (i.e. how
much water will leave it)

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Stiffness

Specimen loaded under 100 kPa vertical

effective stress in an oedometer
100 kPa

Top cap
Porous disc
Void ratio

Tailings sample

Porous disc
100 kPa

Vertical effective stress

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Stiffness

Now, increase to 200 kPa

Increased to
200 kPa

Increase in stress Top cap

Porous disc
Void ratio

Tailings sample

Porous disc
100 kPa 200 kPa

Vertical effective stress

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Stiffness

Now increased to 200 kPa Change in height

This causes a reduction in volume (and thus
reduction in void ratio)
Stiffness describes the change of void ratio Increased to
that occurs under a given change of stress 200 kPa

Top cap
Porous disc
Void ratio

Δe

Tailings sample

Porous disc
100 kPa 200 kPa

Vertical effective stress

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Stiffness

See below experimental data on a slurry made up of

laboratory standard kaolin clay and rock flour. Notice the
much larger Δe under low stress increments.

0.15 Δe,
10 – 20 kPa

0.05 Δe,
400 – 800 kPa

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Stiffness

It is for this reason that a logarithmic scale is often used for stress –
the change in stiffness with increasing stress is such that
logarithmic fits are often well suited to match the data

Arithmetic Logarithmic

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Stiffness

The slope of this consolidation fitting line is described in a few ways:

λ – “base e” fitting value, 0.11 for the below data
Cc – “base 10” fitting value, 0.25 for the below data

e = 1.23 -0.11 ln ( σ'v )

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Stiffness

Different types of soil sand tailings exhibit a range of different

stiffness. Hence one of the reasons that determining this is so
critical to tailings design. In general, stiffness reduces as
gradation decreases and plasticity increases.

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Rate of consolidation

The previous discussion of stiffness focused on the state of a soil sample at

the end of an increment of load – i.e. with consolidation under a particular
stage complete.

However, consolidation under a given stage is never instantaneous – although

it could be so quick as to be essentially instantaneous, in a sand. Generally, it
takes time for the pore water within the specimen to flow out to the nearest
drainage boundary. Without this loss of water under the new load increment,
a saturated specimen could not decrease in volume.

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Coefficient of consolidation formula

The coefficient of consolidation cv was introduced in the previous module.

For reference:

Where
– dimensionless time factor
– drainage path length
– time

This formula is applied in multiple ways:

- Design scenarios, such as estimating how long consolidation of a
foundation layer might take
- Interpretation of laboratory tests, to infer cv

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Example load stage data

Let us revisit the Rowe cell sample 100 kPa back pressure
previously discussed. Specimen (applied through a pump)
has previously been consolidated
to a vertical effective
consolidation stress of 100 kPa. Top of cell (bolted down)

Chamber pressure = 150 kPa

Porous disc

Tailings sample
Pore pressure = 100 kPa
σ’v = 50 kPa

Porous disc

Pore pressure
measurement

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Example load stage data

100 kPa back pressure
Next increment of load to σ’v = 100
(applied through a pump)
kPa applied as follows:
X Valve closed during initial loading

1) The top drainage line is closed. Top of cell (bolted down)

This allows initial load
New chamber pressure = 200 kPa
application to specimen to be
undrained. Porous disc

2) Chamber pressure is increased

from 150 to 200 kPa Tailings sample
Initial pore pressure = 100 kPa
3) Pore pressure response inside Initial σ’v = 50 kPa
the sample is monitored
4) Once internal pore pressure Porous disc
has equilibrated, drainage
valve is opened to allow
consolidation to occur Pore pressure
measurement

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Example load stage data

Response of specimen, Part 1

The chamber pressure is quickly increased

from 150 to 200 kPa. The follow occurs:

- Pore pressure rises from 100 to ~146 kPa.

This occurs as the specimen is sealed during
initial loading. This means the pore water is
initially bearing the new load.

- It should be noted that theoretically, the Pore pressure (left axis)

increase in pore pressure should be to 150
kPa (reflecting the new 50 kPa increment of Sample height (right axis)
load applied to the top)

- The sample height also decreases very

slightly (<0.25mm). This is a result of slightly
compressibility of the loading system and
does not indicate much about the soil
behaviour.

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Example load stage data Valve opened

Response of specimen, Part 2

The top valve is opened to allow water to

leave the sample:

- Pore pressure begins to decrease

- The sample height begins to similarly Top valve opened

decrease

- Eventually the pore pressure reaches the Pore pressure (left axis)
pre-loading level, indicating all excess Pore pressure (left axis)
pore pressure generated by the new load Sample height (right axis)
has dissipated

- At around the same time, the sample

height is approaching a stable new
height
Sample height (right axis)
- This represents a consolidation stage
from σ’v of 50 to 100 kPa

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Calculation of cv

We can apply this load stage to

calculate a value of cv relevant to
the 50 – 100 kPa stress range

Recall this formula

To use this expression, we need a

reference criterion in the test for
which to pick time t. When using the
dissipation of base pore pressure, it is
common to select the time at which
50% of the excess pore pressure has
dissipated. This is referred to as t50.

