From (2) , = – = ( − )

( )/ = ( )/( ( + )

Therefore = ( )/( + ) and 2 = ( )/( + )

Solved Examples:

1. Two batteries of 24V and 20V with internal resistances of 0.4Ω and 0.25Ω

respectively are connected in parallel across a load of 4Ω. Calculate (i) the current

supplied by each battery and (ii) voltage across the load.

Soln: 8.1482A and -2.963A , 20.741V.

2. Two coils are connected in parallel and a voltage of 200V is applied to the terminals.

The total current taken is 25A and the power dissipated in one of the coils is 1500W.

What is the resistance of each coil?

Soln: 26.67Ω and 11.43Ω

3. Three impedances = (5 + 5)Ω , = − 8Ω and = 4Ω are connected in

series to an unknown voltage source V. find I and V, if the voltage drop across is

63.2∟18.45° .

Soln: = + + = 9.487∟ − 18.434° Ω

I = 15.8∟18.45°A V= 150∟0°V.

STAR – DELTA TRANSFORMATION

Star connection and delta connection are the two different methods of connecting three basic

elements which cannot be further simplified into series or parallel.

The two ways of representation can have equivalent circuits in either form.

Assume some voltage source across the terminals AB.

= +

= ( + )/( + + )

Therefore + = ( + )/( + + )…………(1)

Similarly + = ( + )/( + + )…………(2)

+ = ( + )/( + + )…………..(3)

Subtracting (2) from (1) and adding to (3) ,

= /( + + )…………….(4)

= /( + + )…………….(5)

= /( + + )…………….(6)

A delta connection of can be replaced by an equvivalent star connection with the

values from equations (4),(5),(6).

Multiply (4)(5) ; (5)(6) ; (4)(6) and then adding the three we get,

+ + = /( + + )

Dividing LHS by gives , by gives , by gives .

= ( + + )/
 = ( + + )/

= ( + + )/

Solved Examples :

1. Obtain the star connected equivalent for the given delta circuit.

Soln :

2. For the bridge network shown, determine the total resistance seen

from the terminals AB using star-delta

transformation.

Soln: 1.182Ω

3. Calculate the voltage across AB in the network and

indicate the polarity of the voltage using star-delta conversion.

Soln:

4. Determine the equivalent resistance Req.

Soln: 4.93Ω

INDEPENDENT SOURCES AND DEPENDENT SOURCES

An ideal voltage source is one which maintains a constant voltage at its terminals,

irrespective of the current delivered to the network.

Practically a voltage sources has internal resistances and hence, when it delivers a current,

there is always an internal voltage drop which increases as the supplies more and more

current.

Thus its terminals voltage progressively falls.

Ideal Voltage Source Practical Voltage Source

An IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE is one which delivers a current of constant magnitude,

totally independent of the external network connected.

In practical, no current source can be ideal, practical current source is always shown with
resistance in parallel.

Ideal Current Source Practical Current Source

Solved Examples:

1. In the given circuit, determine all branch currents.

Soln : = 0.222 and = 0.888 .

 2. For the given circuit, find , , , , .

Soln : = 0.0196A ; = 0.01225A ; = 0.00735A ;

= 0.0196A and = 0.098V.

3. In the given circuit, find voltage across 4Ω

using nodal analysis.

Soln: = 0.01V.

DEPENDENT OR CONTROLLED SOURCES:

In some network, in which some of the voltage sources or current sources are controlled by

changing of current or voltage elsewhere in the circuit. Such sources are termed as

“Dependent or Controlled sources”.

There are four types of dependent sources.

Dependent Voltage Source(DVS) Dependent Current Source(DCS)

 CDVS( Current DVS)

 CDCS(Current DCS)

 VDVS(Voltage DVS)

 VDCS(Voltage DCS)
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION:

A practical voltage source can be replaced by a current source and vice versa.

This can be established if an equivalence between a voltage source and a current source.

= – = – since =

Or = ( – )/ ………..(1)

For Current source , = + / or = − /

Comparing (1) and (2) , = / .

A voltage source with resistance in series with its equivalent to a current source

= / , in parallel with resistance .

Example : Obtain the equivalent voltage source for the current source as shown in figure.

