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What is solar energy?

WHAT IS SOLAR ENERGY?
The sun is an incredible and renewable resource that has the power to fuel life on earth and
provide clean, sustainable energy to all of its inhabitants. In fact, more energy from the sun
reaches our planet in one hour than is used by the entire population of the world in one year.
The sun’s energy can be converted into electricity through solar photovoltaic (PV) modules
(photo = light, voltaic = electricity).

HOW DOES SOLAR ENERGY WORK AND WHY

SHOULD WE USE SOLAR ENERGY?
PV modules absorb sunlight and convert the energy into a usable form of electrical current. The
sun shines all over the world, making solar electricity viable anywhere. Because solar can be
paired with batteries for energy storage, solar electric systems can be independent of the utility
grid, making them cost-effective for remote locations. Solar modules have no moving parts
making maintenance costs low, and they are highly reliable with a long service life of 25+ years
of guaranteed electricity. Solar electricity relies on the sun as its fuel source, so there is no need
to drill for petroleum-based fuels, refine them, or deliver them to the site. As you can see, there
are a lot of advantages of solar energy.

THE SOLAR INDUSTRY IS GROWING

The design and installation of PV systems on a large scale enable us to move away from other
polluting and unsustainable energy sources. Since the solar industry is growing, that means that
the need for skilled workers is also growing!

Remote Energy (RE) is a 501 (c)(3) for-impact organization that trains women and men
worldwide to harness the power of the sun and develop the technical PV design and installation
skills required to bring clean power and positive change to their communities. Technician
training programs provide the growing workforce with the practical skills needed to be
competent and competitive. Solar educator training programs empower local trainers with
curriculum, mentorship opportunities, and the skills needed to meet current, regional training
requirements.

Do you want to learn more about solar electric systems? Sign up for our next Solar System
Fundamentals with Energy Storage Online Course today!
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Remote Energy
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Solar radiation
and its spectral
characteristics
The sun is the source
of thermonuclear
processes and
generates enormous
amounts
of energy. Solar
energy or solar
radiation is the
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energy emitted by
the sun. Despite
the large distance
between the sun and
the earth, a
significant amount of
solar energy
reaches the earth. By
far the most
important natural
source of energy on
the planet.
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The earth intercepts

approximately 180
x106 GW at any given
time. The amount of
power received at a
given geographical
location varies over
time: between day
and
night due to the
rotation of the earth
and between seasons
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due to the earth's

orbit.
And it varies in space
at any given time due
to changes in the
obliquity of the solar
rays with longitude
and latitude. As a
result, the amount of
power received at a
given
location and time is
determined by the
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sun's and Earth's

relative positions.
What Is Solar Radiation?
Definition, Types, and
Characteristics
Solar radiation definition: it is the energy emitted by the Sun in
interplanetary space.
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Electromagnetic Spectrum in Electromagnetic Waves of Solar Radiation:

Components

When we speak about the amount of solar energy reaching the

surface of our planet, we use irradiance and irradiation
concepts. Solar irradiation is the energy received per unit area
(J/m2), the power received in a given time. Likewise, solar
irradiance is the power received in an instant - it is expressed
in watts per square meter (W/m2)
Nuclear fusion reactions take place in the solar nucleus and are
the source of the Sun's energy. Nuclear radiation produces
electromagnetic radiation at various frequencies or
wavelengths. Electromagnetic radiation propagates in space at
the speed of light (299,792 km / s).
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A singular value is the solar constant; the solar constant is the

amount of radiation received instantly per unit area in the outer
part of the earth's atmosphere in a plane perpendicular to the
solar rays. On average, the value of the solar constant is 1.366
W / m2.

Types of Solar Radiation

Solar radiation is made up of the following types of radiation:

 Infrared rays (IR): Infrared radiation provides heat and

represents 49% of solar radiation.
 Visible rays (VI): represent 43% of radiation and provide light.
 Ultraviolet rays (UV radiation): represent 7%.
 Other types of rays: represent about 1% of the total.