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Calculation of cv

=
148 kPa, maximum excess
This gives us the first input to the
expression:
t50 = 170 seconds
50% dissipation = 124 kPa
t50 = 170 seconds
d, drainage path length, refers to the 100 kPa,
maximum path length requires by equilibrium/
water to travel to reach a boundary final value
condition

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Calculation of cv

d, drainage path length, refers to the

maximum path length requires by Maximum drainage
water to travel to reach a boundary path length
condition

In our case, the specimen could only

drain in one direction, to the top.
While there may be a porous disc at
the base, this is only to facilitate
measurement of pore pressure by the
bottom piezometer. All water needs to
migrate to the top porous disc (top
drainage boundary) to exist the
specimen.

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Calculation of cv

=
d, drainage path length, refers to the
maximum path length requires by Maximum drainage
water to travel to reach a boundary path length
condition

An importance nuance in this type of

testing, on relatively loose soils that
starts as a slurry, is that displacement
is significant often across a load stage
– and, thus, the sample
height/drainage path length changes

It is common to use the average value

across a given load stage, for the
purposes of cv calculation.

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Calculation of cv

Those are the two values we need

t50 = 170 seconds

Average height
during test
d = 48.5mm

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Calculation of cv

Dimensionless time factor T is 0.379 for 50% dissipation at base pore pressure
dissipation

Head, 1998

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Calculation of cv

=
Now we have all the required inputs from the test
We can convert them to convenient units, so output of cv is m2/year (a common unit combination to report it)

t50 = 170 seconds = 5.391e-6 year

d = 48.5mm = 0.0485 m

T = 0.379

= 165 m2/year

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Calculation of cv

=
Now we have all the required inputs from the test
We can convert them to convenient units, so output of cv is m2/year (a common unit combination to report it)

t50 = 170 seconds = 5.391e-6 year

d = 48.5mm = 0.0485 m

T = 0.379

= 165 m2/year
It’s important to note that this value applies
to the condition of the soil during the σ’v =
50 – 100 kPa load increment
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Calculation of cv

165 m2/year, for 50 – 100 kPa stage.

Plotted at 75 kPa, average value for
that increment (a common convention)

Other test
stages

Other test
stages

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Shear strength testing

The shear strength of tailings is an important factor

when the stability of the TSF is affected by the tailings
strength. This is the case in upstream and filter stack
TSFs in particular.

There are a number of relevant types of shear strength.

Which type of strength is to be measured will affect
decisions as to which device is used.

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Types of strength

Some forms of shear strength that may be sought:

- Effective friction angle – either peak or critical state

- Peak undrained shear strength of a contractive soil
- Post-peak undrained shear strength of a contractive
soil
- Cyclic strength - i.e. under seismic loadings

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Types of tests

Some forms of shear strength that may be sought:

- Triaxial compression test (TX)

- Direct shear test (DS)
- Simple shear-type tests, of which the most common in current
engineer practice is the direct simple shear (DSS)

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Strengths that can be measured with

each test

Test type Sample size Strengths measured

Triaxial 38 to 100 mm diameter Effective frictional strength

Usually height = 2x diameter Undrained strength
Cyclic resistance (if a cyclic
TX)
Direct shear Various diameters up to Effective frictional strength
100mm, height usually ~25mm
Direct simple 60 to 100mm diameter, height Undrained strength
shear ~20 to 25mm typically Cyclic resistance (most
devices)

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Triaxial (TX) - General

The triaxial test for soils was developed in the 1930s and has
found increasing application since. The device is in many ways
the most fundamental means to measure soil shear strength that
we have, as it enables direct measurements of principal stresses
in a straightforward manner. The cylindrical shape of triaxial
specimens – and thus axisymmetry – means that the
intermediate the minor principal stresses are equal, greatly
simplifying test interpretation. A modern system comprises an
electro-mechanical load frame (to control vertical deformations
and loading) and two electrical piston pumps to control cell and
back pressures. All three of these can in turn be controlled by a
computer, enabling various stress paths to be followed relatively
simply. Owing to the benefits of the triaxial device, it is found in
commercial laboratories in all regions globally.

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Triaxial (TX) – Tailings considerations

Much “standard” commercial triaxial testing is carried out on two forms of

specimens:
- Intact tube samples, trimmed and directly placed into the device
- Reconstituted samples, which in commercial practice are often compacted
to a specified density – say 95% proctor/SMDD

Additional considerations and care are required for modern testing of tailings,
which may be quite loose in situ, and difficult to prepare in such a condition
in a laboratory without special procedures. Similarly, depending on sample
quality of intact samples (either tailings or foundation soils) special
procedures are required to ensure the results obtained in the laboratory are
of relevance to the in situ condition of the tailings or foundation soils.

