Chipata (Mwami) Water Supply and

Sanitation: Feasibility Report (Update)

CRIDF Project name: Chipata/Chanida Water Supply and Sanitation

CRIDF Project #: FP24-002
CRIDF Deliverable #: D01/OVI2b

Version: Final
Date: 24 May 2016
Quality Assurance Checklist:

In preparing this Document CRIDF can confirm that it has followed CRIDF internal general procedures
including, appropriate CRIDF generic scope of work and that it has undergone appropriate QA and quality
control procedures as detailed in CRIDFs QA manual. Furthermore, CRIDF can confirm the applicable
specific internal process and procedures have been followed as appropriate:
 CRIDFs cost benefit assessments (CBAs) guideline have been applied as appropriate;
 CRIDF Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) guidelines have been applied as appropriate;
 CRIDFs climate vulnerability mapping methodology has been applied as appropriate;
 CRIDF Climate Change Risk Assessment/Vulnerability mapping protocol have been applied as
appropriate;
 CRIDFs Procurement guidelines have been followed as appropriate;
 The appropriate CRIDF screens.

Lead Stuart Seath CRIDF CRIDF Tinashe Mutoredzanwa CRIDF Charles Reeve
Author(s) QA process
Approved:
Checked QC

Date: Date:

Date: 31/05/2016
02/06/2016
Date:
24/05/2016
24/05/2016

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 2 of 217

Disclaimer

The British Government’s Department for International Development (DFID)

financed this work as part of the United Kingdom’s aid programme. However,
the views and recommendations contained in this report are those of the
consultant, and DFID is not responsible for, or bound by the recommendations
made.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 3 of 217

Contents
List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................ 9

Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 12

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 22

Background ....................................................................................................................................... 22

Project Location ....................................................................................................................................... 22

General Description of the Project Site .................................................................................................... 23

Social Economic Assessment .................................................................................................................... 25

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 25

Beneficiary Community Description ......................................................................................................... 25

Land Tenure System and Ownership ....................................................................................................... 26

Economic Activities .................................................................................................................................. 26

Perceptions of Existing Water Supply and Sanitation Facilities ............................................................... 27

Perceptions of Proposed Water Supply and Sanitation Facilities ............................................................ 29

Positive and Negative Socio-Economic Impacts of the Proposed Project ............................................... 30

Community Engagement in the Proposed Project ................................................................................... 31

Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) .......................................................................................... 32

Environmental Health Assessment .......................................................................................................... 40

Technical Assessment ................................................................................................................................ 49

Water Resources Design ......................................................................................................................... 49

Water Supply System Design .................................................................................................................. 58

Sanitation Design ..................................................................................................................................... 68

Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA) ............................................................................................. 69

Operation and Maintenance ..................................................................................................................... 78

Capital Cost Estimates ............................................................................................................................. 79

Environmental Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 83

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 83

Limitations and Assumptions ................................................................................................................... 83

Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework ........................................................................................... 87

Project Description ................................................................................................................................... 95

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 Environmental and Social Baseline Conditions ....................................................................................... 98

The Potential Environmental Impacts .................................................................................................... 101

The Environmental Management Plan ................................................................................................... 123

Financial and Economic Assessment ...................................................................................................... 151

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 151

Financial Appraisal ................................................................................................................................. 160

Economic Appraisal................................................................................................................................ 168

Financial / Economic Risk Analysis ........................................................................................................ 176

Institutional Assessment........................................................................................................................... 181

EWSC Supply Area ................................................................................................................................ 181

Governance ..................................................................................................................................... 182

Organisational Strategy .......................................................................................................................... 183

Financial ..................................................................................................................................... 184

Organisational design and human resources......................................................................................... 185

Institutional Assessment Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 191

Risk Assessment ....................................................................................................................................... 192

Risk Assessment Summary ................................................................................................................... 196

Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 198

Appendices ................................................................................................................................................. 201

Appendix A – CBA Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 202

Appendix B – Financial / Economic Analysis ......................................................................................... 206

Appendix C – CCRA Explanatory Notes .................................................................................................. 209

Appendix D – GESI Rating Tool Report ................................................................................................... 214

List of Figures
Figure 1 Locality Map ..................................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 2 Central Part of Mwami ..................................................................................................................... 24

Figure 3 Wash related disease statistics for Mwami ...................................................................................... 41

Figure 4 Lutembwe River from its source ...................................................................................................... 49

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 Figure 5 Possible Borehole Positions ............................................................................................................ 51

Figure 6 Aquifer types and expected yields in the Mwami area ................................................................... 52

Figure 7 Borehole locations ........................................................................................................................... 55

Figure 8 Sanitary conditions around the taps at MWA002 ............................................................................ 58

Figure 9 High cost housing units at Mwami Border Post ............................................................................... 60

Figure 10 Low cost or rural housing units at Mwami Border Post ................................................................. 61

Figure 11 Proposed Mwami Border Post Distribution Network ...................................................................... 64

Figure 12 Results of Mwami border post raw water pumping network analysis ............................................ 66

Figure 13 Results of Mwami border post distribution network analysis ......................................................... 67

Figure 14 Proposed layout of ablution block at Mwami Border Post ............................................................. 69

Figure 15 Procurement of Goods and Services – Flow Diagram ................................................................. 82

Figure 16 Images of the project site showing degree of disturbance to the natural flora .............................. 99

Figure 17 Example of rural housing units within the project site not connected to electricity ...................... 101

Figure 18 Decentralised Offices of EWSC ................................................................................................... 186

Figure 19 EWSC Organogram ..................................................................................................................... 190

Figure 20: Climatic Zones in SADC ............................................................................................................ 209

List of Tables

Table 1 Financial and Economic Summary Table ..................................................................................... 18

Table 2 Level of income in accordance with occupation ........................................................................... 27

Table 3 GESI Benefits / Negatives of the proposed Mwami Water Supply and Sanitation Project .......... 34

Table 4 Integrating GESI in the Water and Sanitation Project .................................................................. 38

Table 5 Perceived Impact of Interventions on the Incidence of Key WASH-Related Diseases ................ 42

Table 6 Environmental Health Issues and Intervention ............................................................................. 44

Table 7 Water Source Options Matrix........................................................................................................ 50

Table 8 Mwami border post Specific Capacity of Production .................................................................... 54

Table 9 GPS Locations of the sampling points .......................................................................................... 56

Table 10 Water quality results for samples collected from boreholes .............................................. 56

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 Table 11 Residential categories for Mwami Border Post .................................................................. 59

Table 12 Total number of exiting housing plots and current population ........................................... 60

Table 13 Project Population .............................................................................................................. 62

Table 14 Current and projected population by residential area and housing cost category ............ 62

Table 15 Typical average per capita consumption ........................................................................... 62

Table 16 Estimated current and projected water demand by category for the main development
areas 63

Table 17 Mwami peak water demand by demand centre for year 2025........................................... 65

Table 18 Mwami WSS - Climate Vulnerability Indicators (from website).......................................... 71

Table 19 Mwami WSS - Climate projections for project area ........................................................... 72

Table 20 Mwami WSS - Climate Risk Matrix .................................................................................... 75

Table 21 Mwami WSS - Climate Resilience Benefits Matrix ............................................................ 76

Table 22 Estimate of Capital Costs .................................................................................................. 79

Table 23 Ranking of evaluation criteria ............................................................................................ 85

Table 24 Description of overall significance ratings.......................................................................... 86

Table 25 Summary explanation of the criterion and classification of impacts ................................ 111

Table 26 Category and significance of impacts common to both the water supply and sanitation
projects 114

Table 27 Summary of category and significance of impacts specific to the water supply project .. 118

Table 28 Summary of category and significance of impacts specific to the sanitation project ....... 121

Table 29 Environmental Management Plans for impacts common to both projects ...................... 124

Table 30 Environmental Management Plans for impacts specific to the water supply project ....... 143

Table 31 Environmental Management Plans for impacts specific to the sanitation project ........... 148

Table 32 Financial assumptions ..................................................................................................... 157

Table 33 Revenue generating assumptions ................................................................................... 157

Table 34 Population and household projections ............................................................................. 159

Table 35 Economic assumptions .................................................................................................... 159

Table 36 Water supply capital investment requirements (GBP) ..................................................... 161

Table 37 Projected revenue from water tariffs (GBP) ..................................................................... 162

Table 38 Expected revenue from unmetered households .............................................................. 163

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 Table 39 Expected revenue from low-cost metered households .................................................... 163

Table 40 Expected revenue from high cost households ................................................................. 164

Table 41 Expected revenue from border patrons ........................................................................... 165

Table 42 Financial appraisal results ............................................................................................... 165

Table 43 Project funding scenarios ................................................................................................ 166

Table 44 Sensitivity analysis – cost parameters (GBP) .................................................................. 167

Table 45 Sensitivity analysis – revenue parameters ...................................................................... 167

Table 46 Economic capital investment and operational costs (GBP) ............................................. 169

Table 47 Time savings benefits (GBP) ........................................................................................... 170

Table 48 Economic benefits (GBP) ................................................................................................ 172

Table 49 Economic appraisal results .............................................................................................. 173

Table 50 Economic Sensitivity Analysis (GBP, 10% SDR) ............................................................ 173

Table 51 Identified project risks and mitigation measures .............................................................. 178

Table 52 Key Statistics for EWSC Towns ....................................................................................... 182

Table 53 Total Staffing Numbers .................................................................................................... 188

Table 54 Risk Assessment Matrix................................................................................................... 192

Table 55 Value for Money indicators (2015, GBP) ......................................................................... 200

Table 56 Water consumption per household group ........................................................................ 202

Table 57 Economic conversion factors ........................................................................................... 204

Table 58 Financial appraisal summary table .................................................................................. 206

Table 59 Economic Appraisal Summary Table .............................................................................. 207

Table 60 Time and Health Savings ................................................................................................. 208

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List of Acronyms
Acronym Long-Form

ADF African Development Fund

AfDB African Development Bank
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

ARI Acute Respiratory Infection

BCR Benefit-Cost Ratio
CAP Chapter

CBA Cost-Benefit Analysis

CBO Community Based Organisation
CCRA Climate Change Risk Analysis
CHW Community Health Worker
CMC Chipata Municipal Council
CO Carbon Monoxide
COMESA Common Market for East and Southern Africa

CRIDF Climate Resilient Infrastructure Development Facility

CSO Central Statistics Organisation Zambia

CSE Contractor Site Engineer

DFID Department for International Development
DHID Department of Housing and Infrastructure Development

DWA Department of Water Affairs

EHS Environmental, Health and Safety

EHT Environmental Health Technician

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EMP Environmental Management Plans

ENPV Economic Net Present Value

EPB Environmental Project Brief

ERR Economic Rate of Return

ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment

ESR Environmental Screening Report

EWSC Eastern Water and Sewerage Company

FGD Focus Group Discussion

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Acronym Long-Form

FIRR Financial Internal Rate of Return

GBP Great British Pound

GESI Gender Equality and Social Inclusion

GPS Global Positioning System
GRZ Government of Zambia

HCs Hydrocarbons
HIV Human Immune Virus
ICTZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
MEWD Ministry of Energy and Water Development

MLGH Ministry of Local Government and Housing

MoFNP Ministry of Finance and National Planning
MSA Mining Safety Agency
NAC National Aids Council
NCS National Conservation Strategy

NEAP National Environment Action Plan

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NGP National Gender Policy

NHC Neighbourhood Health Committee

NHCC National Heritage Conservation Commission
NOX Oxides of Nitrogen
NPE National Policy on Environment
NRW Non-Revenue Water
NWASCO National Water and Sanitation Council
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PM Particulate Matter
PPE Personal Protection Equipment

PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride

RDA Road Development Agency
RTSA Road Transport and Safety Agency
SADC Southern Africa Development Community
SCF Standard Conversion Factor
SIWI Stockholm International Water Institute

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Acronym Long-Form

SNDP Sixth National Development Plan

SOx Oxides of Sulphur

SpC Specific Capacity of Production

STI Sexually Transmitted Disease
USD US Dollar

VIP Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine

WDC Ward Development Committee
WHO World Health Organisation
WPC Water Point Committee

WTP Willingness to Pay

ZABS Zambia Bureau of Standards
ZEMA Zambia Environmental Management Agency

ZRA Zambia Revenue Authority

ZWM Zambian Kwacha

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Executive Summary

Background
Several border towns around Zambia lack adequate and safe water supply and sanitation infrastructure, with
general coverage limited to a few isolated areas where this is provided by established institutions, mainly for
their staff, as well as privately owned facilities. The complete absence of public utilities results in transients
crossing at these borders virtually not being catered for, and relying on limited facilities offered by residents,
usually at a fee. The risk of spreading of diseases related to inadequate water supply and sanitation
infrastructure is therefore very high. The overall scenario translates to a low quality of life at these border
towns coupled with stifled commercial activity resulting from poor social services.

The aim of the 12 Towns project is to improve and upgrade water supply and sanitation through targeted
investments designed to enhance overall coverage, sustainability and equitable access to water and
sanitation by resident and the transient communities. These interventions are expected to support the growth
of regional tourism, and reduce the incidence of cross-border waterborne diseases.

Mwami, close to Chipata is one of 12 border posts that have been selected by SADC for inclusion in the
project and support by CRIDF. Engineering, environmental and financial and economic studies have been
undertaken by CRIDF to establish the need for water supply and sanitation, and to assess the feasibility of the
developing required infrastructure. This report summarises the outcome of the feasibility studies.

The proposed project to improve water supply and sanitation services at the Mwami border post in Chipata
district located between Zambia and Malawi in the Eastern Province of Zambia is a vital necessity if the
general operations at the border post are to be enhanced. The provision of adequate infrastructure at the
border post will in specific terms improve the general hygiene and sanitation standards, augment tourism
activities and reduce the likely incidence of “cross-border” water borne diseases, which can seriously impair
the operations at the border post.

Key Stakeholders
Key stakeholders namely, the Ministry of Local Government and Housing (MLGH), the Eastern Water and
Sewerage Company (EWSC), the National Water and Sanitation Council (NWASCO), the Ngoni Tribe
Traditional Authority, Chipata City Council and the Residents Committee were consulted to solicit their views,
experiences and suggestions. The proposed interventions were strongly supported by all the stakeholders
who all indicated their desire to have the project implemented in the shortest possible time to alleviate the
current hardships faced by the community.

Social Economic Assessment

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The socio economic assessment fieldwork was undertaken during the months of May and June 2015. The
report contains information obtained through literature review, community meetings and interviews with
community members and personnel from various district departments.

The main economic activities in the project area can be grouped under three categories as follows.

 Formal employment

 Business and Trading Ventures

 Small scale farming

All the residents including ZRA employees are not satisfied with the current water supply, which they feel is
not adequate. Community members drawing from some of the communal water points complained of
congestion and prolonged periods spent on drawing water.

The preferred water supply systems was a mixed level of services, which included individual house
connections and communal water points using the kiosk model.

The most preferred liquid waste disposal technologies were water closet operated with septic tanks and
ventilated pit latrines. If a waterborne sewer were provided, the individual households and premises would
take the responsibility of financing connections from the main sewer line to their households. In the absence
of a sewerage system, households would have to construct their own systems.

Some of the critical impacts are as follows:

 Positive impacts:

o Improve resident’s health

o Equality in service provision

o Increased Population

 Negative Impacts:

o Water wastage

o Transformation of the area into and urban area

o Vandalism

o Generation of solid waste

 Gender equality

o Health Impacts - Woman typically care for their families during illness. The supply of a
reliable disinfected water supply will reduce the incidence of water borne diseases.

o Food Security – A reliable supply of water will allow for subsistence farming, food security and
alternative ways to feed families, especially of poor families with limited alternatives.

o Water related impacts - women and girls generally assume primary responsibility for
collecting water for drinking, cooking, washing and hygiene. Provision of a reliable, nearby,

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 disinfected water supply will reduce the time for collection of the water supply, which allows
time for other activities, e.g. employment and schooling.