Types of Ultraviolet Rays

In turn, ultraviolet (UV) rays are subdivided into three types:

 Ultraviolet A or UVA: They easily pass through

the atmosphere, reaching the entire earth's surface.
 Ultraviolet B or UVB: Short-wavelength. Has greater difficulty
passing through the atmosphere. As a result, they reach the
equatorial zone more quickly than at high latitudes.
 Ultraviolet C or UVC: Short-wavelength. They do not pass
through the atmosphere. Instead, the ozone layer absorbs
them.

Characteristics of Solar Radiation

The total solar radiation is distributed in a broad spectrum of
non-uniform amplitude with the typical shape of a bell, as is
typical of the spectrum of a black body with which the solar
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source is modeled. Therefore, it does not focus on a single

frequency.

The radiation maximum is centered in the band of radiation or

visible light with a peak at 500 nm outside the Earth's
atmosphere, which corresponds to the color cyan green.
According to Wien's law, the photosynthetically active radiation
band oscillates between 400 and 700 nm, corresponds to visible
radiation, and is equivalent to 41% of the total radiation. Within
photosynthetically active radiation, there are subbands with
radiation:

 blue-violet (400-490 nm)

 green (490-560 nm)
 yellow (560-590 nm)
 orange-red (590-700 nm)

When crossing the atmosphere, solar radiation is subjected to

reflection, refraction, absorption, and diffusion by the various
atmospheric gases to a variable degree as a function of
frequency.

Earth's atmosphere acts as a filter. The outer part of the

atmosphere absorbs part of the radiation, reflecting the rest
directly into outer space. Other elements that act as a filter are
carbon dioxide, clouds, and water vapor, which sometimes
convert into diffuse radiation.
We have to bear in mind that solar radiation is not the same
everywhere. For example, tropical areas receive the most solar
radiation because the Sun's rays are nearly perpendicular to the
Earth's surface.

Why Is Solar Radiation

Necessary?
Solar energy is the primary energy source and, therefore, the
engine that drives our environment. The solar energy that we
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receive through solar radiation is directly or indirectly

responsible for aspects vital to biological processes such
as photosynthesis, the maintenance of a planet's
air temperature compatible with life, or the wind.
The global solar energy that reaches the earth's surface is
10,000 times greater than the energy currently consumed by all
of humanity.

How Does Solar Radiation Affect

Health?
Ultraviolet radiation can have various effects on human skin
depending on its intensity and the length of its waves.

UVA radiation can cause premature skin aging and skin cancer.
It can also cause eye and immune system problems.

UVB radiation causes sunburn, darkening, thickening of the

outer layer of the skin, melanoma, and other types of skin
cancer. It can also cause eye and immune system problems.
The ozone layer prevents most of the UVC radiation from
reaching Earth. In the medical field, UVC radiation can also
come from certain lamps or a laser beam and is used to kill
germs or help heal wounds. It is also used to treat certain skin
conditions such as psoriasis, vitiligo, and nodules on the skin
that cause cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.

What is the sun angle on solar panels?

between 30 degrees and 45 degrees

For most homeowners, the ideal angle for a solar panel installation is close to or equal to the latitude
of your home. This angle is typically between 30 degrees and 45 degrees. Doing so ensures your
home will get the maximum average output from your solar power system throughout the year.
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2.1. Estimation of the Solar Radiation

The extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal plane is evaluated according to the
following relation [24]:
H0=24πIsc[1+0.033cos(360Dn365)]∗[cosφcosδsinωs+2πωs360sinφsinδ]�0=24�
���[1+0.033cos(360��365)]∗[cos�cos�sin��+2���360sin�sin�](1)
where δ and ωs are given by [25]:
ωs=cos−1(−tanφtanδ)��=cos−1(−tan�tan�)(2)
δ=23.45sin[360(284+Dn)365]�=23.45sin[360(284+��)365](3)
where Isc: solar constant (W/m2); ωs sunset hour angle (˚C); φ latitude of the location (˚)
and δ solar declination (˚).
2.2. Modeling of Global Solar Radiation Using the Angstrom-Prescott
Model
The most practical correlation for assessing global solar radiation and the most
commonly used is given by the relation [26] [27]:
HH0=a+b(SS0)��0=�+�(��0)(4)
Thus, by Equations (5), (6) and (7), the correlation parameters can be defined as:
a=−0.110+0.235cosφ+0.323(SS0)�=−0.110+0.235cos�+0.323(��0)(5)
b=1.449−0.553cosφ−0.694(SS0)�=1.449−0.553cos�−0.694(��0)(6)
Thus, the duration of sunshine is given by [28]:
S0=215cos−1(−tanφtanδ)�0=215cos−1(−tan�tan�)(7)
where S0 monthly average day length (h); S monthly average daily hours of bright
sunshine (h) and a, b regression coefficients.
2.3. Modeling of Global Solar Radiation Using the Allen Model
The global solar irradiation is estimated by this model using several parameters
namely TM, Tm, Kr as well as atmospheric pressures [29].
HH0=Kr(TM−Tm)0.5��0=��(��−��)0.5(8)
where Kr is defined as:
Kr=Kra(PP0)0.5��=���(��0)0.5(9)
where according to Lunde [30], Kra = 0.17 and the pressures PP0��0 is defined as:
PP0=exp(−0.0001184h)��0=exp(−0.0001184ℎ)(10)
where h is altitude, varies from site to site; TM maximum temperature and Tm minimum
temperature.
2.4. Modeling of Global Solar Radiation Using the Sabbagh Model
This model estimates global solar radiation by taking into account parameters such as
relative humidity, sunshine duration, maximum temperature and geographical location

H=1.530K∗expφ(SS0−RH1/3100−1Tmax)�=1.530�∗exp�(��0−��1/3100−1�ma
[31].

x)(11)
with
K=100(nTmax+ψijcos(φ))�=100(��max+���cos(�))(12)
n=11+0.1φ�=11+0.1�(13)
2.5. Modeling of Global Solar Radiation Using the Hargreaves Model
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Global solar radiation is estimated by this model using parameters such as minimum
temperature, maximum temperature as well as extraterrestrial irradiation [32]. ¶
HH0=a(Tmax−Tmin)0.5��0=�(�max−�min)0.5(14)
2.6. Modeling of Global Solar Radiation Using the Annandale Model
This model uses parameters such as maximum and minimum temperature to estimate
global solar radiation [33].
HH0=a(1+2.7×10−5Z)(Tmax−Tmin)0.5��0=�(1+2.7×10−5�)
(�max−�min)0.5(15)
2.7. Modeling of Global Solar Radiation Using the A.A.A Sayigh
Model
The global solar radiation is estimated by the Sayigh model using parameters such
as RH, Tmax, DI and φ [34]. ¶
GH=11.6KNexp(φ(DITm)−(RH15)−(1Tmax))

Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

The equivalent circuit of a solar cell

/wiki/File:Photovoltaic_cell.svg">

The schematic symbol of a solar cell

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is
electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical components whose behavior is well
known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a
current source in parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance
and a series resistance component are added to the model. The resulting equivalent circuit of a
solar cell is shown on the left. Also shown, on the right, is the schematic representation of a
solar cell for use in circuit diagrams.
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Characteristic equation
From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar cell is equal to that
produced by the current source, minus that which flows through the diode, minus that which
flows through the shunt resistor:
I = IL − ID − ISH
where
 I = output current (amperes)
 IL = photogenerated current (amperes)
 ID = diode current (amperes)
 ISH = shunt current (amperes).
The current through these elements is governed by the voltage across them:
Vj = V + IRS
where
 Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volts)
 V = voltage across the output terminals (volts)
 I = output current (amperes)
 RS = series resistance (Ω).
By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is:

where
 I0 = reverse saturation current (amperes)
 n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode)
 q = elementary charge
 k = Boltzmann's constant
 T = absolute temperature
 At 25°C, volts.
By Ohm's law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:

where
 RSH = shunt resistance (Ω).
Substituting these into the first equation produces the characteristic equation of a solar cell,
which relates solar cell parameters to the output current and voltage:
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An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in appearance, but with V on the left-
hand side. The two alternatives are identities; that is, they yield precisely the same results.
In principle, given a particular operating voltage V the equation may be solved to determine the
operating current I at that voltage. However, because the equation involves I on both sides in a
transcendental function the equation has no general analytical solution. However, even without
a solution it is physically instructive. Furthermore, it is easily solved using numerical methods. (A
general analytical solution to the equation is possible using Lambert's W function, but since
Lambert's W generally itself must be solved numerically this is a technicality.)
Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured directly, the most common
application of the characteristic equation is nonlinear regression to extract the values of these
parameters on the basis of their combined effect on solar cell behavior.
Open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current
When the cell is operated at open circuit, I = 0 and the voltage across the output terminals is
defined as the open-circuit voltage. Assuming the shunt resistance is high enough to neglect the
final term of the characteristic equation, the open-circuit voltage VOC is:

Similarly, when the cell is operated at short circuit, V = 0 and the current I through the terminals
is defined as the short-circuit current. It can be shown that for a high-quality solar cell
(low RS and I0, and high RSH) the short-circuit current ISC is:

Effect of physical size

The values of I0, RS, and RSH are dependent upon the physical size of the solar cell. In
comparing otherwise identical cells, a cell with twice the surface area of another will, in principle,
have double the I0 because it has twice the junction area across which current can leak. It will
also have half the RS and RSH because it has twice the cross-sectional area through which
current can flow. For this reason, the characteristic equation is frequently written in terms of
current density, or current produced per unit cell area:

where
 J = current density (amperes/cm2)
 JL = photogenerated current density (amperes/cm2)
 J0 = reverse saturation current density (amperes/cm2)
 rS = specific series resistance (Ω-cm2)
 rSH = specific shunt resistance (Ω-cm2).
This formulation has several advantages. One is that since cell characteristics are referenced to
a common cross-sectional area they may be compared for cells of different physical
dimensions. While this is of limited benefit in a manufacturing setting, where all cells tend to be
the same size, it is useful in research and in comparing cells between manufacturers. Another
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advantage is that the density equation naturally scales the parameter values to similar orders of
magnitude, which can make numerical extraction of them simpler and more accurate even with
naive solution methods.
There are practical limitations of this formulation. For instance, certain parasitic effects grow in
importance as cell sizes shrink and can affect the extracted parameter values. Recombination
and contamination of the junction tend to be greatest at the perimeter of the cell, so very small
cells may exhibit higher values of J0 or lower values of RSH than larger cells that are otherwise
identical. In such cases, comparisons between cells must be made cautiously and with these
effects in mind.
This approach should only be used for comparing solar cells with comparable layout. For
instance, a comparison between primarily quadratical solar cells like typical crystalline silicon
solar cells and narrow but long solar cells like typical thin film solar cells can lead to wrong
assumptions caused by the different kinds of current paths and therefore the influence of for
instance a distributed series resistance rS

A photovoltaic (PV) cell is an energy harvesting technology, that converts solar

energy into useful electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. There are
several different types of PV cells which all use semiconductors to interact with
incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate an electric current.
Layers of a PV Cell
A photovoltaic cell is comprised of many layers of materials, each with a specific
purpose. The most important layer of a photovoltaic cell is the specially
treated semiconductor layer. It is comprised of two distinct layers (p-type and n-type—
see Figure 3), and is what actually converts the Sun's energy into
useful electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect (see below). On either
side of the semiconductor is a layer of conducting material which "collects" the
electricity produced. Note that the backside or shaded side of the cell can afford to be
completely covered in the conductor, whereas the front or illuminated side must use the
conductors sparingly to avoid blocking too much of the Sun's radiation from reaching the
semiconductor. The final layer which is applied only to the illuminated side of the cell is
the anti-reflection coating. Since all semiconductors are naturally reflective, reflection
loss can be significant. The solution is to use one or several layers of an anti-reflection
coating (similar to those used for eyeglasses and cameras) to reduce the amount of
solar radiation that is reflected off the surface of the cell.[2]
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Figure 2. The basic operation of a PV cell.[3]

Photovoltaic Effect
main article

Figure 3. A diagram showing the photovoltaic effect.[4]