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Triaxial (TX) - summary

σ'1

q = σ1 - σ3

σ'2 / σ’3 σ'2 / σ’3

σ’1 + σ’2 + σ’3

p’ =
3
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Triaxial (TX) – image of a modern

device, with a sample

Loading ram /
load cell

Cell
pressure

Back
pressure
(in sample)

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Basic triaxial test types

The most common forms of triaxial test are listed below. Any commercial
laboratory that carried out triaxial tests should be able to perform these tests.
While the UU test is very common, it is generally not recommended for modern
characterization of tailings or foundation materials.

Test Test type Back Consolidation condition Shearing

acronym pressure condition
?
UU Unconsolidated No Cell pressure applied; no Undrained
undrained drainage permitted (sample sealed)

CU (or Consolidated Yes Cell pressure applied (in excess Undrained

CIU) undrained of back pressure) – drainage (sample sealed)
(Isotropically) permitted
CD (or Consolidated Yes Cell pressure applied (in excess Drained (valves
CID) drained of back pressure) – drainage open)
(Isotropically) permitted

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

Shearing commences. We begin to move σ1

the top platen downwards at a slow rate.
This causes an increase to σ1

Drainage is allowed to freely occur at both

ends of the specimen. Therefore, pore
pressures stay zero. This is an isotropically
consolidated drained triaxial test (CID).

σ3
Start conditions
σ1 = σ’1 = 300 kPa
σ3 = σ’3 = 300 kPa
Drainage lines,
left open

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

Things that happen:
- The sample gets “shorter” (axial strain)
- σ1 / σ’1 goes up, but at a decreasing rate with time/strain, eventually reaching a plateau
- σ3 / σ’3 stays constant

σ1
σ1

σ3
σ3

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

As the test proceeds, the difference between σ1 and σ3 increases. This can be represented
using Mohr Circles, as shown on the right, for three stages of the test.
The final value of σ1 is 1139 kPa, after which shearing continues without further increase

σ1=970
σ1 = 1139
σ1 = 970

σ3 = 300
σ1 = 610

Start,
σ1 and σ3 = 300
σ1=610 σ1=1139

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

Mohr circles can be constructed for each stage of the test, allowing mobilised friction angle at
each point to be inferred. For a loose test, the mobilised friction angle generally increases
monotonically as shearing progresses

φm’ = 35° σ1=970

φm’ = 32°

φm’ = 21°

σ1=610 σ1=1139

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

Let’s repeat a similar test examination, but this

time for an undrained test.
σ1
Triaxial specimen, consolidated isotropically.
Pore pressures are zero, so effective and total
stresses are equal.

σ3
Start conditions
σ1 = σ’1 = 100 kPa
σ3 = σ’3 = 100 kPa

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

Shearing commences. We begin to move σ1

the top platen downwards at a slow rate.
This causes an increase to σ1

Drainage is not allowed. Therefore, shear

induced pore pressures will be generated.
This is an isotropically consolidated
undrained triaxial test (CIU).
σ3

Start conditions:
σ1 = σ’1 = 100 kPa
σ3 = σ’3 = 100 kPa
Drainage lines closed
Pore pressures monitored
using a piezometer

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

Things that happen:
- The sample gets “shorter” (axial strain)
- σ1 (vertical total stress) goes up, but at a decreasing rate with time/strain, eventually reaching a plateau
- σ3 (horizontal total stress) stays constant
- This is just like the drained test previously discussed. However, in this test, total stresses and effective stresses
are no longer the same during shearing. Shear-induced excess pore pressure occurs
σ1

σ1

σ3
σ3

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

- On the left are total stress with axial strain, but now also showing the shear induced pore
pressure generated during shearing
- On the right, are the changes in effective stress with axial strain. These are the total stress
minus the shear induced pore pressure
- This sample represents a contractive sample, as shear induced pore pressure is positive

σ1

σ3

σ'1
Shear induced
pore pressure, u σ'3

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

- Again, a Mohr circle can be created for any stage of the shear process
- Recall, as soil behaviour is controlled by effective stresses, the relevant Mohr circles are
based on effective principal stresses.

σ’3=28 σ’3=45

σ'1 = 78
σ'1 = 58

σ’3 = 45
σ’3 = 28 σ’3=88 σ’3=78

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

- Again, a Mohr circle can be created for any stage of the shear process
- Recall, as soil behaviour is controlled by effective stresses, the relevant Mohr circles are
based on effective principal stresses.

σ’3=28 σ’3=45
φm’ = 20°

φm’ = 14°

σ’3=88 σ’3=78

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Review of TX stresses, stress paths

Recall the useful Cambridge stresses:

q = σ1 - σ3
σ’1 + σ’2 + σ’3
p’ =
3

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