Environmental Health Assessment

The locally available data for Mwami highlights the vector transmitted disease Malaria as the most prevalent in
the community, followed by Acute Respiratory Infections (ARIs). The incidence of ARI transmission is often
associated with poor hygienic practices, particularly handwashing. The incidence of diarrhoea, which is the
main indicator for many faecal-oral diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery and Hepatitis A, is
relatively lower than Malaria and ARIs, but still widespread. However it is likely that this is under-reported, as
the population may often self-treat or be failing to present themselves at the clinic for diarrhoea treatment.

A number of specific Environmental Health related issues have been identified in Mwami border post town
(although many of these will be addressed by this project, some of the recommendations lie outside the scope
of this feasibility study/ensuing project):
 Lack of solid waste management facilities for the market site and other public areas
 The liquid waste disposal method in Mwami is on-site via septic tanks and pit toilets. Some residents
have mentioned space constraints relating to the digging of new toilets once the existing pit is full.
There are currently no pit and septic tank emptying services operating in Mwami.
 Open defecation and poor hygienic conditions around the market place (particularly during the
Monday market).
 Open defecation around the border post, particularly at night.
 The majority to the toilets constructed are basic pit toilets, with limited facilities for odour and fly
control. Few have handwashing facilities such as tippy taps at the toilet.

 Newly arriving residents may not immediately prioritise the construction of a toilet, leading to
temporary open defecation.

Climate Resilience Issues

According to the residents interviewed, the Mwami area has experienced changes in weather patterns over
the years noticed mainly through reduction in rainfall and reduced rainfall seasons. Most noticeable has been
the drying up of wells within the area signifying a lowering of the ground water table.

Providing a reliable source of water to the Mwami community provides resilience to changes in climatic
conditions and is therefore provides assurance of sustainability post implementation of the project.

Wastage of water was identified as one factor that exacerbates water shortages in the supply area. The
design and operational and maintenance procedures incorporate water saving / reduction features.

The Track 1 CCRA shows that the project brings a number of high resilience benefits to the project recipients
especially in relation to governance and livelihoods, gender and health. The review also identified a number of

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risks in relation to the associated infrastructure and risk-mitigating actions which if implemented will improve
the resilience of the project itself to climate change risks.

Technical Assessment
The current Mwami population is estimated to be 1560 people plus 200 cross border transients. Based on the
growth rate up to the 2010 Census (2.2%), the population is expected to reach 2266 (including transients) by
2025.

Based on an estimate of the residual category split and the possible future growth in level of service, the 2025
water demand is expected to be 115 m³/day.

Ground water is the only option for this project and can be sustainably accessed through boreholes. However
the area is regarded as a poor groundwater yielding area (expected yields 1 to 2 l/s) according to the National
Aquifer Assessment Study which was commissioned by the Zambian Government through the Department of
Water Affairs.

It is expected that four boreholes should meet the summer peak daily demand – 1.5 x average demand
(based on the assumption of finding boreholes with a sustainable yield of 1 l/s).

The key interventions shall comprise the following:

 Water supply to low-income group residents who do not have household water connections - four
public access points (kiosks)
 Water supply to small commercial and medium to high-cost housing units with stand–alone metered
house connections (households to pay for connections).
 Sanitation for border patrons through an ablution facility whose primary purpose is to provide border
users and commercial truck drivers with toilet, shower and laundry facilities.
 Training of and influence with the EWSC to enable future upgrades to the system to be in accordance
with international norms and best practices.

The project’s design outlay was conducted with the full involvement of the EWSC who will operate the
services and have proven experience in operating such facilities already within their service area of Eastern
Province.

Environmental Assessment
The project site, being away from the main district and being a small area presented a challenge in terms of
data availability especially on environmental baseline conditions.

The report presents the environmental impacts expected from the proposed project. The impacts were
assessed from the changes likely to be brought about by the project activities on baseline environmental and
social conditions. The impacts are discussed under separate headings namely common impacts; water supply
project related impacts; and sanitation project related impacts. The common impacts are those that apply to

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both projects while those that are specific to each of the two projects are discussed under the respective
headings. The summary explains whether the impact is direct, indirect, reversible, irreversible and/or
cumulative. Their significance with respect to the design of the water supply and sanitation project
components is also discussed.

In general, as this is an existing town, the environmental impact to the flora, fauna and heritage aspects is
expected to be low (already a highly impacted environment). However the project will have an impact on the
town population in terms of safety, health and temporary inconvenience.

The report further presents the proposed Environmental Management Plan (EMP) which has been formulated
based on the potential environmental impacts, and is intended to provide a link between the predicted
impacts, proposed mitigation measures and the proposed framework for their implementation. The EMP is
necessary for sustainability of the biophysical, socio-economic environments and the project itself, the impacts
identified must be managed responsibly and effectively.

Estimated Project Costs

The total project investment for both the water supply and sanitation components of the design amounts to
GBP 300,735. The majority of these costs (GBP 235,810) relates to the water supply component of the
project, and the remainder accounts for the sanitation facilities. Project costs for the town are relatively high
due to the low base from which the project must build.

Financial and Economic Assessment

The purpose of the financial and economic assessment is a key part of the Feasibility Study as it provides an
analytical method of identifying or confirming project viability. The tool used to determine financial and
economic feasibility is the Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA). The CBA assesses the project holistically to identify if
it is feasible. It is likely that a project of this nature will not be financially viable on a standalone basis;
however, should the economic and social rationale for the project be clearly demonstrated, external financial
support for the project can be justified.

The technical infrastructure solution, as outlined in the technical section of this Feasibility Report, proposes
the following project design:
 Water supply to local residents through water kiosks
 Water supply to medium to high-cost housing units with stand–alone metered house connections
(where it is expected that households pay for connections)
 Sanitation for border patrons through an ablution facility whose primary purpose is to provide truck
drivers with toilet, shower & laundry and drinking facilities.

The financial appraisal assesses the project’s financial cash-flows (revenues and expenditures) over the life of
the project to determine the profitability of an investment in the project. This is done from the perspective of
Eastern Water and Sewerage Company (EWSC), who will be the project owner. The costs included in the
financial appraisal are the capital investment costs and annual O&M costs. The revenue streams are

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expected to flow from the three groups of users – households without water connections who access water
through kiosks, metered households and border patrons. They are based on estimations of water demand by
the three usage groups and their corresponding water tariffs.

The project demonstrates financial viability, with a FNPV of GBP 94,215, and an FIRR of 15.2%. This return is
higher than the discount rate of 11.5%, indicating that the project is marginally financially profitable. Excluding
the initial capital investment, the project’s operational cost-recovery is positive. Annual operating cash-flows
(annual revenues less annual O&M costs) have a positive FNPV of GBP 440,369 and a BCR of 4. This
indicates that the present value of the project’s benefits, are approximately four times higher than the
operating costs of the project. The strongly positive BCR is driven by the substantial revenues generated from
the border patrons and implies that over the project’s life, the revenues generated are sufficient to cover its
on-going operating costs. If an external grant for the full capital amount (GBP 300,735) is secured, the
financial return on the project infrastructure to EWSC will be 43.6% with a FNPV of GBP 363,933.

A sensitivity analysis conducted on the financial appraisal indicates that the above results are robust to
variations in the project’s main parameters. A 25% increase in capital costs would be required to generate a
negative FNPV. The projects operational sustainability also remains robust to sensitivities in the project
parameters. A 50% decline in the border traffic, the main revenue source for the project, would not shift the
operational sustainability of the project to negative.

The economic appraisal component of the CBA assesses a wider spectrum of costs and benefits relative to
the financial appraisal. Both quantitative and qualitative costs and benefits are included to provide a holistic
view of the expected net socio-economic impact of the project. The costs considered are the capital and O&M
costs adjusted by the relevant conversion factors to take into account market distortions in their financial
prices. The benefits considered quantitatively are the time savings to households and the positive impact on
the health and productivity of the residents and border patrons due to the water and sanitation infrastructure.
Additionally, the longer term impact of the project as an enabler of economic development is discussed
qualitatively.

The results of the quantitative economic appraisal show that the project is economically viable and beneficial.
At a 10% discount rate, the project’s ENPV is 48,785 and the BCR is 1.02; at a 3.5% discount rate, the ENPV
is GBP 285,455 and the BCR is 1.38. The ERR at both discount rates is 12%. A strong argument can be
made that these results are an understatement of the true benefits that stem from the intervention due to the
fact that some of the positive social externalities cannot be quantified in monetary terms. However, the
combination of quantitative results, bolstered by the significant qualitative benefits, provides a robust
justification for the project from a socio-economic perspective. A sensitivity analysis conducted on the
economic appraisal confirms that the positive results are robust to variations in the assumed parameters but
that time savings are a driver of these positive economic benefits.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 17 of 217

Table 1 Financial and Economic Summary Table

Budget

Capital investment £300,735

Beneficiaries

Direct beneficiary households 300 (2015), expected to increase to 463 by 2035

73,000 border patrons per annum, including trucks and

passenger vehicles.

The indirect beneficiary population includes the significant

transitory population passing through Mwami, including
Indirect beneficiary households
commercial vehicles (trucks) as well as other border patrons.
As the project infrastructure includes sanitation facilities for this
population, they are included as indirect beneficiary
households.

1
Assumed number of people per household 5.2

Analysis timeframe 20 years

Economic Benefits

Time savings (NPV) £579,943 (3.5%); £369,556 (10%)

Health (NPV) £156,906 (3.5%); £95,153 (10%)

Financial appraisal performance indicators (11.5% Discount Rate)

Financial Net Present Value (FNPV) £94,215

Financial Internal Rate of Return (FIRR) 15.2%

Financial Benefit Cost Ratio (FBCR) 1.23

Economic appraisal performance indicators

(3.5% SDR) (10% SDR)

1
National Census. Zambia (2010), Chipata district.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 18 of 217

Economic Net Present Value (ENPV) £285,455 £48,785

Economic Rate of Return (ERR) 12% 12%

Economic Benefit-Cost Ratio (EBCR) 1.38 1.02

Sustainability

Operationally the project is sustainable as annual revenues that accrue from households and the sanitation
facility exceed the annual operation and maintenance costs of the infrastructure over its project lifespan.

Additionally, the monthly household spend on water is 2% of household income for those that will use the
water kiosks and 1.3% for metered houses. Benchmarks provided by the World Bank and UNDP suggest that
household spend on water for low income households should not be more than 5% or 3% of monthly income.
For median income households in Africa, the average household spend on water is roughly 2.8% of monthly
2
income . Affordability for the project thus falls well within these benchmarks and suggests that the population
of Mwami should be able to afford the proposed water prices.

The sanitation facility’s tariffs are based on the current prices that truckers pay in the informal market for water
and sanitation in Mwami, demonstrating that there is sufficient willingness to pay for these services and that in
reality it may be possible to charge higher tariffs for the same services offered through a formal, and therefore,
more efficient system. However, if tariffs remain at current levels, the project is still operationally sustainable.

Sustainability of the project relies strongly on revenue generating parameters such as the current population
figures, the expected population growth rate, the number of border patrons passing through Mwami and the
proportion of households which have reticulated systems and those that use communal water points.
Sustainability also relies on the on-going cost parameters of the project, including the operation and
maintenance costs of the proposed intervention. As these are calculated as a percentage of the total capital
expenditure on the project, the percentage assigned to these costs as well as the total cost of the immediate
investment are both important variables in determining financial viability as well as operational sustainability.

Source: CRIDF CBA

Institutional Assessment
Based on the analysis of the EWSC it is expected that there is low institutional risk with respect to these
projects. This is partly due to the relatively small size of the projects and partly because EWSC is a credible
organisation that has demonstrated significant institutional capacity over the years. There are admittedly
concerns regarding the ongoing financial viability of EWSC, however it has shown a trend over a number of
years of steadily gaining institutional and financial strength. For this reason, some consideration should be

2
Hutton, G. (2012) “ Monitoring “Affordability” of water and sanitation services after 2015: Review of global indicator options”, PhD – A
paper submitted to the United Nations Office of the High Commission for Human Rights,
[Link]

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 19 of 217

given to initiatives that further strengthen EWSC’s viability. CRIDF could consider a future advocacy /
facilitating role in this regard.

The location of these projects is clearly of a strategic nature with potentially positive spin offs in terms of
enhanced commerce, trade and tourism. This will benefit the local population and therefore by extension,
EWSC itself. The outlying and distant location of especially Chanida, but also Mwami, will require careful
consideration of the operation and management structure.

Risk Assessment
A detailed assessment of the risks for the Mwami border water supply and sanitation project was undertaken
to assess the potential risks that could inhibit project implementation. The assessment has been effected from
two perspectives namely inherent risks and external risks which are out of the project team’s control. The risks
are categorised under technical, operations and maintenance, socio-economic, environmental, political and
financial. Included in the risk assessment are mitigation measures to reduce the possible impact of the risk.

Some of the identified risks include:

 Technical:

o A lack of understanding of the requirements of the project

o Varying the scope and or project objectives

o Groundwater availability (or scarcity)

o Groundwater contamination

o Unregulated consumption and wastage of water

o Denial of construction permits

o Operations and Maintenance

 Socio-Economic

o Affordability and willingness to pay

o Sustainability

o Environmental

 Political

 Financial

Conclusion and Recommendations

In summary, there is a strong socio-economic justification for the Mwami project. While the project is
financially profitable, its returns are not sufficient to attract private sector finance due to the long payback

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 20 of 217

period and risk associated with peri-urban / rural water supply. External grant financing will therefore be
required to cover the capital investment. Should this be secured, the CBA indicates that the project is strongly
operationally sustainable. Grant funding of GBP 300,735 for the full capital amount should be secured to
operationalize the project.

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Introduction
Background
The Climate Resilient Infrastructure Development Facility (CRIDF) is DFID’s water infrastructure programme
for southern Africa, working to deliver sustainable small-scale infrastructure across 11 SADC countries. The
demand-driven programme focuses on water services, water resource management, and water for
livelihoods, fostering sustainable development of the region’s water resources and addressing the water, food
and energy nexus. This project aims to provide sustainable and equitable access to a safe water supply and
appropriate sanitation in 12 border towns in Zambia.

These interventions are not solely aimed for the general upgrading for water and sanitation services, but are
also envisaged to improve regional tourism and reduce the incidence of cross-border waterborne diseases.
This report summarises the feasibility of a water supply scheme and sanitation facility at Mwami Border Post
located on the boundary between the Republics of Zambia and Malawi approximately 21 km from Chipata
town, the provincial headquarters of the Eastern Province in Zambia.

Project Location
Mwami Border Post is located in the Eastern Province of Zambia, at geographic co-ordinate 13°45'2.34"S and
32°47'45.22"E, on the boundary between the Republics of Zambia and Malawi, approximately 21 km south
east of the provincial capital of Chipata. Figure 1 below shows the location of Mwami border post.

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 Mwami

Mwami

Figure 1 Locality Map

General Description of the Project Site

The Mwami Border post area is bounded by hilly terrains prevalent on the eastern and western flanks. It lies
close to the foot of the hills located on the western side (the eastern range of hills is approximately 4km
away). One natural feature located in close proximity to the border post is the source of the Lutembwe River,
which is approximately 2 km away in a North Easterly direction. The Lutembwe River is perennial and has
been dammed 20 km from the border post to form the Lutembwe dam used to supply water for the City of
Chipata. The prime activity at Mwami is the border crossing for pedestrians, domestic and commercial
vehicular traffic from either Zambia into or in transit through Malawi and vice versa. These activities have
given rise to the establishment of small business enterprises such as trading stores, restaurants, and
entertainment venues, all of which serve the locally residing and travelling populace.

Mwami border post is situated along a 2 km long narrow strip straddling the Great Eastern Road from Lusaka
to Malawi. The spatial structure of the border post is spontaneous, with no discernible elements of land use
and development of land in the area. Apart from the main road, the interconnecting road network and layout of
housing developments is haphazard. The general planning structure is therefore not conducive to the efficient
and cost-effective provision of public utility services. Low cost and high cost housing are intermingled, thus
complicating the supply of water and disposal of generated wastewater, i.e. the selection of an appropriate
level of service in the provision of public utilities for the various areas of the township.

