UNIT-3

COMBINATIONAL LOGIC:

Introduction:

Combinational logic is a type of digital logic circuit where the output depends only on the
current input values, without any memory of past inputs or states. These circuits are built from
combinations of logic gates (like AND, OR, and NOT gates) and are used to perform tasks such as
arithmetic operations and decision-making in digital systems. Common examples include adders,
decoders, and multiplexer.

characteristics

Output:

The output is a direct and instantaneous function of the present inputs only. It does not depend on
any previous inputs or past states. not depend on any previous inputs or past states.

No memory:

Unlike sequential circuits, combinational circuits do not have memory elements and cannot store
information from past inputs.

No feedback:

There are no feedback loops. A change in the input causes an immediate change in the output.

Components:
They are constructed using basic logic gates such as AND, OR, and NOT gates.

Features of Combinational Circuit

 In this output depends only upon the present input.
 Its Speed is fast.
 Easily designed.
 There is no feedback between input and output.
 It is time independent.
 Elementary building blocks are Logic gates.
 Used for both arithmetic and boolean operations.
 Combinational circuits don’t have the capability to store any state.

Common examples

 Adders:

Circuits that perform binary addition. A half-adder adds two single bits, while a full-adder adds three bits
(two input bits and a carry bit).

 Multiplexers (MUX):

These select one of several input lines and route it to a single output line, based on select input
signals.

 Demultiplexers:

The opposite of a multiplexer, they take a single input and route it to one of several output lines.

 Decoders:
Circuits that convert a binary input code into a specific output signal.

Applications:

Combinational circuits are used throughout digital electronics to perform various operations on data.
 Arithmetic operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

 Data selection and routing: Multiplexers are used in data communication and memory.

 Logic implementation: They are used to implement complex logic functions required in devices like
computers and calculators.

Combinational Circuit

1. Definition
o A combinational circuit is a type of digital circuit where the output depends only on the
present input.
o No memory elements are used.
2. Examples
o Adders (Half Adder, Full Adder)
o Multiplexers (MUX)
o Demultiplexers (DEMUX)
o Encoders and Decoders
o Comparators
3. Key Features
o Output = Function of current inputs
o Fast operation (no feedback or storage)
o Simple design compared to sequential circuits
4. Basic Building Blocks
o Logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR)
5. Advantages
o Easy to analyze and design
o High speed since no clock is needed
o Reliable for arithmetic and logical operations
6. Limitations
o Cannot store data
o Not suitable for tasks that require memory or past history
7. Applications
o Arithmetic operations in CPUs
o Data routing in communication systems
o Code conversion (binary to gray, BCD to 7-segment)
o Decision-making circuits in computers
8. Conclusion
o Combinational circuits are the backbone of digital systems, providing speed and accuracy
for logical and arithmetic tasks.

Analysis of Combinational Circuits

1. Introduction

 Digital circuits are of two types: Combinational and Sequential.

 In Combinational circuits, the output depends only on the present input values (no memory).
 Examples: Adders, Multiplexers, Encoders, Decoders.

2. What is Analysis?

 Analysis means finding how the circuit works.

 We look at inputs → pass them through logic gates → get outputs.
3. Steps in Analysis

1. Identify Inputs and Outputs

(Example: Full adder has 3 inputs, 2 outputs).
2. Label internal signals (wires between gates).
3. Write Boolean expressions for each output.
4. Make a Truth Table → list all possible input combinations and their outputs.
5. Simplify expressions using Boolean laws or Karnaugh Maps.
6. Draw the simplified circuit.

4. Example: Half Adder

 Inputs: A, B

o Sum = A ⊕ B
 Outputs:

o Carry = A · B

A B Sum Carry

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

5. Applications

 Used in calculators, computers, data transfer, and code conversion.

6. Advantages

 Fast working.
 Easy design with logic gates.

7. Limitation

 Cannot store information.