The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in
a photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight. These solar cells are composed of
two different types of semiconductors—a p-type and an n-type—that are joined
together to create a p-n junction. By joining these two types of semiconductors,
an electric field is formed in the region of the junction as electrons move to the
positive p-side and holes move to the negative n-side. This field causes negatively
charged particles to move in one direction and positively charged particles in the
other direction.[5] Light is composed of photons, which are simply small bundles
of electromagnetic radiation or energy. When light of a suitable wavelength is
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incident on these cells, energy from the photon is transferred to an electron of the
semiconducting material, causing it to jump to a higher energy state known as
the conduction band. In their excited state in the conduction band, these electrons
are free to move through the material, and it is this motion of the electron that
creates an electric current in the cell.
Solar Cell Efficiency
main article
Efficiency is a design concern for photovoltaic cells, as there are many factors
that limit their efficiency. The main factor is that 1/4 of the solar energy to the
Earth cannot be converted into electricity by a silicon semiconductor. The
physics of semiconductors requires a minimum photon energy to remove
an electron from a crystal structure, known as the band-gap energy. If a photon
has less energy than the band-gap, the photon gets absorbed as thermal
energy. For silicon, the band-gap energy is 1.12 electron volts.[6] Since the
energy in the photons from the sun cover a wide range of energies, some of the
incoming energy from the Sun does not have enough energy to knock off an
electron in a silicon PV cell. Even from the light that can be absorbed, there is
still a problem. Any energy above the band-gap energy will be transformed
into heat. This also cuts the efficiency because that heat energy is not being
used for any useful task.[6] Of the electrons that are made available, not all of
them will actually make it to the metal contact and generate electricity. Some
electrons will not be accelerated sufficiently by the voltage inside the
semiconductor to leave the system. These effects combine to create a
theoretical efficiency of silicon PV cells is about 33%.[6]
There are ways to improve the efficiency of PV cells, all of which come with an
increased cost. Some of these methods include increasing the purity of the
semiconductor, using a more efficient semiconducting material such as Gallium
Arsenide, by adding additional layers or p-n junctions to the cell, or by
concentrating the Sun's energy using concentrated photovoltaics. On the other
hand, PV cells will also degrade, outputting less energy over time, due to a
variety of factors including UV exposure and weather cycles. A comprehensive
report from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) states that the
median degradation rate is 0.5% per year.[7]
Types of PV Cells
main article
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Figure 4. An image comparing a polycrystalline silicon cell (left) and a

monocrystalline silicon cell (right).[8]
Photovoltaic cell can be manufactured in a variety of ways and from many
different materials. The most common material for commercial solar cell
construction is Silicon (Si), but others include Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS).
Solar cells can be constructed from brittle crystalline structures (Si, GaAs) or
as flexible thin-film cells (Si, CdTe, CIGS). Crystalline solar cells can be
further classified into two categories—monocrystalline and polycrystalline, as
shown in figure 4. As the names suggest, monocrystalline PV cells are
comprised of a uniform or single crystal lattice, whereas polycrystalline cells
contain different or varied crystal structures. Solar cells can also be classified
by their number of layers or "p-n junctions". Most commercial PV cells are
only single-junction, but multi-junction PV cells have also been developed
which provide higher efficiencies at a greater cost.

p-v AND i-v CURVE

olar Cell I-V Characteristic

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Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and the Solar Cell I-V Curve

The Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves shows the current and voltage (I-
V) characteristics of a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array. It gives a detailed
description of its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V
characteristics (more importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the
device’s output performance and solar efficiency.

Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity. With increasing
demand for a clean energy source and the sun’s potential as a free energy source, has made solar
energy conversion as part of a mixture of renewable energy sources increasingly important. As a
result, the demand for efficient solar cells, which convert sunlight directly into electricity, is
growing faster than ever before.

Photovoltaic Cell

Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells are made made almost entirely from semiconductor silicon that has
been processed into an extremely pure crystalline material which absorbs the photons from
sunlight.

The photons hit the sillicon atoms releasing electrons causing an electric current to flow when
the photoconductive cell is connected to an external load. For example, a battery. There are a
variety of different measurements we can make to determine the solar cell’s performance, such
as its power output and its conversion efficiency.

The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the relationship
between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V characteristics curve. The
intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell controls the current ( I ), while the
increases in the temperature of the solar cell reduces its voltage ( V ).
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Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage equals power, so
we can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current versus the voltage for a photovoltaic
device.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the operation of
a solar cell or module summarising the relationship between the current and voltage at the
existing conditions of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide the information required to
configure a solar system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power point (MPP) as
possible.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell
operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a single solar cell or panel is the
product of its output current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point,
for all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained
for a given radiation level.