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The Google Earth image of the central part of Mwami in Figure 2 below illustrates the spontaneous planning
structure of the border post. Typically, there is no network of planned road services to provide a spatial
skeleton for the location of water supply and wastewater networks.

Figure 2 Central Part of Mwami

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Social Economic Assessment
Introduction
One of the key components in developing a water supply and sanitation project in the Mwami border post in
Zambia, is the social assessment which establishes full stakeholder engagement buy in and involvement of
all relevant government agencies, local authorities, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO), local traditional
leadership, and community members in the area of project influence. CRIDF acknowledge that early
engagement provide valuable opportunity to influence public perceptions and set a positive tone with
stakeholders, despite the many uncertainties and unknowns. It is also an opportunity to help generate ideas
and alternative solutions on early design questions.

This section presents the socio economic assessment comprising a brief profile of the Mwami border post as
regards settlement patterns, sources of livelihood, access to services, water security and employment
opportunities. It also reveals public perceptions of the existing and proposed water supply and sanitation
services and presents some of the predicted project social impacts and their requisite mitigation measures.
Lastly, possible community engagement in the management of proposed project interventions has been
recommended. . It is envisaged that this feasibility study would not only address issues concerning technical,
economic, financial and environmental viability but also address institutional matters that may be required to
support the projects and delivery of the desired service levels sustainably.

The socio economic assessment fieldwork was undertaken during the months of May and June 2015. The
report contains information obtained through literature review, community meetings and interviews with
community members and personnel from various district departments. Background of the Project

Beneficiary Community Description

The area has distinct clusters of built up areas of government offices located at the border boundary, business
premises mainly consisting of small stores and restaurants lined along the Great East Road, medium cost
houses scattered around the border boundary and villages situated behind the business area outward away
from the centre of the border area. Therefore the project beneficiaries lying within 10 km radius can be
characterised into 3 settlements namely, the Mwami border trading area, Mgambi and Mashanga villages.

The project area has an approximate population of 1560 people with about 300 households. This population
consists of government employees from government institutions such as Ministries of Health, Home Affairs,
Community Development Mother and Child health, Transport, Works and supply, statutory entities namely,
the Road development Agency (RDA), Roads, Traffic Safety Agency (RTSA), Zambia Bureau of Standards
(ZABS) and the Chipata Municipal Council. The post also hosts a regional organisation, the Common Market
for East and Southern Africa (COMESA).

Other residents include personnel from Non-Governmental Organisations such as, CARE Zambia, SPLASH,
Corridors of Hope, and Jesus Cares.

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Community social structures responsible for water and sanitation issues include the Water Committee, and
the Neighbourhood Health Committee (NHC).

In relation to the project, the latter social structures shall serve as entry points and have a key role in the
entire project cycle. Therefore, Eastern Water and Sewerage Company (EWSC) should involve these and
other stakeholders to ensure sustainability of the investments.

Land Tenure System and Ownership

Although the Post is characterised by urban services and community it is outside Chipata district council
planning area. It still falls under traditional authority, which is vested in His Royal Highness Chief Mpezeni.
The two villages are led by headmen who report to the Chief. The area Chief has authority of managing the
Post and is responsible for, amongst other things, settling local disputes, land allocation and liaising with
relevant government department in respect of any developments taking place within their area. The chief is
part of the Chipata district council through a representative that participate in the district council meetings
thereby linking the formal administrative structures to the traditional.

At present the Chief is responsible for allocating land to residents who latter formalise the allocation through
the district council. The implication of this structure is that land for project infrastructure shall be acquired
through the area traditional leadership.

Economic Activities
The main economic activities in the project area can be groups under three categories as follows.

Formal employment - There is a significant number of residents formally employed in formal organisations
mentioned above.

Business and Trading Ventures - The local residents from different parts of the district and Zambia at large
settled in the area have taken advantage of the business opportunities created by the border post transactions
and travelling population. Most entrepreneurs include clearing agents, restaurant, shop, salon and barber
shop owners, taxi drivers and cyclists, hawkers, money changers, casual labour assisting travellers.

Small scale farming - Farming is the main occupation of local residents living in the two villages. However,
the formally employed and other entrepreneurs are also involved in agricultural activities. Those who do not
have land either purchase plots or use rented land. Major crops grown include maize, cotton, groundnuts,
and vegetable crops such as sweet potatoes, pumpkins, and cowpeas.

Employment and Income Generating Opportunities

The current economic activities outlined above offer a relatively stable income for the border community.
Therefore, individuals including vulnerable women, youths and other groups already engaged in different
activities would have to operate at optimal levels in response with the demand. A snap shot income survey
showed the following results.

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Results in Error! Reference source not found. show that vulnerable groups without qualifications to engage in
formal employment elsewhere have an opportunity to generate income through above listed economic
activities which they are already participating in. It is observed that occupations such as farming, selling at the
market, and bicycle deliveries that attract more vulnerable women and youth are low earning. However,
availability of employment largely depends on the level of activities at the border. For the farming community,
agricultural productivity also depends on other factors such as climatic conditions and market for their
produce.

Table 2 Level of income in accordance with occupation

No. Type of Occupation Approximate Income per Approximate Income per Month
Month
(GB £)
(ZMW)
(exchange rate 1£= ZMW 11.3)

1. Formal employment 5,512 487.8

2. Restaurant owners 2,400 212.4

3. Taxi driver 2,400 212.4

4. Car Washer 1,200 - 1,680 106.2 – 148.7

5. Truck driver 1,400 123.9

6. Other business ventures 616 – 3,360 54.5 – 297.3

7. Farmer 600 - 708 53.1 – 62.6

8. Marketeer 420 - 560 37.2 – 49.6

9. Bicycle delivery 150 - 240 13.3 – 21.2

Source: Questionnaire administered to 15 respondents amongst border post community

Perceptions of Existing Water Supply and Sanitation Facilities

Perceptions of Existing Water Supply and Sanitation Facilities and Services

The project area is served by three different water systems provided by Zambia Revenue Authority, Chipata
District Council through its partners and private individuals. The two systems include household water
connections and communal water points.

a) Zambia Revenue Authority Water Supply and Sanitation

The authority provides pipe household connections to its employees and other public workers. This water
supply was adequately planned for a limited number of staff. Overtime the system has been extended to
supply other public workers’ and other households and this has created a shortfall. In order to ensure equity

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 27 of 217

and supply to all connected households, the company has decided to ration the supply and this has affected
quantity.

Residents are not content with the supply as they have to either store or draw water from communal stand
points provided by the Council. The water from ZRA is free of charge and the authority is responsible for
maintenance.

All housing structures have provision for water borne sanitation, although their functionality is dependent on
adequate water Residents complained that these facilities have become ‘pour and flush’ toilets. Some of the
associated problems of pour and flush is that water has to be available at all times and this has created a
burden on women and females members who have to ensure that there is water for domestic use in the
household at all times.

b) Private water supply and sanitation systems

There are a number of privately operated boreholes with piped water reticulation owned by entrepreneurs
such as lodge owners, business houses and a few local residents. Due to availability of water most structures
have water borne sanitation systems. In view of the water problems privately owned systems seemed to be
the most preferred option for those that could afford the capital investment.

c) Communal water points

The project area has 3 communal boreholes equipped with hand pumps. This is the major source of water
supply serving any other resident without piped reticulation, community members in the nearby village,
truckers and other travellers. These water points have been provided and are managed in accordance with
the Ministry of Local Government and Housing rural water supply institutional arrangements. At present each
water point is managed by a Water Committee, which is responsible for collection of user fees and ensuring
that water points are taken care of. At present each water user pays ZWM 2 per month.

Although there was an equal distribution of communal water points on either side of the T4 (Great East Road),
residents has to cross over in case of breakdowns. Such instances were quite common as the rate of
breakdowns was high. This resulted in congestion and at times, women and children have to cross the busy
T4 Great East Road to draw water on the other side. The exposes water drawers to accidents. Furthermore,
residents were not satisfied with the rate of maintenance as in most cases they depend on local skilled
residents who render a free service.

In relation of sanitation, most house structures without inbuilt water borne systems have ordinary pit latrines.
These latrines are also quite prevalent amongst restaurants and other business premises. The community in
particular business owners complained of the nuisances such as odours and inconvenience of digging new
pits from time to time. Others felt this technology was most inappropriate, as the plots are too small to dig out
new pits.

Further, due to lack of ablution facilities for travellers and truckers, some households were providing bathing
and sanitation services at a fee. Although this served as a source of income, women expressed concerns of
the danger of defilement and rape amongst female children in the households.

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Perceptions of Proposed Water Supply and Sanitation Facilities

Water supply

The recommended water supply systems were individual house connections and communal water points
using the kiosk model.

Nearly all residents consulted preferred individual household connections. In accordance with housing areas,
most public workers housing units are standard urban units equipped with in built water connections. In
addition the project area is the inner core of the Chief’s declared ‘trading area’, therefore residential and
business plots have been allocated to residents who have built low and medium cost houses with in built
water systems. Therefore individual water connections were the most preferred.

In order to cater for households that would not be able to afford to pay for expensive options such as
individual house connections, it was recommended that communal water points through kiosks would be most
appropriate. They however indicated that the communal points should be built with a provision for future
individual house connections for those that would eventually have financial capability to afford such
connections.

Mwami border had developed into a huge settlement and could evolve into a city, as regional trade increases.
Therefore the CWSC and its partners should plan for a system with a realistic population projection of for
example 50 years. The projection should be made on the basis of household connection than communal
water points.

Sanitation for Truckers and other Travellers

All residents consulted were satisfied with the proposed ablution facilities for truckers and travellers. They
proposed that the facilities should include bathing facilities. These should be provided at a fee to ensure
sustainability.

Households Sanitation

The most preferred liquid waste disposal technologies were water closet operated with septic tanks and
ventilated pit latrines. EWSC’s responsibility is to provide a main sewerage system where households would
connect to. Individual households and premises have the responsibility of financing connections from the main
sewer line to their households. In the absence of a sewerage system, households would have to construct
their own systems.

Field consultations and snap survey revealed that most residents preferred water closets and were willing to
spend about ZMW 100 for construction. Although this is a minimal amount, it shows the willingness to spend
and possess an improved sanitary facility.

Those who felt they were unable to construct water borne facilities opted for ventilated pit latrines.

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Positive and Negative Socio-Economic Impacts of the Proposed Project
Some of the critical impacts in addition to those elaborated in the ‘Outline Business case for water and
sanitation project in both Mwami and Chanida Zambia’ project economist report are as follows:

Positive impacts

a) Improve resident’s health

Improvements in water supply by the company for the border post community will translate into increased
quantity and quality. In relation to quality, communities will be assured of quality water as the company would
conduct periodic quality analysis. Improved health will have a positive impact on productivity in which ever
occupation is involved engage in as the will be less absenteeism from tasks. Evidence of improved health
shall be monitored through health indicators at the nearest health facilities.

b) Equality in service provision

It was noted that residents using communal water points were subjected to user fees, whilst public workers
who have a steady income were not paying for the service. A systematic and consistent water supply system
will subject all residents in the project area to paying for the service. This will instil a sense of responsibility
and cohesion amongst the residents.

c) Increased Population

Increase in population will result in both positive and negative impact. A combination of improved water supply
and trade will attract more business people, tourists and settlers to the area. This will create demand and
more revenue for EWSC and provide an opportunity to expand the system as the population increases.

Negative Impacts

a) Water wastage

There is a likelihood of water wastage in households through leakage and inefficient practices such as
watering lawns, car washing leaking taps and so on. There is also a possibility of water loses through the
main reticulation system. These loses can be mitigated by installing meters in each individual premise with
individual connections including kiosk. This measure should be coupled with customer sensitisation on
demand management. Promoting water use efficiency is useful to the company to ensure that they generate
adequate revenue to cover both capital and operational costs and delivery an efficient service.

b) Transformation of the area into and urban area

As stated earlier a combination of extension of Chipata municipal council planning authority, removal of trade
barriers, improved infrastructure such as roads, and improved water supply and sanitation will led a complete
transformation of the border post into a township.

This will led to diminished agricultural activities and villages will turn into high density areas. Subsistence
farmers will either move out of the area or change their occupation. More people from different parts of the
Zambia will flock to the area, taking with them other urban vices, such as theft,

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In relation to water supply this negative impact would arise if the company does not expand the system due to
limited water sources. As has been recommended above the company and CRIDF should plan for an
increased population during this initial phase of assistance.

Given that the Chief Mpezeni resides within the border post area, a combination of traditional and municipal
authority should prevail to minimise social vices such as theft, deviant behaviour, and vandalism that would
impact negatively on trade, and local residents.

c) Vandalism

There should be thorough consideration of the type of technology and materials used in both the reticulation
water systems and truckers and travellers facilities. This is view of expected vandalism which might be
necessitated by residents who might have alternative use of the materials, or due to sheer destructiveness as
a protest to paying user fees. Vandalism can only be minimised through community sensitisation.

d) Generation of solid waste

The mandate of waste collection and disposal is a responsibility of the municipal council within their planning
jurisdiction. Given that Mwami border post is still under traditional administration, there is no defined waste
collection system. Like in most rural areas Ministry of Health has the responsibility of promoting total
sanitation and hygiene practices. The snap survey revealed that the only waste disposal practice promoted is
dug out pits. With an envisaged population increase the problem of waste collection and disposal will need
redress.

Community Engagement in the Proposed Project

As explained in the ‘Outline Business case for water and sanitation project in Mwami Zambia’ project
economist report, EWSC is in possession of a licence to provide water supply and sanitation services in
Eastern Province. Therefore, the company will have to use its well elaborated approaches in delivering water
in different contexts. Mwami border post has characteristics of medium, low cost and business premises, peri
urban and rural areas, therefore following management approaches can be employed.

Management of Individual piped reticulation

In areas where individual house connections are provided the company will have to use meters and bill each
premise. The company would be responsible for maintenance of main lines and any maintenance after the
meter falling within the premises would be individual’s responsibility.

Management of Communal Water Points and Public Ablution Facility

The company will have to acknowledge the existing water supply management structures to develop and
manage communal water points and ablution facilities. The existing water committee is a recognised structure
that was established by the Chipata municipal council. The committee should be utilised in siting (with
technical advice) and constructing new kiosks. They should also select vendors to manage the kiosks,
ablution block and their surroundings. The committee should also be responsible for hygiene education. The

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 31 of 217

company should work hand in hand with the council’s public health department and the Ministry of Health
officers to promote construction of hygienic sanitary facilities and hygiene education.

Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI)

Introduction

CRIDF recognizes that gender equality and social inclusion is of central concern in water services, water
resources management and other productive activities, therefore adopting a gender and social sensitive
approach improves the project impact, performance and sustainability. This is particularly important in the
Southern African region where rural and peri urban poverty levels in most parts are relatively high and
respective populations are dependent on water and land resources. Furthermore, like elsewhere in the
developing countries, women and girls are typically responsible for fetching water for both domestic and
productive use. Therefore giving a voice, choice, and control to women and girls on water, land and other
natural resources is of key concern to CRIDF.

The purpose of this assessment is to analyse the existing Gender Equality and Social inclusion (GESI) issues
with a specific focus on the following elements:

 Outlining community development issues including employment and income generating opportunities;
 Address the water and sanitation needs of women, girls and vulnerable population;
 Description of the expected changes in the quality of life to women and girls, including the poor as a
result of the project activities.
 Benefits of the project outcomes.

Information provided in the Feasibility Report is taken from the CRIDF report 'Gender and Social Inclusion
(GESI)' for Mwami (Chipata) and Chanida. The assessment was done through field Focus Group Discussions
(FGD) with women, girls and men in Mwami (Chipata) border area.