Conclusion:

Combinational circuit are the base of digital system.

o Very important for designing processors and communication systems

Definition of Design Procedure:

The design procedure is a step-by-step method used to create a solution, product, system, or
structure that meets specific requirements. It is commonly used in fields like engineering,
architecture, product development, and software design

Simple Explanation:
It is the process of planning and developing something new — starting from understanding a
problem, coming up with ideas, selecting the best one, and then building and testing it.

📌 General Steps in a Design Procedure:

1. Identify the Problem

2. Understand what needs to be [Link] the goals and constraints.

2. Research and Gather Information

Collect data about user needs, existing solutions, and technical requirements.

3. Define Requirements

List what the design must do (functions, features, size, cost, etc.).

4. Brainstorm Solutions

Develop several ideas or design options.

5. Select the Best Solution

Compare ideas and choose the most effective and practical one.

[Link] the Design

Create detailed drawings, plans, or models (e.g., CAD, blueprints).

7. Build a Prototype

Construct a sample or working model of the design.

8. Test and Evaluate

Check if the design works as intended and meets all requirements.

9. Improve and Finalize

Make improvements based on test results and finalize the design

10. Implement or Produce

Manufacture or build the final version of the product or system.

🎯 Purpose of the Design Procedure:

To ensure that the final solution is effective, safe, efficient, and meets user needs.

If you tell me the subject or area you're studying (e.g., mechanical design, software design, etc.), I
can customize this explanation further.

✅ Types of Design Procedures

Design procedures can vary depending on the field, purpose, and approach. However, they all aim
to solve problems or create products systematically. Below are the main types of design
procedures commonly used across different disciplines:

🔹 1. Engineering Design Procedure

Used in fields like mechanical, civil, electrical, and electronics engineering.

Steps typically include:

Problem definition

Requirement analysis

Concept generation

Feasibility study

Detailed design (drawings, materials)

Prototyping

Testing and evaluation

Final production

Binary adder:

Addition is one of the most basic operations in computers, and it is done using binary adders . A
binary adder is a digital logic circuit that performs the addition of binary numbers, producing a
sum and a carry output. The fundamental components are the half adder, which adds two single
bits, and the full adder, which adds three bits (two input bits and a carry-in from a previous
stage). Multiple full adders can be cascaded to create parallel adders capable of adding multi-bit
binary numbers, such as a 4-bit adder, which requires one half adder and three full adders.

Basic concept:

Recall binary system (0s and 1s)Addition rules (similar to decimal but in base 2):

0 + 0 =0

0+1=1

1+0=1

1 + 1 = 10 (which means result 0, carry 1)

Types of adders:

1. Half adder
2. Full adder
3. Ripple carry adder

Half adder:

Add two bits only

A half adder is a digital logic circuit that adds two single-bit binary numbers, producing a two-bit
output: a sum and a carry. It is a fundamental combinational circuit that uses an XOR gate for
the sum and an AND gate for the carry. Unlike a full adder, it does not account for a carry-in bit
from a previous addition

Has two outputs: sum and carry

Explain with logic gates:

sum = A ⊕ B (XOR gate)

carry = A · B (AND gate)

Full adder:

Add three inputs: A, B, and carry-in (Cin)

A full adder is a digital logic circuit that performs the addition of three binary bits: two significant
bits (A and B) and a carry-in bit (Cin). It produces two outputs: the sum (S) of the three bits and
a carry-out (Cout) to the next addition stage. Full adders are crucial for building multi-bit
adders, such as those in arithmetic logic units (ALUs), by cascading multiple full adders together
to handle larger numbers.

Output: sum and carry-out (Cout)

Equation:

sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin

carry = (A · B) + (B · Cin) + (A · Cin)

Ripple carry adder:

 Connect multiple full adders in [Link] output from each stage is connected to carry input
of the next stage (carry “ripples” through).

Used in ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) for multi-bit binary addition.

Application: used in calculators, digital signal processing, microcontrollers, etc.

Slower when no. of bits is large because carry has to “ripple” through all stages.

Foundation for subtraction (using 2’s complement) & many complex units.