With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at its
minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open
circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the
positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum
(zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short
circuit current, or Isc.

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Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current
( Isc ) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage ( Voc ). In other words,
the maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at closed
circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but there must
be a point somewhere in between were the solar cell generates maximum power.

However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power reaches
its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell generates
maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green rectangle. This is
the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or
panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.

The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in the I-V

circuit voltage and the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85–0.95)Isc.
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the open

Since solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature, the actual output power
will vary with changes in ambient temperature.

Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve for a single solar cell or panel.
But a photovoltaic array is made up of smaller PV panels interconnected together. Then the I-V
curve of a PV array is just a scaled up version of the single solar cell I-V characteristic curve as
shown.

Solar Panel I-V Characteristic Curves

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel combinations,
or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array panels are
connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and if connected together
in parallel then the current increases.
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The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still
be the product of the voltage times the current, ( P = V x I ). However the solar panels are
connected together, the upper right hand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP)
of the array.

The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array

The electrical characteristics of a photovoltaic array are summarised in the relationship between
the output current and voltage. The amount and intensity of solar insolation (solar irradiance)
controls the amount of output current ( I ), and the operating temperature of the solar cells affects
the output voltage ( V ) of the PV array. Solar cell I-V characteristic curves that summarise the
relationship between the current and voltage are generally provided by the panels manufacturer
and are given as:

Solar Array Parameters

 VOC = open-circuit voltage – This is the maximum voltage that the array provides when
the terminals are not connected to any load (an open circuit condition). This value is much
higher than Vmp which relates to the operation of the PV array which is fixed by the load. This
value depends upon the number of PV panels connected together in series.
 ISC = short-circuit current – The maximum current provided by the PV array when the
output connectors are shorted together (a short circuit condition). This value is much higher than
Imp which relates to the normal operating circuit current.

There are various factors that can influence the performance of solar PV modules, including
temperature and irradiance.
The open circuit voltage of a PV module varies with cell temperature. As the temperature increases,
due to environmental changes or heat generated by internal power dissipation during energy
production, the open circuit voltage (Voc) decreases. This in turn reduces the power output. The
design of a solar PV system must take into account the PV module temperature coefficient,
comparing the expected average cell temperature in its operational environment, against the STC
data used to calculate the module output.
In the same way, irradiance will also affect module performance, with a reduction of sunlight
resulting primarily in a reduction in current and consequentially a reduced power output.
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Effect of insolation on solar PV The changes in characteristic with variation in insolation are shown in Fig.
2. The short circuit current (Isc) of the solar cell is the function of insolation and reduces proportionally
with FIG. 1. Solar cells I-V and P-V characteristic. 042701-2 Verma et al. J. Renewable Sustainable Energy
7, 042701 (2015) This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AIP content is subject to
the terms at: [Link] Downloaded to IP: [Link] On: Wed, 15 Jul
2015 05:24:07 decrease in insolation. Fig. 2 reflects that the point of maximum power also varies with
respect to changing insolation. B. Effect of temperature on solar PV Temperature is another factor which
shows a momentous influence on the characteristic of solar cell. With increase in temperature, open
circuit voltage increases proportionally but the short circuit current decreases logarithmically. Fig. 3
reflects this peculiarity of solar cell characteristic for different temperature values.

What is the impact of shading on PV system?

Shading is a problem in PV modules since shading just one cell in the module
can reduce the power output to zero. Shading one cell reduces the output of the
whole string of cells or modules. Excess power from the unshaded cells is dissipated in
the shaded cell. Bypass diodes isolate the shaded cell.

PV Module Bypass Diodes – What are

they and what do they do?
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Introduction
Bypass diodes, also known as free-wheeling
diodes, are wired within the PV module and
provide an alternate current when a cell or panel
becomes shaded or faulty. Diodes themselves
are simply devices which enable current to flow
in a single direction. Bypass diodes then are
exactly as they sound: devices for channeling
current by bypassing the solar panel itself. They
typically come installed in the PV module from
the module manufacturer, and are generally
placed every 18-24 cells. You will typically find 2
sets in nominal 12VDC modules and 3 sets in
nominal 24VDC modules. They can be installed
in the module junction box or integrated into the
module itself. While physically similar to
blocking diodes, bypass diodes are wired in
parallel with the solar cell or panel, which is in
contrast to series-connected blocking diodes.