Findings and Related Issues

Water Scarcity

Water scarcity was a major problem expressed by all residents especially women who are responsible for
domestic chores. Women and other household members reported that the most critical times were in the dry
season when the water levels in boreholes drop. In such instances, more effort is required to pump out water.
This leads to congestion at water points and for example in Chanida women at times queue up from 4 AM in
the morning and spend between 2 to 3 hours in the queue.

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Prolonged Time Spent on Water

The communal water points provided at both border posts are inadequate as the population and number of
households have increased and exceeded the current water supply. In addition households serviced by the
ZRA water supply rely on communal water points in instances of poor water supply. Over utilisation of the
communal water points results in constant breakdowns. In turn women and other members have to crowd at
functional water points. This results in long queues and women have to constantly plan for water supply.
Women complained of the time and emotional strain spent on ensuring that the household has adequate
water supplies. This diverts women’s attention from other household chores and productive activities.

Long Distances to Water Points

In Mwami the 3 communal water points are located along the Great East Road. Given the spread of extended
human settlements, some households (from Mushanga village) are located at more than 500 meters away
from the water point. Further 2 water points are located on the western side of the main road. Women from
Mushanga villages complained of the distances covered. This is highly problematic for the elderly, pregnant
women and younger children who have to depend on other able bodied members of the household.

Revenue Spent on Water supplies

Some households particularly those with adequate income have devised ways of overcoming the problem of
queuing up and fetching water from communal water points by paying private water vendors. This is in a way
is a positive impact as it has provided informal employment to male members of the community. However,
women from poorer households who are unable to pay the water vendors have to undertake the tasks
themselves. Nonetheless, all households will have to pay for water services after the project, therefore
residents will need sensitisation on the new water system.

Exposure to Accidents and other Risks

In Mwami, two of the communal water points are located on the western side of the main road. This exposes
both women and girls drawing water to possible accidents due to high vehicle and truck traffic, as they have to
cross the T4 Great East road with buckets on their head. Furthermore, water points are located near bars that
in most instances have poor sanitary facilities, with patrons carelessly disposing off waste near the water
points. Women complained of possible contamination and unsightly water points surroundings. Some women
complained of harassment from drunken patrons. This raises an issue of the need to consult women, girls and
those responsible for fetching water during site selection.

Increased burden of drawing water for sanitation

Most institutional and other newly built housing structures in both border areas have in-built water borne
sanitary facilities whose functionality is dependent on adequate water supplies. The major complaint amongst
household members without private boreholes is that these facilities have become ‘pour and flush’ toilets. The
other problem associated with pour and flush systems is the need for constant water supply that was not

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 33 of 217

feasible with the current water supply services. The lack of adequate water supplies in the household has
created a burden on women and other female members who have to ensure adequate water for all domestic
uses including ‘water for sanitation’.

Unfavourable Sanitation Technology

The project area beneficiaries are highly aware of the dangers of poor sanitation. Women therefore
complained of the inappropriateness of the ordinary pit latrines although these are widely used in the border
area. These present a number of nuisances including contamination of ground water, odours, flies and were
cited as the major source of water borne disease causing pathogens. Further, households with smaller plots
complained of adequate space to dig latrines from time to time.

Social exclusion of Different Social Groups

Furthermore, improved and ordinary latrines are built with squat holes. Specific members of households such
as pregnant women, the aged, the sick and children are faced with challenges in using squat holes due to
their physiology. Therefore, selection of sanitation technology should be based on the needs and usability of
special social groups in the households.

Threat of Defilement and Rape Amongst Female Members

As earlier mentioned due to lack of sanitation facilities for travellers and truckers, some households provide
bathing and sanitation services at a fee. Although this is a lucrative business opportunity for extra income,
women were mindful of the risk of defilement and rape amongst female children in the households. Provision
of water supply and sanitary facilities for travellers would eliminate this risk.

Indiscriminate disposal of human waste around the border area

Women complained of poor solid and liquid waste disposal around the border area mainly exacerbated by the
lack of sanitary facilities and disposal receptacles for travellers and other members of the public. Women
attributed the problem to the lack of municipal services and by laws to ensure cleanliness. Households near to
the border post, those along the great East Road and bars are the most affected as their premises are used
for defecation and disposal of solid waste. This exposes them to health risks thereby increasing their health
bills.

Table 3 GESI Benefits / Negatives of the proposed Mwami Water Supply and Sanitation Project

BENEFITS NEGATIVE ISSUES

Increased safe water supply: Increased water Impact of Prepaid System on the Poor: The
supply will allow for mixed levels of service. This will population on house and yard connections will be on

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BENEFITS NEGATIVE ISSUES

allow for house connections (reduced burden of a post paid system while residents drawing water
collecting water), which will reduce congestion at from the kiosks will be on a prepaid system. This will
kiosks (reduced time of collecting water). Safe water disadvantage the poor, as they would need money
supply will reduce water borne diseases and reduce when they draw water, which places a strain on
care giving requirement (time and cost). women who have to devise means to ensure water
availability in the household – often when not in
control of household expenditure and income.

Improved water supply infrastructure: Women Transformation of Border Areas: Border area
would not need to apply effort to operate the system. planning, removal of trade barriers and improved
Women and girls will spend less time collecting water infrastructure (roads, water supply and sanitation) will
and not be exposed to conflicts at the water point. transform border areas into urban centres. This will
They will also draw water in cleaner environments impact subsistence agricultural activities, which will
where water contamination will be less likely. be pushed further out (however provide a improved
access to market). Theft, deviant behaviour, and
vandalism could result. Increased population without
accompanying expansion of the water supply
infrastructure, would result in water supply issues,
impacting women and the poor most.

Improved water supply and sanitation for the Vandalism of water supply Infrastructure:
travelling community: Public sanitation facilities will Technology and materials used in in constructing
improved hygiene and health of the travelling water supply facilities should be vandal resistant.
community, particularly women and girls. The project Vandalism can result in dysfunctional infrastructure
will eliminate the indiscriminate disposal human and lead to shortages of water, which impact women
wastes around nearby households and border post and the poor most.
infrastructure. The potential threat of insecurity and
marital conflicts caused by travellers will be reduced.

Improved Sanitation: Positive impact on travellers,

particularly women and girls. The availability of
water for sanitation and hygiene will have a positive
impact.

Equality in Service Provision: A consistent water

supply system will subject all residents in the project
area to paying for the service. This will instil a sense
of responsibility and cohesion amongst the residents.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 35 of 217

BENEFITS NEGATIVE ISSUES

Wealth Creation Opportunity: An adequate water

supply will attract more businesses to service the
transportation trade and tourists. Which will increase
revenue for bulk water and also allow income
generating activities requiring water.

Recommended Actions for GESI

In order to guarantee gender equality and social inclusion in the project the following key actions will have to
be considered at different stages of project development and implementation:

Participatory Infrastructure Development

The existing Water Committees consisting of an equal representation of men and women manages the
existing communal water supply systems in both border areas. These committees are facilitated or supported
by the Ministry of Health Environmental Health Technologists. These structures should be used as entry
points for Project development, community awareness, and introducing the new water supply system.
Involvement of women in the committee should be mandatory and their views should be taken into
consideration.

Project design stage

During feasibility the views of women over their preferred technology was solicited. As regards water supply
infrastructure all the women preferred house and yard connections as opposed to communal water points. In
order to cater for the poor, kiosks were also the most preferred infrastructure. Therefore project implementers
should provide residents with an opportunity to have house, yard connections and kiosks.

Sites for kiosks

Project implementers should be aware of the factors to consider when siting the kiosks. Some of the issues to
consider include the following. Kiosks should not be located in close proximity to bars, markets, bus stations
and other congested public places. They should be equal number of kiosks on either side of the main roads in
both border areas to reduce on chances of crossing the road.

Support for Sanitation

Although the Project is limited to supporting water supply and sanitation for the travelling community, some
form of support can be mobilised for household sanitation. In Zambia sanitation is regarded as a household
issue however, developing partners have involved the private sector in financing sanitation through micro
finance. CRIDF can assist respective local authorities to negotiate for a sanitation micro financing facility so

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 36 of 217

that household sanitation is fully integrated in the project. Local authorities should be encouraged to formulate
sanitation by – laws that will coerce households to adopt appropriate and safe sanitation facilities.

Residents interviewed expressed willingness to obtain loans with minimal interest. Notably, they were
concerned that sanitation was not part of the support package as it was equally important and contributing to
water borne diseases.

Recommended Actions

Error! Reference source not found. below is a summary illustrating GESI integration. In addition to the above
findings, information has also been drawn on from both the Cost Benefit Analysis and Support Systems
components of the design report to complete the GESI Rating Tool, which is included in Appendix D.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 37 of 217

Table 4 Integrating GESI in the Water and Sanitation Project

Project Outcomes Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Issues Addressed Recommended Actions for strengthening GESI Integration
Increased safe water Decongestion of communal water points (kiosks) resulting in Project area beneficiaries should be accorded an opportunity to
supply reduced time spent queuing for water. have house and yard connections that are most preferred options.
Women and girls relieved of the burden of fetching water outside
the home. Kiosks are the preferred infrastructure option for communal water
Women and girls having adequate time to perform other points.
household and livelihood activities.
Sufficient safe drinking water safeguarding against water borne
diseases and guaranteeing the health of residents and travelling
community.
Improved House and yard connections promote participation of all Beneficiaries especially women to be consulted when selecting
Infrastructure household members in water and sanitation activities, relieving sites for kiosks.
women and girls of the burden of fetching water.
Reduced conflicts caused by lack of tap attendants to control
users.
Reduced walking distances to communal water points if more
points are provided.
Improved water supply Improved hygiene and health of the travelling community and
and sanitation for the local residents at the border
travelling community Travelling women and girls’ special needs taken care of.
Elimination of the threat of insecurity and marital conflicts
caused by travelers renting bathing and toilet facilities in private
households.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 38 of 217

Improved sanitation Improved health, leading to a reduction of water borne diseases, Encourage Chipata and Chadiza local authorities to negotiate for
a reduction on health bills. sanitation through the private sector micro financing
Women spending less time on nursing sick family members organisations.
Improved health increases productivity due to decreased
absenteeism from tasks. Councils / Water and Sewerage Companies to formulate By Laws
for sanitation
Equality in Service Increased sense of responsibility and cohesion amongst the Involvement of the Water Committee to sensitise residents on the
Provision residents re-organisation and expected responsibilities of water users.

ESWC to follow pro poor guidelines from NWASCO.

Wealth Creation Opportunity enhance and engage in income generating activities
Opportunity requiring bulk water such as gardening, house construction,
operating restaurants, chicken etc. Planting trees to curb soil
erosion.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 39 of 217

Environmental Health Assessment
This section describes some of the Environmental Health challenges faced in the Mwami boarder community,
and outlines recommended interventions to address these where possible.

Relevant Legislation & Institutional Arrangements

The Public Health Act (Cap. 303 of the Laws of Zambia) is the key legislative tool defining and enforcing
environmental health. Section 67 provides the local authorities and authorised medical officers the mandate
for environmental health enforcement against ‘nuisances’ that threaten the health of the population, such as
overflowing toilets and septic tanks that discharge onto the street or other non-approved sites. This is of
relevance in Mwami where residents have mentioned limited space to dig new toilets once the old pits are
filled, and where liquid waste emptying facilities may be limited. However, the effectiveness of sanitary
enforcement in Zambia has been constrained by a number of factors, including a lack of capacity of
enforcement, and lack of mobility of the authorised officers (GRZ, 2001).

Regarding port health, despite the statutory instrument No.13 of the 1994 Public Health Act requiring
comprehensive port health services at land (such as Mwami), air and sea ports, there is no designated
isolation or triage area at the border to allow quarantine and surveillance of cross-border travellers to control
epidemics entering the country at Mwami. It was noted that space is available for such facilities, which
presumably could be constructed or temporary facility erected during possible epidemics.

At the local level, the local council together with Ministry of Health Environmental Health Technicians (EHTs)
are mandated to monitor, advice and enforce issues related to Environmental Health. At the community level,
Community Health Workers (CHWs) compliment the work of the EHTs, particularly through undertaking
community education regarding the prevention of common communicable diseases. The CHWs are also
supported in Mwami by the Neighbourhood Health Committee (NHC) and water committees.

Key Water, Sanitation & Hygiene – Related Diseases in the Area

Access to morbidity statistics specifically for Mwami was a challenge during this study. Some data on key
diseases were provided by the local health facilities through the EHTs, however this was not comprehensive
of the range of WASH-related diseases in the area, nor provided full multi-annual time-series data to allow
detailed analysis. The availed data is presented below, and complimentary information on water-related
disease incidence at a lower-resolution (district, provincial and national) was obtained from various internet
resources.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 40 of 217

 WASH - Related Diseases Reported to the Local Health Facility
in Mwami (incidence per 1000)

600
Malaria
500

400
Non-Pneumonia ARIs
300

200 Non-bloody
diarrhoea
100
Skin diseases
0
2011 2012 2013

Figure 3 Wash related disease statistics for Mwami

The locally available data for Mwami highlights the vector-transmitted disease Malaria as the most prevalent
in the community, followed by Acute Respiratory Infections (ARIs). The incidence of ARI transmission is often
associated with poor hygienic practices, particularly handwashing. The incidence of diarrhoea, which is the
main indicator for many faecal-oral diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery and Hepatitis A, is
relatively lower than Malaria and ARIs, but still widespread. However, it is likely that this is under-reported, as
the population may often self-treat or be failing to present themselves at the clinic for diarrhoea treatment.

The World Health Organisation (2014) suggest that in 2010, Malaria accounted for 13% of all deaths of
children under 5 years in Zambia, with Pneumonia accounting for 14%, and diarrhoea accounting for 9%.

The National Demographic & Health Survey of 2013-14 (GRZ, 2014) indicated 1 in every 22 Zambian children
die before their first birthday, and 1 in 13 do not reach their fifth birthday. The study indicated that the Eastern
Province (where Mwami is located) has the highest incidence nationwide of infant, child and under-5 mortality.
At the time of the study, the Eastern Province had the highest prevalence of ARIs in children aged under 5,
and also the highest prevalence of fever (22.6% of households with children <5 years had a child with fever in
the two weeks preceding the study). Whilst incidence is high, the health seeking behaviours are relatively
good, with 77% and 72% of cases seeking medical treatment for ARIs and fever respectively. This does
however mean there is still a significant proportion of the population not treating or following traditional
practices. A total of 15% of households with children under-5 in Eastern Province had experienced diarrhoea
within the preceding two weeks of the study, including 2.3% with bloody diarrhoea. Whilst 73% reported to go
to the clinic for treatment, only 26% reported to give the child extra fluids. Eastern Province also had the
second lowest national average for safe child stool disposal. This data indicates there may be some gaps in
knowledge and practices relating to hygiene and sanitation in the area.

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Perceived Impact of Interventions on the Incidence of Key WASH-Related Diseases

The National Environmental Health Policy (2001) estimates that up to 80% of the preventable diseases in
Zambia are related to poor environmental sanitation. The proposed interventions for Mwami will directly and
indirectly contribute to the reduction of a range of water and sanitation related diseases, as indicated in Error!
Reference source not found..