Binary adder is the backbone of all arithmetic units in computer.

From adding two simple bits to handling large numbers, the principle remains the same.

Decimal Adder
A decimal adder is a digital circuit designed to add two decimal numbers, specifically by operating on their
binary-coded decimal (BCD) representations. The decimal adder uses a combination of binary adders
and correction logic to ensure that results stay within valid BCD values, making it essential for performing
decimal arithmetic in digital systems like calculators and certain computer applications

How Decimal Adder Works

Each decimal digit (0-9) is represented in BCD using 4 bits. To add two BCD digits, a standard 4-bit
binary adder (like a full adder) is used first to get the binary sum.

If this sum is less than or equal to 9 (1001 in binary), the binary sum is a valid BCD result and no
correction is needed.

If the sum is greater than 9 (i.e., from 1010 to 1111 in binary), it’s not a valid BCD digit. We need to add
6 (0110 in binary) to the result, which corrects it so that it’s back in BCD range.

The circuit for correction checks if the binary sum exceeds 9, then triggers the addition of 6 using basic
gates and another adder.
 Uses

Decimal Arithmetic in Digital Systems: Decimal adders are widely used in systems that require precise
decimal calculations, such as calculators and billing machines, where binary computations could
introduce rounding errors.

Digital Display Interfaces: Since BCD numbers can be directly decoded to drive 7-segment displays,
decimal adders help generate output easily readable in decimal form.

Financial and Business Applications: Decimal adders are crucial in systems where data must remain
strictly in decimal for reporting or accounting, preventing base conversion errors.

Error Detection: Their correction logic makes it easy to identify and resolve invalid sums, supporting error
detection in arithmetic circuits.

In summary, a decimal adder is a specialized circuit that adds two BCD-coded numbers and corrects
results to maintain valid decimal digit representation, making it vital for precise, display-friendly, and error-
checked decimal arithmetic in electronic devices.

Block Diagram

A BCD adder circuit has a block diagram comprising:

1. Two 4-bit BCD Inputs: For the two decimal digits to be added.

2. A 4-bit Binary Adder: To perform the initial addition.

3. A Correction Logic Circuit: Detects if the sum is greater than 9 or if there's a carry.

4. Another 4-bit Binary Adder: To add the correction factor (0110) if needed.

5. BCD Outputs: The final correct BCD sum.

Why BCD Adders?

 Decimal Precision:

They ensure accuracy for decimal calculations by directly handling decimal digits in their BCD
format, preventing errors that can occur when converting between decimal and binary for
arithmetic.
 Simplified Arithmetic:
They provide a straightforward way for digital systems to perform decimal arithmetic operations,
which is crucial in fields like finance, marketing, and user-facing devices.

Schematic representation description:

1. Input A (4 bits), Input B (4 bits), Carry-in → First 4-bit Binary Adder → Intermediate Sum (4
bits) and Carry-out
2. Intermediate Sum and Carry-out → Correction logic
3. If correction logic signals (sum > 9 or carry) → Second 4-bit adder adds 6 (0110) to
intermediate sum
4. Final sum output (corrected) available as BCD digit, with possible carry to next stage

This type of block diagram allows proper BCD addition with automatic correction, ensuring all
results are valid BCD digits and any carry propagates to the next higher digit position.

[BCD Input A] [BCD Input B] [Carry In]

| | |

----------------+----------------

[4-bit Binary Adder]

[Intermediate Sum + Carry]

[Correction Logic]

[Add 0110 if needed]

[Corrected BCD Output]

[Carry Out]

Example

If A = 0101 (5), B = 1001 (9):

 Sum without correction: 1110 (14 in decimal), invalid BCD.

 Add 0110: 1110 + 0110 = 1 0100 (carry out and BCD sum = 14, which is 1 and 4)
 Output: BCD digits 0001 (1) and 0100 (4)

Advantages

 Correctly represents sum of decimal digits in BCD for further digital processing such as
calculators and clocks.
 Matches display requirements for digital systems using BCD.
 Short Disadvantages

 Uses more hardware than binary adders.