= 10 and = 20Ω , = 200 .

EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. Two batteries of 24V and 20V with internal resistances of 0.4Ω and 0.25Ω respectively are
connected in parallel across a load of 4Ω. Calculate (i) the current supplied by each battery
and (ii) voltage across the load.
(Soln: 8.1482A , -2.963A , 20.741V)

2. A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising of resistances of 4Ω

and 6Ω respectively. When the applied voltage is 15V, the power dissipated in 4Ω resistor is
36W, calculate R.
(Soln : 0.6Ω)

3. In the circuit shown, find current through RL using Kirchhoff’s

laws.
(Soln : 30.488A)

4. Find using KCL, the current through the 6Ω resistor of the circuit
shown.
(Soln : 0.641A flowing from A to B)

5. Find current through 10Ω resistor in the given circuit, use

nodal analysis.

6. Determine the current in 10Ω resistor in the

network shown , use star-delta conversion.

7. For the 100Ω potentiometer shown, find the resistance R for a

load current of 10A.

8. The resistance of two wires is 15Ω when connected in series and 7Ω when connected in
parallel, find the resistances of each one.
9. Find the equivalent resistance across the battery terminals with
(a) Switch S open
(b) Switch S closed.

10. In the given circuit, find the value of V2 that will

cause the voltage across 20Ω to be zero by using
mesh analysis.
Unit II: AC Fundamentals-I:

Review of Complex Algebra, Sinusoids, Phasors, Phasor Relations of Circuit elements, Impedance
and Admittance, Impedance Combination, Series and Parallel combination of Inductors and
Capacitors, Mesh analysis and Nodal Analysis.

Review of Complex Number:

 In order to analyze AC circuit, it is necessary to represent multi-dimensional quantities. In

order to accomplish this task, scalar numbers were abandoned and complete numbers were
used to express the two dimensions of frequency and phase shift at one time
 In mathematics, ‘i’ is used to represent imaginary numbers. In the study of electricity and
electronics, j is used to represent imaginary numbers so that there is no confusion with I,
which in electronics represents current (i). It is also customary for scientist to write the
complex number in the form of + .
1. A complex number may be written in Rectangular form as:
= + . Where = ( ) is real and = ( ) is imaginary number.
= ( / ).
2. A second way of representing the complex number is by specifying the magnitude(r)
and angle (θ) in polar form
= ∠ ;
= √ + ; = ( / ).
3. The third way of representing the complex number is the Exponential form.
= , = tan ( ) , = √ +

Mathematical Operations of Complex Numbers:

Assume = + ∠ 1 and = + ∠ 2 are two complex numbers,

: + =( + )+ ( + )

: − =( − )+ ( − )

: = ∠( 1 + 2)

: / =( / )∠( 1 − 2)

: 1/ = (1/ )∠ − 1

Square root: = ∠
2
∗
: = − =√ ∠ =
Explain Generation of Sinusoidal wave?

Generation of sinusoidal AC voltage

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in the
figure. The coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at an uniform angular velocity of ω
rad/sec.

When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the plane of
the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this position, the emf induced
in the coil is zero. When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a
rate of change of flux linking the coil and hence an emf is induced in the coil according to
Faradays Law. When the coil reaches the horizontal position, the flux linking the coil is
maximum, and hence the emf induced is also maximum. When the coil further moves in the
anticlockwise direction, the emf induced in the coil reduces. Next when the coil comes to the
vertical position, the emf induced becomes zero. After that the same cycle repeats and the emf
is induced in the opposite direction. When the coil completes one complete revolution, one
cycle of AC voltage is generated.
The generation of sinusoidal AC voltage can also be explained using mathematical equations.
Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field in the position shown
in the figure. The maximum flux linking the coil is in the downward direction as shown in the
figure. This flux can be divided into two components, one component acting along the plane of
the coil Φmaxsinωt and another component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil
Φmaxcosωt.

The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil.
Only the component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ie Φmaxcosωt induces an
emf in the coil.

∅=∅ cos( )

∅
=−
(∅ cos( ))
=−
= ∅ ∗ sin( )
= sin( )

Hence the emf induced in the coil is a sinusoidal emf. This will induce a sinusoidal current
in the circuit given by

= ( )

Where
,