Table 5 Perceived Impact of Interventions on the Incidence of Key WASH-Related Diseases

Disease Type Expected Comments

Impact
Insect vector transmitted Reduced Whilst vector control is not a major focus of the programme,
diseases (Malaria, denge interventions in community hygiene promotion will promote
fever, yellow fever, community action around clearing breeding sites, and together
leishmaniasis) with potential interventions in waste management will help to
reduce sites of pooled water and waste heaps where the
vectors could breed. Moving from handpumps to tap-stands are
likely to reduce drainage water that would otherwise pool and
contribute to breeding sites.
Faecal-oral diseases Reduced The pipe-borne drinking water provided would be consistently
(Diarrhoeal diseases, cholera, chlorinated with sufficient residual to mitigate post-collection
dysentery, polio, typhoid, contamination. The widespread promotion of toilet upgrading,
Hepatitis A, intestinal vigilance against open defecation (and providing facilities such
parasites) as ablution blocks), increased availability of water for hygienic
practices, together with widespread promotion of handwashing,
is aimed to break the major faecal-oral disease transmission
pathways.
Water-washed diseases Reduced The increased volumetric availability, together with reduced
(trachoma, scabies, ringworm, queuing time and proximal access points provided by the new
louse-borne typhus/ fever) pipe-borne facility, is expected to considerably increase the per-
capita water consumption, allowing improvements in personal
and domestic cleaning practices that help to prevent such
diseases.
Water-based transmitted Reduced With the provision of conveniently located water sources with
diseases (schistosomiasis, sufficient volumes of treated water available for personal and
hookworm) domestic use, there would be limited need for residents to enter
contaminated water bodies where they may encounter such
diseases. Shower facilities in the ablution blocks would prevent
travellers from washing in unprotected sources and reduce the
incidence of skin diseases. The provision and promotion of

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 42 of 217

Disease Type Expected Comments
Impact
sanitation facilities would also help to break the life cycle of
these diseases.

Key Environmental Health Issues in the Community and Proposed Mitigation

A number of specific Environmental Health related issues have been identified in Mwami boarder post town.
These are summarised in the table below, along with proposed interventions to address them. It should be
noted that some of the recommendations lie outside the scope of this feasibility study/ensuing project.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 43 of 217

Table 6 Environmental Health Issues and Intervention

Specific Environmental Health Issue Proposed Intervention

There is a lack of solid waste management facilities for It is recommended to establish a door-to-door collection scheme for residential, commercial and
institutions and commercial facilities. Domestic refuse is institutional customers. Dialogue would be needed with the traditional leadership, the Chipata
generally burned on-site in unsorted pits. With the Municipality and residents as to the exact nature of the scheme. It is suggested that a local
forecasted population increase the waste generation will entrepreneur/group could be contractually engaged on behalf of the local authorities to undertake the
increase considerably, requiring a more formalised collection service, funded by user payments. In the absence of a dumpsite in the immediate locality, the
collection and disposal system. The project area is not Chipata municipal council would need to extend their service of transferring waste from a temporary
covered by the Chipata municipal council in terms of waste transit area in the project area, to the final (likely municipal) dumpsite. This could otherwise be
services. undertaken by the collection group directly if they had the transport capacity.

The collection group should be contracted on a competitive basis and have performance based
conditions, and periodic renewal to ensure quality of services is maintained. The sanitary operations of
the group would be monitored by the local EHT. In addition to the collections, the group could
potentially be contracted to do cleaning of public places. Concreted in bins at strategic public locations
would be necessary. The council could be provided with, and then lease to the group, items such as
push carts, wheel barrows, protective equipment etc. They would also require training on business
administration, customer care, and technical issues of waste management and options for
recycling/value streams from waste.

As a large proportion of the residents are engaged in agriculture, source separation of waste could be
promoted, where households are encouraged to compost their organic waste, and only put inorganics
in the bins to be collected by the group. This would reduce the total volume of waste to be managed,
allow a less frequent collection, and contribute towards food security. To facilitate this source

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Specific Environmental Health Issue Proposed Intervention

separation and customer subscription to the collection scheme, 50l bins should be provided to
households via the group in a subsidised arrangement.

Hygiene promotion to build resident’s demand for waste services, and build vigilance against
littering/on-site incineration would be needed to compliment this intervention. Where possible the group
would be encouraged to recycle or convert items of value such as aluminium cans, plastics and rubber,
depending on the market demand (which may well exist in Chipata town).

Limited water availability/accessibility is reducing the water Construct a piped water supply with adequate storage and requisite chlorination facilities.
available for hygienic practices, and water currently used
for drinking purposes from the wells/boreholes may be of
variable quality. Functionality/sanitary issues with the
existing flush toilets due to water shortages.

The liquid waste disposal method in Mwami is on-site via As part of wider capacity building to the community council and EHTs, the authorities would be
septic tanks, and pit toilets. Some residents have encouraged to make contacts with locally based liquid waste emptying services (potentially based in
mentioned space constraints relating to the digging of new Chipata town), and if necessary, mobilise the community and institutions when multiple facilities need
toilets once the existing pit is full. There are currently no pit to be emptied to share the contract cost, aggregating the demand, and leading to lower-cost service
and septic tank emptying services operating in Mwami. provision.

No designated market site and potentially risky hygiene Given the dispersed nature of the trading area, a designated market site and ablution facilities may not
and sanitation practices of food vendors. be the most appropriate option. However it is recommended that hygiene promotion is undertaken for
the food vendors regarding handwashing and safe food preparation and storage.

Open defecation around the border post, particularly at Ablution facilities should be constructed at the border post, to be open 24hrs, and enforcement

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Specific Environmental Health Issue Proposed Intervention

night. strengthened against open defecation through community triggering, bylaws and punitive action.
Facilities to include shower and handwashing facilities.

Whilst the proportion of households with toilets is relatively A community hygiene promotion campaign should be undertaken. This should periodically ‘re-trigger’
high thanks to recent programme of Community Led Total residents around the need for total sanitation and build vigilance and community based monitoring for
Sanitation (CLTS), the majority to the toilets constructed open defecation ‘offenders’. To build on the progress made from CLTS, handwashing promotion would
are basic pit toilets (please see graph below), with limited be needed with a focus on household-led construction of low-cost facilities such a tippy taps at every
facilities for odour and fly control. Few have handwashing toilet. To improve the impact on environmental health from the toilets, sanitation marketing techniques
facilities such as tippy taps at the toilet. Newly arriving would be used to promote households to upgrade their basic pit toilets, promoting features/products
residents that did not undergo the CLTS process may not such as improved concrete slabs, ventilation pipes with fly screens, squat-hole lids, and fly traps. With
immediately prioritise the construction of a toilet, leading to the opportunity of domestic water connections, some households may choose to upgrade straight to
temporary open defecation. flush toilets and septic tanks (which seems to be the aspired ultimate level for many residents).

Whilst residents seem willing to spend their own funds to upgrade their toilets, there are currently
limited local skills or suppliers to provide such toilet upgrading in the immediate community. Therefore
local masons should be identified and trained on the production of low-cost latrine products and
installation of higher-grade items such as flush toilets and septic tanks, and should be linked with
sanitary material suppliers in nearby Chipata.

Mosquito breeding sites exist within the peri-urban area, As part of the community hygiene promotion work outlined above, the community council, EHT and the

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 46 of 217

Specific Environmental Health Issue Proposed Intervention

particularly along the stream, and in the surrounding Neighbourhood Health Committee should be encouraged to mobilise the community to identify and
manually/mechanically irrigated fields. Shistosomiasis take action around the clearing of potential vector breeding sites.
breeding grounds potentially occurring in the stream.

Despite the district being subject to a recent School WASH According to the local EHT, the following facilities should be developed in the local schools:
programme (SPLASH), there are still needs for further
 Katadala Basic School – Rehabilitate one VIP toilet, provide pipe water access
WASH facilities in the local schools in the area.
 Nsanyika Basic School – Complete the construction of 3 VIP toilet superstructures, provide
piped water access

 Mushachata Community School – Rehabilitate 1 VIP and construct 6 additional VIPs (to be
confirmed) in addition to establishing handwashing facilities. Consider the provision of waste
bins for the classrooms

All of the schools would benefit from further sensitisation on the need to wash hands particularly
emphasising the use of soap or ash, which were found to be absent at the time the EHTs visited the
schools for this assessment.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 47 of 217

Public mobilisation and hygiene promotion would be central to many of the activities supporting Environmental
Health improvements. It is proposed that these mobilisation approaches are integrated with the other messaging
that promote domestic water connections, and payment for the water supply system. The additional messages
would include topics such as: re-triggering to build community commitment towards total sanitation and vigilance
against open defecation; handwashing promotion including education on the construction of tippy taps;
promotion/education on low-cost upgrades to domestic toilets, and awareness raising on the option of emptying
of toilets (if appropriate); promotion of solid waste collection services and development of community vigilance
against burning and dumping of waste; community mobilisation to identify and address vector breeding sites in
the local area. These mobilisation campaigns would likely be undertaken in operational partnership with local
committees (such as the Water Committee and Neighbourhood Health Committee), the traditional leadership,
and local officers of the Ministry of Health (such as EHTs).

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 48 of 217

Technical Assessment
Water Resources Design

Water Sources

Two possible water source types were investigated namely surface and groundwater.

The only surface water body in the vicinity of the project area is the Lutembwe River (approximately 2 km to the
North from the upper boundary of the settlement). The project area is located in the upper catchment of the
Lutembwe River, at the northern foot of a mountain range which straddles the border between Zambia and
Malawi. Relief is flat and gently sloping towards the east, with no discernible drainage lines. The nearest
watercourse is Lutembwe River.

The project area lays on the main divide of north-eastern tributaries of the Zambezi, where drainage is towards
the North into the Luangwa River and south into the Vumbwe River, a minor tributary of the Zambezi River. The
potential for surface water is therefore very limited. The flow rates in the river are very low in the Mwami locality
as the runoff is small due to the small overall size of the catchment at this point (source of the river. Therefore,
the demand cannot be met and this option cannot be viably pursued (see

Figur
e 4).

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 49 of 217

Figure 4 Lutembwe River from its source

The second option is that of abstracting from the groundwater sources. An evaluation of the ground water
potential in the area was therefore conducted as part of the feasibility study. Technical staff from the
Department of Water Affairs (DWA) were consulted on the ground water potential and availability in the area,
based on their recent documented experience with two drilled boreholes in the area. Residents living in the area
where also interviewed to garner a clear appreciation on their challenges and the strategies they employ to
acquire their daily water needs.

A water source options matrix was produced (Error! Reference source not found.).

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 50 of 217

Table 7 Water Source Options Matrix

Option and Option Description Benefits Key Issues

Ranking
Option 1  Drill boreholes within the  Potential drilling  Traditional

(Boreholes) service area sites available leadership to be

 Transfer water (distance less  Power readily engaged so as to
than 1km) from borehole to available within give an undertaking
reservoirs to be installed on service area to avail land where
hill adjacent to the border  Treatment drilling can be
post process not effected
 Chlorinate the water complex  Tariffs are set by
 Distribute water from  Regulated usage NWASCO
overhead reservoirs to the which minimises  Community
Mwami settlement directly wastage participation through
below the reservoir location vendors and Ward
 Access to water through Development
individual metered Committee, which
household connections and enhances ownership
communal access points  Access by all is
called kiosks manned by assured which will
vendors contracted by positively impact
EWSC sanitation and
general hygiene
levels

Option 2  Extract surface water from  Water source  More expensive

(From the Lutembwe River point reliable option as much

Lutembwe 12kms from Mwami more infrastructure
River)  Construction of a water is required
treatment plant that can  More manpower
effect coagulation, required for
flocculation, sedimentation, operations and
filtration, chlorination general security for
 Construct a 13kms high the transmission line
pressure pumping main to  Higher energy costs
Mwami including high lift due to very long
centrifugal pumps pumping distances

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 51 of 217

Groundwater in the Project area: Quantity aspects

The project area lies in low yielding aquifer zones that are described as argillaceous, Karoo basalts and the
3
older basement complex , and can be defined as having a high variability of hydrogeological characteristics.
Pump tests undertaken in argillaceous aquifers as part of the NWRMP show a median average specific yield
2
(aquifer yield per unit drawdown) of about 0.057m /day. Furthermore the reports from DWA indicate that the
project area has low-yielding aquifers averaging 1 litre per second.

Three sites were selected for possible location of boreholes as follows (refer to Figure 5):
 Well Field 1 - To the east of Mwami.
 Well Field 3 – To the south-west of Mwami, at the foot of a highly elevated hilly range.
 Well Field 2 – To the north of Mwami, which is within a depression

Figure 5 Possible Borehole Positions

 Proposed Well Field 3 has a geology that is predominantly clay and granite. It was reported that in
some cases, the clay extends beyond 40m depth. The expected yields in this area were envisaged to
be below 0.5 litres per second. During the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), residents attested to the
low yields and indicated that most of the boreholes in this area dry up during the peak of the dry
season.
 Proposed Well Field 2 which is in a depression on the northern side of site was said to have higher
yields (say above 0.7 l/s).
 Proposed Well Field 1 which is on the eastern side of the main road was expected to generally have
yields of over 0.7 l/s with safe yields being in the range of 1.5 to 2 l/s in some cases.

3 Zambia National Water Resources Master Plan (NWRMP)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 52 of 217

It should be noted that Proposed Well Field 3 is the closest to the proposed location of the overhead distribution
tanks, but is expected to have the lowest yields. The low yields will result in high-energy consumption as many
boreholes would be required to sustain the demand. Compared to the Proposed Well Field 1, which is expected
to give the highest yields but is disadvantaged by location which will necessitate a booster pumping facility.
Despite this shortcoming, the area for the Well Field 1 has been adopted and the costed for planning and
budgeting purposes.

In the absence of geophysical surveys to establish groundwater potential at the project site, anecdotal
information from the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and residents has been used to obtain an indication
the most likely areas to site borehole water sources. Three areas were considered to the north, west and east of
the settlement. The latter area was found to have the greatest potential, with expected yields of between 1.5
and 2 l/s. It is proposed to carry out investigation in the area to confirm the availability of groundwater, and to
develop the source for the supply of water to the settlement.

For planning purposes, a safe yield of 1 l/sec per borehole has been assumed. Based on a 16 hour pumping
3
period, 1 borehole is expected to yield 58 m /day.

The National Aquifer Assessment Study

The findings contained in the Groundwater Resources Management Support Programme National Aquifer
Assessment Study undertaken by Messrs Gauff Ingenieure on behalf of the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and
Water Development in 2013. The Mwami area is located in the lower Luangwa Aquifer which is classified as a
“low yielding”. The map below shows the aquifer types and expected yields in the Mwami area (page 21 in the
appendix section of the National Aquifer Assessment study, Gauff Ingenieure 2013).

MWAMI

Figure 6 Aquifer types and expected yields in the Mwami area

The border post area has according to the study expected borehole Specific Capacities of Production (SpC)
ranging between 0.040 to 0.149 l/s/m (yellow legend) categorised as a “sufficient to poor” yield. The yield is

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 53 of 217

obtained using the conversion table that shows the aquifer ranking system for Zambia (page 3-5 National
Aquifer Assessment study, Gauff Ingenieure 2013).

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 54 of 217

Table 8 Mwami border post Specific Capacity of Production

The Mwami border post Specific Capacity of Production ranges between 0.040 to 0.149 l/s/m (ranked in group
4) as per the aquifer ranking table. The corresponding borehole yields for this range are between 1 to 2 litres
per second (l/s).

Groundwater in the project area: Quality aspects

Water samples were collected from three boreholes in the project area and analysed for several parameters that
are used to ascertain the quality of potable water. The locations of the boreholes are indicated in Figure 7. The
GPS coordinates are shown in Figure 8 and water quality results in Error! Reference source not found..