 Slightly more complex due to correction logic.

Steps of Operation:

1. Add two BCD digits using a 4-bit binary adder. The initial output may be in binary and can
range from 0 to 19.
2. If the sum is less than or equal to 9 (1001 binary), the output is already a valid BCD digit.
3. If the sum is more than 9, add six (0110 binary) to correct the result and generate an
appropriate carry.

Carry Correction Logic:

 When the sum produced is more than 1001 (9), the output is invalid for BCD.
 The correction is performed by adding 0110 (6) to the sum. The additional carry generated by
this correction is propagated to the next digit.
 The correction mechanism uses logic such as:

C′=(Carry out)+ (Carry out)+(S3⋅S2)+(S3⋅S1)

Where S3,S2,S1,S0S3,S2,S1,S0 are the bits of the 4-bit sum output and Carry out is from the
adder.

 Key points
 The binary adder adds both BCD digits and the input carry.
 Correction logic activates if sum > 9 or carry out is present.
 If correction needed, 6 is added via another adder, ensuring valid BCD output and proper carry
propagation.
 The circuit allows multi-digit decimal addition by chaining stages.

This design is standard for digital circuits performing decimal addition, such as calculators and
digital clocks, ensuring correct results using BCD format and proper carry handling between
digit positions.

Binary Subtraction
 similar to decimal uses rules subtraction: 0-0=0, 1-0=1, 1-1=0, and 0-1=1 with a
borrow. When a borrow is needed (0 minus 1), you borrow 1 from the next column to the left,
which increases the current column's value by 2 (since it's a binary system), making the
operation 2-1=1. This borrowing can propagate to subsequent columns until a '1' is found to
borrow from. Alternatively, binary subtraction can be performed by converting the subtrahend to
its two's complement and adding it to the minuend.

Terminology:

Subtraction is done by “borrowing” (similar to decimal subtraction).

Borrowing concept:

in binary = in decimal.

If needed, we borrow from the next higher bit.

Rules of Binary Subtraction

Operation Result Borrow

0−0 0 No

1−0 1 No

1−1 0 No

0−1 1 Yes

If we try , we must borrow from the next higher bit.

Borrowing Concept in Binary

If you borrow from 1, it becomes 0.

The borrowed value is equal to in binary.

Example:

(which is in decimal).

Step by step binary subtraction process shown.

Alternative Method: 2’s Complement Subtraction

Instead of , do .

Example:

Take 2’s complement of :

1’s complement:

Add 1 →

Add:

Discard the carry → result = (which is 3 in decimal)

2's complement method

This method is often preferred in digital circuits as it simplifies subtraction by turning it into an
addition problem.

 Process:

1. Find the 2's complement of the subtrahend (the number being subtracted).
 Invert all the bits of the subtrahend (this is the 1's complement).
 Add 1 to the result.
 2. Add this 2's complement to the minuend (the number from which you are
subtracting).

3. Ignore the final carry-out bit (the leftmost bit of the sum) if it exists, as it is extra
information.
 Example:

Subtracting

10012−011021001 sub 2 minus 0110 sub 2

10012−01102

1. 2's complement of

011020110 sub 2

01102

 Invert the bits:

10011001

1001

 Add 1:

1001+1=10101001 plus 1 equals 1010

1001+1=1010

2. Add minuend and 2's complement:

10011001

1001

(minuend)

+1010positive 1010
 +1010

(2's complement) =

1001110011

10011

3. Ignore carry: Discard the leftmost '1'.

4. Result:

001120011 sub 2

00112

 Digital circuits for binary subtraction

Half Subtractor:

Difference = A ⊕ B
Borrow = A' B


 A combinational circuit that subtracts a single bit from another single bit, producing a
difference and a borrow output.

 Full Subtractor:

D = A ⊕ B ⊕ Bin
Bout = A' Bin + A' B + B Bin
A circuit that subtracts two single bits and an additional borrow-in bit, allowing for multi-
bit subtraction when cascaded.