Main Functions
 Safety Purposes
The bypass diode prevents “hot spots” by regulating the current from the sunlight.
 Increased Power Production
When used with an MPPT charge controller, a bypass diode can increase power
production under shady conditions in certain situations.
How Does the Bypass Diode Work?
To understand bypass diodes, you first have to understand what a solar cell is and how
it works. The image below depicts a basic solar cell construction. The simplest way to
think of a PV cell is an LED (Light Emitting Diode) in reverse. When you run current
through an LED it produces light; a solar cell works in the exact opposite way: you put
light on it and it produces current. So when light is taken away from the solar cell (either
at night, shading, etc.) it actually consumes power instead of producing it. The bypass
diode works to regulate the current and works within the array.
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Note on the images above for the bypass diode symbol, the flat line represents the
blocking of current flow, and the triangle represents the flow of current through the
diode.

One Important thing to note on Bypass Diodes is that the flat line of the diode symbol
that touches the triangle (see figure above) corresponds to the physical colored line on
the actual diode itself (see picture below). This is helpful because you know which way
to install the physical diode in the circuit.

Blocking Diode and Bypass Diode

for Solar Panels
Dricus De Rooij

Off Grid
Internal

A blocking diode and bypass diode are commonly used in solar energy
systems and solar panels. Learn how and why blocking diodes and bypass
diodes are used.

Diode and unidirectional flow of

current
In simplest terms a diode can be understood as a two terminal electronic
device, which allows electrical current to pass in one [Link] are
made of a semiconductor material, usually silicon, although materials
like selenium and germanium are sometimes used in its construction.A
diode only allows unidirectional flow of current. This is due to the fact that it
offers low (ideally zero) resistance to current in one direction and at the same
time, offers high (ideally infinite) resistance to the current in the opposite
[Link] property of a diode is extensively used in the photovoltaic
[Link] 1 shows the most common symbol for a diode found in a lot of
circuit diagrams, however there could be variants.[caption
id="attachment_4995" align="aligncenter" width="500"]

Figure 1:
Electrical diagram bypass diode used for solar panel[/caption]

How are blocking diodes and bypass

diodes used in solar installations?
Diodes are extensively used in solar panel [Link] the prevent
backflow of current (unidirectional flow of current), they are used as blocking
devices. They are also used as bypass devices to maintain the reliability of
the entire solar power system in the event of a solar panel [Link],
the two main types of diodes used in a solar system are:
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Blocking Diode:
A blocking diode allows the flow of current from a solar panel to the battery
but prevents/blocks the flow of current from battery to solar panel thereby
preventing the battery from discharging.
Bypass Diode:
A bypass diode is used in case one of the panels of a multi panel string is
faulty, it bypasses the faulty panel by providing current an alternative path to
flow and thereby maintains the continuity of power production.

Blocking diode configuration

Figure 2 shows the simple working of a blocking diode. Electricity flows from
high potential to low potential.[caption id="attachment_4993"
align="aligncenter" width="454"]
Internal

Figure 2: Blocking
diode in solar system[/caption]In this setup, during the day the solar panel (at
high potential) produces electricity and charges the battery (at low
potential).During night, when the panel is not producing any electricity (low
potential), the battery is at a higher [Link] is a possibility of the
current flowing from the battery to the solar panel, thereby discharging the
battery [Link] prevent this from happening, a blocking diode is
installed. It allows the current to flow from the panel to the battery but blocks
the flow in opposite [Link] is always installed in series with the solar
panel.
Internal

Bypass diode configuration

Figure 3 shows the simple working of a bypass diode. In this setup, one of the
solar panel is faulty and is not producing any current.[caption
id="attachment_4994" align="aligncenter" width="500"]

Figure 3:
Bypass diode in solar system[/caption]The bypass diode in this case provides
an alternate path for the current to flow and completes the [Link] also
prevents the current from other panels which are working (at high potential) to
flow back to the faulty panel (at low potential).Thus even when a panel is
faulty, the bypass diode still makes the whole solar system run and produce
electricity at a lower [Link] bypass diodes should be installed in parallel to
the panel.