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 55 of 217

Figure 7 Borehole locations

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 56 of 217

Table 9 GPS Locations of the sampling points

Name of Point Location

Latitude Longitude

MWA 01 0477871 8479931

MWA 02 0478533 8481006

MWA 03 0477635 8480522

Table 10 Water quality results for samples collected from boreholes

Parameter MWA01 MWA02 MWA03 WHO

guideline
value

pH 6.65 6.96 6.84 6.5- 8.5

Turbidity (NTU) 0.14 0.30 0.15 5.0

Total Dissolved Solids(mg/l) 185 105 153 1000

Sulphide (mg/l) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 -

Total hardness (as mg CaCO3/l) 145 90 180 500

Calcium hardness (as mg CaCO3/l) 80 65 98 500

Iron (mg/l) 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 0.30

Ammonia (as NH4-Nmg/l) 0.04 <0.01 0.03 1.50

Sulphates (mg/l) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 250

Chlorides (mg/l) 50.0 15.0 20.0 250

Nitrates (as NO3 –Nmg/l) 11.68 <0.01 <0.01 10.0

Orthophosphates (mg/l) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 5.0

Magnesium (mg/l) 15.60 6.00 19.68 -

Calcium (mg/l) 32.0 26.0 39.2 200

Copper (mg/l) <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 2.0

Potassium (mg/l) 10.56 3.17 4.22 -

Sodium (mg/l) 22.99 12.90 15.20 200

Manganese (mg/l) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.50

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Parameter MWA01 MWA02 MWA03 WHO
guideline
value

Nitrites (as NO2 –Nmg/l) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.100

Zinc (mg/l) <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 3.0

Arsenic(mg/l) <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 0.01

Bacteriological Results

Total coliforms (#/100ml) 0 7 0 0

Feacal coliforms (#/100ml) 0 2 0 0

These results indicate that the physical and chemical parameters for all the boreholes fall within the WHO and
Zambian Standards for drinking water. Key features in the test results include acceptable and “within limit” levels
of iron, manganese, copper, zinc and arsenic.

However, one of the samples (MWA02) tested positive for microbiological contamination. The level of
contamination was low, especially considering the requirement that water for public consumption needs to
undergo chlorination prior to distribution to guard against possible contamination during distribution. Due to the
nature of the source at this point, it was not possible to ascertain whether the contamination was primary or
secondary. The likelihood that it could have been secondary seems very plausible as the system has a rising
piped network that delivers into the tank prior to gravitational flow from the tank to the taps as illustrated on
Figure 8. Note the ponding of water around the tap at MWA02, which could contribute to secondary
contamination.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 58 of 217

Figure 8 Sanitary conditions around the taps at MWA002

Sanitary measures to safeguard quality

The proposed system is in a rapidly expanding residential area. It is therefore important that the area where the
boreholes to supply the area will be located is secured on title to avert issues of potential encroachment, assure
access for operations, maintenance and ownership. Currently, the land falls within the jurisdiction of paramount
Chief of the Ngoni people, His Royal Highness Mpezeni – The Inkhosi Ya ma Nkhosi of the Ngoni tribe. It is thus
recommended that the project, through EWSC acquires the needed land and also ensures that the land is on
legal title. In addition, it should be ensured that there are no developments allowed within the protected area to
prevent possible contamination, which can emanate from latrine or septic tank effluents, poor solid waste
practices, gardening or crop production using agro-chemicals all of which can compromise water quality and
impact negatively on overall project sustainability.

Water Supply System Design

Population Size and Growth

Various population data sources were consulted to estimate the population of the Chanida Border Post,
including the 2010 Zambian Census, the Ward Development Committee (WDC), the Neighbourhood Health
Committee (NHC), Water Point Committee (WPC) and the Environmental Health Technician (EHT). In addition
to this, the number of households was counted using aerial photography (Google Earth imagery).

The last published population census in Zambia was undertaken in 2010. From the Census report, key
population statistics for Chipata district under which the project area falls are summarised below:

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 59 of 217

  Population growth rate over the period 2000 - 2010 2.2% per annum
 Household size 5.2 persons per household

Data from the Ward Development Committee (WDC), the Water Point Committee and the Neighbourhood
Health Committee (NHC) indicated that there are currently 300 households. This figure was confirmed through
aerial photography house count. Using the 2010 Census household size the population was estimated as 1560
people.

As a border post, Mwami also has a transient population, which due to delays at the border post place a
demand on the water and sanitation infrastructure of the town.

On average, about 200 people (transients) pass through the border post daily.

For the purposes of this report, it is assumed that the number of border crossings will grow by 5% per annum,
which is equivalent to the target cited in the African Development Fund (ADF) report 'Nacala Road Corridor
Development Project- Phase IV – Project Appraisal Report'.

Population projections have been categorised based on the observed trend in the development of housing in the
2
project area, which indicates housing floor areas ranging from averages of 50 m (low cost) to 180 m² (high
cost) with a respective approximate distribution of approximately 70:30. Due to the spontaneous / haphazard
structure of the settlement, this ratio has been used to estimate the water demand.

Table 11 Residential categories for Mwami Border Post

Category Connection Percentage in Percentage of Total

Category Category

High Cost (180 m²) House 100 % 30%

Low Cost (50 m²) House 50 % 35%

Low Cost / Peri-urban or rural housing Communal 50 % 35%

Based on the residential categories in Error! Reference source not found., the breakdown of population per
category is given in Error! Reference source not found.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 60 of 217

Table 12 Total number of exiting housing plots and current population

Total No of Stands Total Population

High Cost (180 m²) 90 468
Low Cost (50 m²) 105 546
Low Cost / Peri-urban or rural housing 105 546
Sub Total 300 1560
Transient 200
Total Population 1760

Current and projected water supply level of service

Currently access to water is via standpipes. Field inspections and interviews revealed that demand projections
for the area will be derived using a “mixed development” approach due to the variation in customer types. On
category will access water from public communal standpoints housed in small kiosk buildings whilst another
category will require an “in-house” connection that will facilitate provision for fixtures that include a water borne
closet, wash basins, and shower or bath tub. The field survey also revealed that several households were
constructed with in-house facilities but these were non-functional due to the non-availability of a direct
household water connection. This area can hence be categorised as a “mixed development” as it comprises
housing types ranging from high cost to rural dwellings. (Refer to Figure 9 and

Figure 10).

Figure 9 High cost housing units at Mwami Border Post

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 61 of 217

Figure 10 Low cost or rural housing units at Mwami Border Post

The proposed system is in a fast expanding residential area. It is therefore important that the area where the
boreholes are located to supply the area is secured on title. Adequate land should be secured to cater for future
expansions beyond the project’s life span. Currently, the land falls within the jurisdiction of paramount Chief of
the Ngoni people, His Royal Highness Mpezeni – The Inkhosi Ya ma Nkhosi. This project requires land
dedicated to it which should preferably be on title and under the jurisdiction of the local authority / EWSC, which
currently has very little presence in the area. As a way of safeguarding water quality, it will be imperative that no
developments are allowed within this area as this may compromise the water quality. No farming activities
should also be permitted in the vicinity of the well field sites to avoid contamination with agro-chemicals.

Future Population Size and Split

The following assumptions were used to calculate the projected future population:
 2010 Census growth rate of 2.2% and average household size of 5.2 people
 5% Growth rate for border crossing traffic
 10 year design horizon

Based on these assumptions, the projected population is shown in Error! Reference source not found..

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 62 of 217

Table 13 Project Population

Category 2015 2025

High Cost (180 m²) 468 582
Low Cost (50 m²) 564 679
Low Cost / Peri-urban or rural housing 564 679
Transient 200 326
Total 1760 2266

The current and projected population, split by category, is summarised in Error! Reference source not found..

Table 14 Current and projected population by residential area and housing cost category

Residential Zone Current Category Population 2025 Category Population

High Cost Low Cost Low Cost - High Cost Low Cost Low Cost -
Communal Communal
High Cost (180 m²) 468 582
Low Cost (50 m²) 546 679
Low Cost / Peri-urban 546 679
or rural housing
Sub Total 468 546 546 582 679 679
Transient Community 200 326
Total 468 746 546 582 1005 670
1760 2266

The above table shows an estimated total projected population of 2,266 in 2025.

Current and projected water demand

The Zambian Standard (ZS 361 of 2009) has been used as a guideline in selecting suitable consumption rates
for the various consumer categories at the border post. The water demand consumption rates in Error!
Reference source not found. have been adopted for use in the estimation of water demand.

Table 15 Typical average per capita consumption

Category Average per capita consumption

litre/capita /day

High Cost 100

Medium Cost 75
Low Cost and Transient Consumers 40
Low cost – communal (Peri-Urban / Rural) 25

The definitions of the various categories according to the national standards are as follows:

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 63 of 217

 
2
High Cost Houses (HC): Low density housing with plot area greater than 900 m with multiple taps,
more than one Water Closet (W.C) and water borne sanitation;

2
Medium Cost Houses (MC): Medium density housing with plot area ranging between 400 and 900 m
with multiple taps, one or more W.C and water borne sanitation;

2
Low Cost Houses (LC): High density housing with Plot area of less than 400 m with reduced number of
taps, one W.C and water borne sanitation; and
 Peri-urban or Rural Housing: Housing with communal or shared standpipe or one tap in a plot with no
water borne sanitation (i.e. uses latrines as a means of excreta disposal).

The above rates have been used in conjunction with population projections to obtain estimates of projected
average water demand for each consumer category in each residential area. The results are summarised in
Error! Reference source not found..

Table 16 Estimated current and projected water demand by category for the main development areas

Residential Zone Current Water Demand 2025 Water Demand

m3/day m3/day
High Cost Medium Low Cost High Cost Medium Low Cost
Cost Cost
High Cost (180 m²) 46.8 0.0 0.0 58.2 0.0 0.0
Low Cost (50 m²) 0.0 21.8 0.0 0.0 27.1 0.0
Low Cost / Peri-urban or
0.0 0.0 13.7 0.0 27.1 17.0
rural housing
Sub Total 46.8 21.8 13.7 58.2 27.1 17.0
Transient Community 0.0 8.0 0.0 0.0 13.0 0.0
Total 46.8 29.8 13.7 58.2 40.2 17.0
90.3 115.3
3
The above shows a projected average water demand of 115.3 m /day for the year 2025.

Description of the proposed water supply system

The water supply system will have three distinct components namely:
 the water sources;
 storage facilities; and
 a distribution system.

There is currently no piped supply to the community at Mwami or any other acceptable form of service except
two handpump operated boreholes.

Details of the proposed borehole water source has been elaborated on in the preceding sections.

Design criteria

The following design criteria was used for the feasibility design:

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 64 of 217

  Elevated storage volume – 2 x average daily demand
 Pipe sizes – Peak hourly demand (3 x average daily demand)
 Supply (boreholes) – Peak daily demand (1.5 x average daily demand)

A simple distribution network comprising a gravity mains from the reservoir and a main stem which runs along
the main road to feed the eastern and western parts of the border post has been developed. A secondary main
bisects Zone 3 to supply the residential properties to the west. The layout of the proposed network is shown in
Figure 11.

Figure 11 Proposed Mwami Border Post Distribution Network

A total of four water kiosks located as shown in Figure 11 will be provided to cater Low Cost access to water,
while individual connections will be made on application.

Four demand Zones have been identified centred around each kiosk, as shown in Figure 10. Average water
demand in each of the four demand zones has been estimated on the basis of the total number of buildings in
each zone, pro rata the total water demand for the year 2025.

Peak day and peak hourly demand for each centre was then computed by multiplying average daily demand for
year 2025 by 1.5 and 3 respectively. The results for the 2025 peak water demand are summarised in Error!
Reference source not found..

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 65 of 217

Table 17 Mwami peak water demand by demand centre for year 2025

Peak Hour Peak day (16 h)

Zones m3/day m3/h m3/day m3/h
1 85 5.3 42.5 2.66
2 124 7.7 62.0 3.87
3 68 4.3 34.1 2.13
4 74 4.6 36.8 2.30
Total 21.9 10.96

The network has been designed to cater for future housing developments through infills and densification of
residential houses. It will serve as a nucleus within which new developments will occur, thus discouraging
expansion of housing developments to unserviced areas.

Borehole Development

The hydrogeology has indicated the possibility to develop borehole sites on the eastern side of the border post,
3
each with a potential safe yield of 3.6 m /hr. It is proposed to develop borehole water supply to cater for water
demand up to 2025. An assessment of required raw water supply is as follows:
3
Peak day water demand at 2025 (16 h) = 10.96 m /hr

No of boreholes required to cater for the demand = 10.96/3.6 = 3.05

A total of 4 boreholes drilled at locations in the east of the border post, across the highway will be adequate to
cater for peak day water demand.

Based on an aquifer Specific Capacity of 0.056 l/s/m the total drawdown required to produce 1l/s is estimated at
20 m. Assuming water table depths in the region of approximately 30 m, the boreholes will require to be drilled
up to at least 50 m, and sited at least 80 m apart. All the boreholes operating together will deliver in excess of
the peak day demand.

Pumping system

It is proposed to pump water from the four boreholes by means of 1 kw electrically submersible pumps, through
short 50 mm diameter class 12 uPVC pipelines to a bifurcation, from where it will be delivered to a high level
distribution reservoir, through a 530 m long, 110 m diameter, Class 9 uPVC pipeline.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 66 of 217

The results of the network analysis of the raw water pumping system showing node pressures and pipe
diameters are illustrated in Figure 11.

Figure 12 Results of Mwami border post raw water pumping network analysis

Storage Reservoir

3
It is proposed to construct a 250 m brick reservoir at a high level location shown in Figure 10 to cater for 2 day
storage requirements, based on the 2025 average water demand.

Distribution Mains

Water will gravitate from the storage reservoir into a distribution network, designed to cater for peak hourly
demand. The layout of the network will promote densification of housing developments by utilising infills as
people seek to locate their homes within serviced areas. Based on the estimated projected water demand, the
distribution network will cater for growth within the existing infill areas up to 2025.

Components of the proposed network, shown in Figure 13 below, are as follows:

1. 300 m long, 110 mm diameter class 6 gravity mains reducing to a 150 m long 63 mm diameter class 6
pipeline which terminates at a bifurcation in the vicinity of the main road.
2. A 1,370 m long main stem running parallel to the main road comprising of 63 mm diameter Class 6 uPVC
and 40 mm diameter Class 6 sections.
3. A 500 m long 40 mm 63 mm diameter branch line feeding the lager demand Zone 3 and Kiosk No 3.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 67 of 217

The lay out of the distribution mains is shown on the Google Earth image Figure 11.

Figure 13 Results of Mwami border post distribution network analysis

Water Kiosks

It is proposed to construct four water kiosks for the sale of water to unconnected households. The distribution of
the kiosks is show in Figure 11. Each kiosk will be directly connected to the network, with provisions for the
metering of water used. In order to enhance the commercial operation of the service, each Kiosk will be
equipped with shelving to

Permits and authorisations for ground-water extraction

The Zambian Government did in April 2011 give assent to the Water Resources Management Act No 21 of
2011 which establishes the Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) and defines its functions and
powers; provides for the management, development, conservation, protection and preservation of the water
resources and their ecosystems; provides for the equitable, reasonable and sustainable utilisation of the water
resource and ensure the right to draw or take water for domestic and non-commercial purposes. With regard to
permits for water extraction it states that the appropriate authority shall not issue or grant any licence, permit or
other authorisation for the doing of any activity by any person, in any catchment or on, or along, a water
resource, before the appropriate authority first consults as to whether the issuing or the grant of any licence,
permit or other authorisation will affect the resource quality or quantity of water in any water resource.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 68 of 217

To date the WRMA is still in the process of developing the appropriate tools and other relevant procedures,
which are to be used to regulate groundwater extraction, which will be instituted through issuance of a statutory
instrument to support the prevailing legislative instrument. The regulatory provisions once effected will be fully
complied with in this project.

Permits and authorisations for provision of water supply and sanitation services

The Water Supply and Sanitation Act No 28 of 1997 provides for the establishment of the National Water Supply
and Sanitation Council (NWASCO), which is the supreme regulatory body for water supply and sanitation
service provision. NWASCO’s functions include;

 Licensing of all service providers

 Issuance of service level guidelines, setting performance standards and to monitor the performance
of the service providers

These requirements will be fully complied with, as the service delivery process will be through the EWSC, which
is already licenced by NWASCO.

Sanitation Design

Existing systems in place

The principal mode of sanitation in the project area consist mainly of pit latrines which account for 80% of
existing facilities, with the balance of 11% and 4% comprising VIPs and water borne systems respectively. Of
particular concern, is the plight of travellers crossing the border post who do not have designated safe
sanitation.

Proposed interventions

It is proposed to construct a public ablution facility for use by travellers crossing the border. The ablution block
will consist of toilets, shower and laundry facilities, which will be separate for males and females, designed to
cater for a maximum of 200 travellers. Sewage treatment will be by means of a septic tank, designed to be
emptied every 3 years. The sludge will be discharged into sewage ponds located at the nearest town with
sewage treatment facilities, such as the provincial capital of Chipata

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 69 of 217

Figure 14 shows the layout of the ablution block.

Figure 14 Proposed layout of ablution block at Mwami Border Post

The facility will be under delegated management. Charges will be levied for the use of ablution facilities by
travellers, as a cost recovery measure to fund cleaning and water supply services.

Construction Options

The existing layout at Mwami border area demands that the infrastructure to service the area be constructed in
one single phase since the project area comprising mainly of dwelling houses is located parallel alongside the
main trunk road. Construction in phases will not be cost effective due to the relatively small size of the project
area. The main water supply lines will be constructed alongside the main road to service the existing and
proposed developments and provision will be made for any developer to connect to the main distribution lines
for an individual connection and also for the public access points (kiosks).

Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA)

Introduction

This project has been identified based on being one of the 12 Zambian border towns.

According to the residents interviewed, the Mwami area has experienced changes in weather patterns over the
years noticed mainly through reduction in rainfall and reduced rainfall seasons (Focus Group Discussion at
th
Mwami Border Post; 29 March, 2015). Most noticeable have been the drying up of wells within the area
signifying a lowering of the ground water table and the reduced size or expanse of the upper catchment area of

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 70 of 217

the Lutembwe river which originates in Mgambi village adjacent to the border area. Furthermore, the forest
cover in the area and surrounding hills has substantially reduced due to increased charcoal production to
service the rapidly growing Chipata district. Water scarcity has increased as there are few reliable access points
from which water for domestic use can be sourced.

Providing a reliable source of water to the Mwami community provides resilience to changes in climatic
conditions and is therefore provides assurance of sustainability post implementation of the project.

Wastage of water was identified as one factor that exacerbates water shortages in the supply area. The design
and operational and maintenance procedures incorporate water saving / reduction features:
 All water access points will be metered and the water consumed will be levied and paid for proportional
to the volume of water consumed.
 The quality of fixtures used for the network should be durable and robust to minimise malfunction and
therefore unnecessary water loss.
 The community through their representatives should also undergo awareness creation on the network
with emphasis on aspects that include vandalism, pilferage, water wastage, good hygiene practice and
standards, maintenance, latrine and septic tank construction etc.

The EWSC staff that shall oversee the operations should undergo training on operation and maintenance
procedures with emphasis on aspects such as water balances, water restrictions, response times, wear and
tear, stocking of critical replacement parts and septic tank construction.

Scope of Review

The scope of this Climate Resilience Risk Assessment (CCRA) review includes the following project
components and outcomes.

Climate risk screening on the following project components:

 Groundwater abstraction using boreholes
 Storage Reservoir
 Distribution network

Identification of resilience benefits of the following project outcomes:

 Provision of a reliable water supply system
 Provision of water and sanitation facility for the cross border population (communal ablution building)

Climate Vulnerability Mapping and Tool Indicators

Error! Reference source not found. presents the level of the climate vulnerability indicators for the Mwami
(Chipata) Water Supply project area according to the climate vulnerability assessment tool. For some indicators
a range is presented, which reflects the differences in vulnerability amongst sites. Further guidance on the
meaning of the indicators is presented in Appendix C.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 71 of 217

 4
Table 18 Mwami WSS - Climate Vulnerability Indicators (from website )

Indicator Outcome

Future risks to people 5. Moderate High

Water risk under climate change 5. High

Climate change pressure 4. High

Baseline risks to people 3. Medium

Resilient population 4. High

Population density 656 (people per km2)

Household and community resilience Groundwater stress 0.57 Moderately more resilient

Groundwater stress No data

Upstream storage No major reservoirs

Drought severity 2. Low to Medium (20-30)

Flood FREQ MINM

Seasonal variability 5. Extremely High (>1.33)

Inter-annual variability 3. Medium to High (0.5 to 0.75)

Baseline Water Stress 1. Low (<10%)

CRIDF Basin ZAMBEZI

Regional Climate Projections

The project falls within Region 1 (refer Appendix C), and the expected impacts associated with this region are
presented in Error! Reference source not found..

4 The CRIDF Climate Vulnerability Assessment is available online at: [Link]

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 72 of 217

Table 19 Mwami WSS - Climate projections for project area

Climate change Impacts

trend / parameter

By 2025 By 2055

Precipitation Continuing trend of seasonal and interannual variability Continuing trend of seasonal and interannual variability in precipitation,
variability in precipitation. A transition zone between areas where decreased winter rainfall and increased aridity, in combination with wind
the annual rainfall is more likely to increase (to the north) gustiness, drying out of seasonal wetlands/pans and ephemeral rivers.
and more likely to decrease (to the south). Any changes Variability in particular at boundary with southernmost extent of intertropical
are most likely (but not definitively) in the range −10% to convergence zone (ITCZ). A transition zone between areas where the
+10%. The possibility of increased rainfall rises with annual rainfall is more likely to increase (to the north) and more likely to
higher emissions. decrease (to the south). Any changes are most likely (but not definitively) in
the range −10% to +10%. The possibility of decreased rainfall is higher than
around 2025. Water supply is challenged by increased temperatures (and
associated evaporation), and more erratic rainfall patterns, leading to
vulnerability of perennial river systems and decreased level of the
groundwater table.

Temperature Continuing trend of increased mean annual air Continuing trend of increased MAAT, aridity trend will reinforce decreased
o
variability temperature (MAAT). Likely increase of MAAT by 0.5 C humidity especially under more erratic seasonal precipitation regimes;
to 1.5°C, but lower/higher values cannot be excluded; increased heatwaves; increased thunderstorm activity, heatwaves. Likely
o
some increase in length of warm spells and reduced increase of MAAT by 0.5 C to 3.0°C, but lower/higher values not excluded;
frequency of cold periods. almost certain increase in length of warm spells and reduced frequency of
cold periods.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 73 of 217

Climate change Impacts
trend / parameter

By 2025 By 2055

Extreme events More erratic precipitation and temperature regimes, More erratic precipitation and temperature regimes, resulting in an
resulting in some likely increase in extreme increased likelihood of extreme flood/drought events, both in severity and
flood/drought events. duration. This will have a multiplier effect in increasing vulnerabilities to
other risk events and thus result in wider likely impacts.

Agriculture Food insecurity arising from political instability across Increased overall drying trend and decreased winter rains result in
the region and challenges to both food production and decreased food production in total and land surface degradation and soil
supply, climatic instability. erosion due to increased aridity and soil moisture loss. Deforestation and
loss of biodiversity an increasing issue. Aridification and spread of sand
dunes in Sahelian areas. Rain-fed agriculture will be likely less reliable in
many areas and irrigated agriculture will become more significant, but this
poses problems for famers’ access to technology, investment and training
(including provision of GM seeds).

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 74 of 217

CCRA Results

Climate Risks

The project comprises of a number of physical infrastructure components, that were identified and screened at a
high level against a series of relevant climatic threats for the area such as flooding, drought and fire. A
summary of the outcome of the process in terms of climate risks is presented in Error! Reference source not
found. along with a series of risk management options.

Resilience benefits

The project delivers a series of outcomes that enhance the resilience of project recipients to climate change. An
overview of the project’s outcomes along with a list of resilience benefits that the project delivers are presented
in Error! Reference source not found.. CCRA Conclusions

Conclusions

The Track 1 CCRA shows that the project brings a number of high resilience benefits to the project recipients
especially in relation to governance and livelihoods, gender and health. The review also identified a number of
risks in relation to the associated infrastructure and risk-mitigating actions which if implemented will improve the
resilience of the project itself to climate change risks.

Flood -The existing flood risk in the area is medium to high and is likely to intensify with future climate change
impacts. The infrastructure that is at risk of flooding should be designed to firstly manage stormwater run-off
and secondly minimise the impact of flooding.

Drought - Drought is a known and recurrent issue in the area and is likely to intensify with climate change. This
could impact water abstractions in the area and this in turn could have systemic implications for the water
supply of the project area. Selection of borehole sites and the drilling of boreholes should address this aspect
during construction.

Recommendations

The project should address the specific future changes in precipitation due to climate change as projected by
climate models. Furthermore institutional strengthening of the water and sewerage supply company, which can
address long terms aspects like water conservation, demand management and reduction of non-revenue water,
could influence the volume of water required to supply the town. Climate projections should be shared and
discussed with local stakeholders by the project team to explore future and alternative risk mitigation options.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 75 of 217

Table 20 Mwami WSS - Climate Risk Matrix

Project component Flood Drought Fire Risk mitigation options

Provision of a Low: Flooding is unlikely to Medium: Prolonged drought Low: Fire is unlikely to The boreholes will be positioned in
reliable water impact water distribution can reduce recharge rate of impact water distribution the best geo-hydrological are to
supply system network groundwater aquifers and network improve the sustainable borehole
volumes of sustainable yield yield. Boreholes will also be drilled
to a deeper level, if this will improve
the long term drought resilience.
Provision of water Medium: Flooding could Low: Drought is unlikely to Medium: Fire could destroy The design of the communal
and sanitation damage the communal impact the communal the communal ablution ablution building will need to take
facility for the ablution building and could ablution buildings. building. flooding and fire into account, in
cross border also flood the septic tank. terms of selection of materials,
population positioning away from flammable
(communal materials / bushes / trees and flood
ablution building) resistance of the septic tank.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 76 of 217

Table 21 Mwami WSS - Climate Resilience Benefits Matrix

Project component Livelihoods Safety Health Governance Gender Education Environment

Reduced water Medium: Less Low: No Medium: Low: No Medium: Low: No Low: No
losses and water supply significant Reduces the risk significant Women tend to significant significant
improved water interruptions benefits of cross- benefits fetch water in benefits benefits
security reduces time for contamination case of
fetching water from on-site interruptions in
and enables sanitation female headed
more productive systems households
activities
Reduced time for Medium: Low: Some Low: No Low: No High: Women High: Children Low: No
collection of water Reduced time benefit due to significant significant typically collect are also significant
for collection of higher visibility benefits benefits water for the responsible for benefits
water – of kiosks and entire family, water collection
providing more shorter time in reduced time – reduced time
time for risk areas. allows time for equals more
productive other activities time for studies
activities.
Improved water Medium: Low: No Medium: Low: No High: Women High: Children Low: No
quality - reduced Reduced time significant Reduced time significant typically collect are also significant
incidence of and cost dealing benefits and cost dealing benefits water for the responsible for benefits
waterborne disease with health with health entire family, water collection
issues - issues - reduced time – reduced time
providing more providing more allows time for equals more
time for time for other activities time for studies

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 77 of 217

Project component Livelihoods Safety Health Governance Gender Education Environment
productive productive
activities. activities.
Improved revenue Low: No Low: No Low: No High: An Low: No Low: No Low: No
stream, system significant significant significant improved system significant significant significant
management and benefits benefits benefits will boost benefits benefits benefits
customer revenue and
satisfaction willingness to
pay

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 78 of 217

Operation and Maintenance

Operation and Maintenance Plan

The overriding objective is to deliver improved, reliable and sustainable services to Mwami Border Town.

It is widely recognised that Operation and Maintenance (O&M) services are essential for providing long term
reliable services. Therefore neglect of this discipline will lead to inefficient and poor services, a reduced life of
capital assets and loss or reduction of revenue. Integral to achieving adequate O&M is an efficient and cost
effective O&M Plan, implemented by EWSC.

EWSC is currently not involved in the O&M of the Mwami Border Post, but due to the proximity of the area to
Chipata, Mwami will be managed and operated from Chipata. This ensures an overarching efficiency and
economy by sharing resources and expertise. It is envisaged that only a limited EWSC presence will be
required to operate the new Mwami water supply and sanitation system. The operations will be based on
kiosks and communal ablution blocks, using an outsourced individual vendor model. The maintenance will be
done from Chipata, utilising existing maintenance staff.

The Institutional Assessment highlights that there is currently not a satisfactory O&M Plan in place. EWSC
should be assisted with preparing such a plan, possibly through knowledge sharing between EWSC and
Southern Water and Sewerage Company (SWSC), who does have a reasonably comprehensive O&M Plan in
place.

The O&M Plan can be used as a tool to manage the activities of the entire O&M department, which can assist
in planning, allocation of adequate O&M budget, continuous improvement of procedures and identification of
recurring problems.

Further information and recommendations relating to sustainability of EWSC and the new water and sanitation
systems in Mwami is captured under the Institutional Assessment.

The Current O&M Situation

Currently the only water supply infrastructure is three boreholes. No preventative maintenance is done on
these systems, however it is reported that the community does contribute to the cost of repairs.

The maintenance of on-site sanitation facilities is currently for the owner or institution.

O&M Cost Estimate

The fact that the infrastructure provided in Mwami will be new and that no history of O&M budgeting exists for
Mwami, it is proposed that the initial budget be based on a percentage of the total capital spend. It, should,
however, be noted that unfortunately there is no simple formula that can be applied across the board with
respect to maintenance planning.

Furthermore it should be noted that the maintenance cycle for each asset is not static each year. Typically the
maintenance cycle requires the following components:

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 79 of 217

  Normal annual preventative maintenance;

 Emergency maintenance, like water pipe bursts or damage due to a severe storm event;

 Periodic refurbishment, say every 5 to 7 years to enhance the infrastructure design life (e.g. repair of
concrete structures, corrosion protection).

Therefore once the system is operational, more detailed budgeting should be applied.

For a simple system like Mwami, 5% as an initial target should be sufficient to cover the operation and the
5
maintenance cost. This is based on South African maintenance budgeting guidelines , and although the
guideline is only for maintenance, the typical range for most water and sanitation infrastructure is 4 – 8%. The
payment of kiosk / communal ablution block operator's will increase the operational cost of the scheme.

Therefore based on the capital cost estimate, the estimated O&M cost is £15,037 per annum.

Capital Cost Estimates

Cost estimates for the above proposed works were undertaken based on the preliminary technical
assessment outlined above. It is assumed that the expected borehole yields from the development of the
aquifer east of the border post will be realised. There will be a need to confirm these yields through
geophysical investigations.

A summary of preliminary cost estimate is given in Error! Reference source not found..

Table 22 Estimate of Capital Costs

Cost Estimate
US$ £
Allow for 20% Contractor's P&Gs 66,038 43,585
Investigation and Development of groundwater source 28,000 18,480
Raw water delivery system 93,044 61,409
Storage Reservoirs 47,476 31,334
Distribution Network 77,385 51,074
Water Kiosks 13,000 8,580
Sanitation facilities 71,283 47,047
Subtotal Cost 396,226 261,509
Add 15% contingencies 59,434 39,226
TOTAL PROJECT COST 455,660 300,735

5
National Infrastructure Maintenance Strategy (NIMS), 'Infrastructure Maintenance Budgeting Guideline', CIDB.

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Procurement of Goods and Services

The Zambia Public Procurement Authority (ZPPA) is the single entity empowered by law to REGULATE
Institutional Tender Committees which EWSC has by law established as it is owned by government through
its shareholders the local authorities.

With the reforms implemented by ZPPA, approved entities do not need to submit requests for approval. ZPPA
instead assesses the procuring entities i.e. capacity (staff and systems) to undertake public procurement.
Once this is done, the entity is authorized to procure the required goods and services and that, there is no
need to go back for approval (except for special cases such as a single source procurement). ZPPA also
provides guidance on procedures and standard solicitation documents that procuring entities can use. They
do however undertake random inspections to verify if an entity follows or is in adherence to the established
procedures.

The flow diagram for public procurement is illustrated in Figure 15.

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 Identification of need by user
department

Preparation of complete, precise

and unambiguous specifications

Preparation of realistic cost

estimates

Raising of purchase requisition by

user department (Non-Stock
Material)

Procurements with an Procurements with an estimated Procurements with an estimated

estimated value below value between ZMW50,000 and value above ZMW 500,000 but
ZMW 50,000 ZMW 500,000 to ZMW 20million

Invitation and receipt of

Request and receipts of Invitation and receipts of
tenders (4 weeks for NCB)
Quotations (1 week) Proposals/quotations (2 weeks)
(6 weeks for ICB)

Appointment of technical Appointment of technical

Quotation analysis and
evaluation committee and evaluation committee and
approval (1 week)
evaluation of bids received evaluation of bids received
(2 weeks) (3 weeks)

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 Order preparation and Submission of report for Submission of report for
approval (1 week) approval by Procurement approval by the
Committee (2 weeks) Procurement committee
(2weeks)

Notification to the
successful bidder await
Award of Tender Notification of bidders
delivery
and contract prior to award of
signing (1 week) contract ( 2 weeks)

Award of Tender and

Contract Management
contract signing (2 weeks)

Contract Management Contract Management

Figure 15 Procurement of Goods and Services – Flow Diagram

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Environmental Assessment
Introduction
The study reported herein aimed at analysing of the environmental situation of the project site with respect to
the implementation of the proposed water supply and sanitation project. The purpose of this report is therefore
to objectively assess and evaluate likely environmental and socioeconomic impacts that could result from the
implementation of the projects and propose mitigation or enhancement measures for the impacts.

Limitations and Assumptions

The project site, being away from the main district and being a small area presented a challenge in terms of
data availability especially on environmental baseline conditions. No baseline data specific to the project site
exists. As such, for all meteorological and climatological data, it was assumed that the data for Chipata District
applies to this area. Preparation of the Environmental Screening Report (ESR) involved a number of activities
which were designed to respond to the objects of the (ESR). A methodology was devised to respond to the
objectives and it predominantly addressed aspects of data collection and analysis. A summary description of
the methodology is presented in the sections below.

Literature Review/Desk Study

Literature review comprised one of the most important activities in this study and was the main source of
information. The activity involved collecting and analysing literature from publications, documents and the
internet. The aim of this activity was to:

 Collect and documented data on all aspects of the project;

 Review in detail any existing studies on the project area related to the project (e.g. Deliverable D01:
Outline Business Case for Water and Sanitation Project in Mwami, Zambia);

 Review of environmental and other relevant legislation, environmental and social quantitative and/or
qualitative surveys/studies;

 Review of technical documents related to the field of water supply and sanitation; and

 Study the ZEMA environmental laws and regulations.

Data Collection

Data collection was mainly through stakeholder interview and field surveys.

Stakeholder Interviews

Stakeholders like the Eastern Water Supply and Sanitation Company Limited (EWSC), Department of Water
Affairs (DWA) personnel, the Environmental Health Technician (EHT) stationed at Mwami Border post,

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representatives of the Paramount Chief (Mr. Zwangendaba Jere), the Ward Development Committee (WDC),
the Neighbourhood Health Committee (NHC) and other purposively selected informants were consulted on
various aspects concerned with water supply and sanitation in the project area.

Field Surveys

Field surveys involved driving and walking within the project area especially along and around sites
earmarked for lying of pipes, construction of water tanks and areas with potential to accommodate the well
fields. Observations on the closeness of existing structures to location of proposed infrastructure as well as
activities within the area that may be impacted upon by project activities were made. These observations
assisted in identifying ‘hot spots’ with respect to envisaged project impacts. As it is anticipated that the project
will make use of ground water, existing boreholes were sampled and analysed in order that the quality can be
determined and its suitability for the intended purpose evaluated.

Data analysis

Data analysis involved synthesizing the information collected from interviews, documents, interviews and
others to come up with the significance of the anticipated impacts. Significance of the envisioned impacts was
ranked by taking into consideration four main factors namely:-

i. Duration of the Impact: Which defines whether the impact is temporal or permanent;

ii. Spatial extent of the impact: Which defines the area to be affected by the impact;

iii. Severity of the Impact: Which is the severity/beneficial or simply the state or extent of the badness of
the impact. It takes into consideration among other things, sensitivity of the area being impacted
upon; and

iv. The likelihood of occurrence: Which looks at the probability of the impact occurring and frequency of
occurrence where it occurs.

The four criteria above are ranked with scores assigned to each as presented in Error! Reference source not
found.. To come up with the overall significance of the impact, the total scores recorded for the ‘effect’ and
‘likelihood’ are read off from the matrix table presented in Error! Reference source not found. and Error!
Reference source not found.. A summary of the scores and overall rating for each of the impacts identified in
this study is given in Error! Reference source not found., Error! Reference source not found. and Error!
Reference source not found.. Mitigation measures and Environmental and Social Management Plans (EMPs)
were designed based on the consultant’s understanding of the identified impacts coupled with the indigenous
knowledge and collected information about the project sites.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 85 of 217

Table 23 Ranking of evaluation criteria

DURATION OF IMPACT SCALE

Short Term Confined to construction phase 1

Medium Term Up to three years 2

Long Term 3 to 20 years 3

Permanent Above 20 years 4

SPACIAL EXTENT OF THE IMPACT

Localised At localised scale covering a few hectares 1

Study Area Project area including immediate environment 2

Regional District or provincial level 3

National Country level 4

International Beyond national boundaries 5

SEVERITY/BENEFICIAL

Slight 1

Moderate 2

Severe/beneficial 3
EFFECT

Very severe/beneficial 4

LIKELIHOOD OF OCCURENCE

Unlikely Will not Occur 1

May Occur There is a small chance of this impact 2

LIKELIHOOD

Possible The likelihood of this impact occurring is probable 3

Certain The likelihood is this impact will definitely occur 4

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Table 24 Description of overall significance ratings

SIGNIFICANCE DESCRIPTION SCORE RANGE

RATING

INSIGNIFICANT This refers to an impact with acceptable effects for which 4 to 7

mitigation is desirable but not essential. The impact by itself is
insufficient to prevent project approval. Effects from these
impacts do not go beyond medium term

MODERATE Impacts for which mitigation measures are required though 8 to 11

impact cannot prevent project approval. The impacts can
extend up to long term

SIGNIFICANT This is a serious impact which, if not mitigated, may prevent 12 to 14

project approval (if negative). These impacts can result in
major and usually long-term effects to the environment

VERY This is a very serious impact which if negative may, by itself, 15 to 17

SIGINIFICANT be sufficient to prevent project implementation. This type of
impact results in permanent change and usually have no
mitigation measures

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Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework

Introduction

Various pieces of legislation are pertinent to the proposed project and it is the intention of the developer, who
is the proponent of this project, to comply fully with all applicable legislation. Legislation which is particularly
relevant to the project and which plays a part in the way the project is planned, implemented and operated is
identified in this section in order to highlight areas of concern and to assist in the understanding of why certain
options are preferred over others. Various aspects of legislation including policy and administrative framework
have also been discussed.

The Policy Framework

National Policy on Environment

The National Policy on Environment (NPE) is the principal policy that coordinates environmental management
in Zambia. The NPE is designed to create a comprehensive framework for effective natural resource utilization
and environmental conservation which will be sensitive to the demands of sustainable development.

The NPE reinforces the strategy to capacitate the MLGH Department of Housing and Infrastructure
Development (DHID) and local authorities with adequate resources to rehabilitate and extend water supply
sewerage systems and other forms of sanitation and develop and manage solid waste systems.

National Water Policy

The National Water Policy is the overarching policy framework for the water and sanitation sector in Zambia.
The National Water Policy envisions “to optimally harness water resources for the efficient and sustainable
utilization of this natural resource to enhance economic productivity and reduce poverty”. The policy
encourages the use of water resources in an efficient and equitable manner consistent with the social,
economic and environmental needs of present and future generations.

Following the adoption of the National Water Sector Policy in 1994, the government implemented several
strategies, including:

 Peri-Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Strategy (2000): targets water supply and sanitation
services to urban low income communities, and;

 Community Water Supply and Sanitation Strategy (2000): primarily targets rural areas, but also
peri-urban areas.

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National Conservation Strategy

The National Conservation Strategy (NCS) formulated in 1985 has been the main policy document on the
Environment and Natural Resources in Zambia. The NCS was prepared by the Government to manage
natural resources and the environment in the context of a centrally planned and controlled economy. The
Strategy's main goal is to satisfy the basic needs of all the people of Zambia, both present and the future
generations, through the wise management of natural resources.

National Environmental Action Plan

The focus of the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) of 1994 is to identify environmental problems
and issues, analyse their causes, and recommend necessary interventions. The NEAP was prepared as a
comprehensive plan to contain the ever increasing environmental degradation in Zambia.

The NEAP is founded on three fundamental principles:

 the right of citizens to a clean and healthy environment;

 local community and private sector participation in natural resources management; and

 obligatory EIA of major development projects in all sectors.

National Biological Diversity Strategy and Action Plan

In May 1993 Zambia ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity and as part of the commitment to fulfil its
objectives; Zambia developed the National Biological Diversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), which was
finalized in 1998. Some of the main goals of the NBSAP are to:

 ensure the conservation of the full range of Zambia's natural ecosystems through a network of
protected areas;

 improve the legal and institutional framework and human resources to implement the
strategies for conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits from biodiversity
management; and

National Gender Policy

The government launched the revised National Gender Policy (NGP) in December 2014, which serves as a
gender mainstreaming institutional framework for government ministries. The revised NGP seeks to address
the persistent feminisation of poverty, rising gender dynamics in the HIV and AIDS pandemic, increased
incidences of gender-based violence, human trafficking, negative impact of climate change on women and
children, and increase of women in drug trafficking.

In order to resolve the problems pertaining to the provision of safe and clean water, and good sanitation which
affects women more than men, government has put the following measures in the National Gender Policy:
The Government will:

 promote and encourage the involvement of women in the decision making processes in the
provision of safe and clean water and improvement of sanitation facilities;

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  encourage partnerships between women and men in the provision of water and sanitation;

 ensure use of gender friendly technology in water supply and sanitation to all members of the
community especially persons with disabilities;

 devise a mechanism to ensure that water and sanitation facilities companies provide affordable,
clean, and safe water through a regulator; and

 establish investment mechanisms to ensure that water reticulation systems take into account
issues of hygiene to prevent water borne diseases.

Sixth National Development Plan

The Ministry of Finance and National Planning (MFNP) developed the Sixth National Development Plan
(SNDP), which contains a chapter on water and sanitation. The sector goal is “to achieve 75% accessibility to
reliable safe water and 60% adequate sanitation by 2015 in order to enhance economic growth and improve
the quality of life”. In order to achieve the SNDP objective of promoting sustainable water resources
development and sanitation, the strategic focus of the sector will be to provide water and sanitation
infrastructure and develop skills to ensure effective water resource management and the efficient provision of
reliable and safe water and sanitation services.

The National Environmental Laws and Regulations

The Environmental Management Act

The Environmental Management Act, 2011:

 provides for integrated environmental management and the protection and conservation of the
environment and the sustainable management and use of natural resources; and

 provides for the prevention and control of pollution and environmental degradation; provides
for public participation in environmental decision making and access to environmental
information.

Part IV of the Act makes provision for control of pollution (land, air and water, ozone depletion), the control of
general and hazardous waste and the conduct of EIA.

The Act states that a developer shall not implement a project for which a project brief or an environmental
impact statement is required, unless the project brief or an EIA has been concluded in accordance with the
Act and the ZEMA has issued a decision letter. The Act also provides for undertaking of an environmental
audit of the project.

Statutory Instrument No. 28

Statutory Instrument (SI) No. 28 under the Environmental Protection and Pollution Control (Environmental
Impact Assessment) Regulations, 1997 amongst other requirements sets down the detailed procedures for
the preparation of Environmental Project Briefs (EPBs) and Environmental and Social Impact Assessments
(ESIAs), consultations, approvals and monitoring.

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Water Supply and Sanitation Act

The Water Supply and Sanitation Act, 1997, provides for the establishment of the National Water Supply and
Sanitation Council (NWASCO), which acts as a regulator in the provision of water supply and sanitation
services. It mandates NWASCO to regulate the sector in a manner leading to improved delivery, efficiency
and sustainability. The Act requires NWASCO to disseminate information to the public on matters relating to
water supply and sanitation services.

Water Resources Management Act

The Water Resources Management Act, 2011, establishes the Water Resources Management Authority and
defines its functions and powers. The use, diversion and apportionment of all water shall be made in terms of
this Act. Any person may make an application to the Secretary of the Water Resources Management Authority
for permission to impound and store or divert water from a public stream for primary, secondary or tertiary
use, and the Water Board may grant such application on such terms and conditions as it may think fit provided
that any such grant is made with reasonable regard to the primary use of water and any existing rights lawfully
granted for any other purpose.

Public Health Act

The Public Health Act, 1995 (CAP 295) provides for the prevention and suppression of diseases in the general
public environment and has provisions for management of sanitation and prevention of pollution of water
bodies by local authorities. The Local Authority of any area is empowered by the Act to do and provide all
such acts, matters and things as may be necessary for mitigating any disease, or aiding in the execution of
regulations, or for executing the same, as the case may require.

National Health Services Act

The National Health Services Act (CAP 315) establishes the Central Board of Health and provides for the
procedures for establishing management boards for hospitals and health services. Where any Local Authority
fails to deal with any outbreak or prevalence of any infectious, communicable or preventable diseases, the
Board shall take over the function of the Local Authority in relation to public health and shall have all the
powers of such Local Authority as provided for under the Public Health Act.

Local Government Act

The Local Government Act (CAP 281) is the enabling legislation governing the establishment, powers and
operations of local administration and defines the functions of Local Authorities. Section 61 of the Act provides
legal authority for the functions of Councils to be discharged directly, by contract or by separate undertaking.
These functions are detailed in the Second Schedule, of which the following are particularly relevant to the
Project:

 to establish and maintain sanitary services for the removal and destruction of, or otherwise
dealing with, all kinds of refuse and effluent, and compel the use of such services;

 to establish and maintain drains, sewers and works for the disposal of sewage and refuse;
and

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  to require and control the provision of drains and sewers and to compel the connection of any
drains and sewers established by the council.

The Road Traffic Act

The Road Traffic Act (2002) establishes the Road Transport and Safety Agency (RTSA) and defines its
functions which include providing for a system of road safety and traffic management, licensing of drivers and
motor vehicles, registration of motor vehicles and trailers, licensing and control of public service vehicles,
promotion of road safety, and regulation of road transport between Zambia and other countries with which
Zambia has concluded cross-border road transport agreements.

Public Roads Act

The Public Roads Act (CAP 12) of 2002 established the Road Development Agency and defines its functions;
to provide for the care, maintenance and construction of public roads in Zambia. Section 56 regulates the
works of utility companies (undertakers) which includes works for buried pipelines and apparatus.

Registration and Development of Villages Act

The Registration and Development of Villages Act (CAP 289) provides for the registration of villages and of
the inhabitants thereof, and the establishment of Village Productivity Committees, Ward Councils and Ward
Development Committees (WDCs).

The WDC is the executive committee of the Ward Council, and shall be responsible for the administration and
development of the ward as a whole.

Lands and Deeds Act

The Lands and Deeds (Registry) Act provides for: the registration of documents; to provide for the issue of
Provisional Certificates of Title and Certificates of Title; and the transfer and transmission of registered land.

Lands Acquisition Act

Sections 3, 5 and 6 of the Lands Acquisition Act empower the President in the interests of the Republic to
acquire any property of any description and lay down the procedures whereby the Minister of Lands may do
so.

Land Conversions of Titles Act

The Land Conversions Title Act provides for the alienation, transfer and change of land. The Act also
provides for compulsory acquisition of land by the President whenever he is of the opinion that it is desirable
or expedient to do so in the interest of the Republic.

The Town and Country-Planning Act

The Town and Country Planning Act (CAP 283) provides for: the appointment of planning authorities; the
preparation, approval and revocation of development plans; the control of development and subdivision of
land; the assessment and payment of compensation in respect of planning decisions; and the preparation,
approval and revocation or modification of regional plans.

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Mwami Feasibility Report Page 93 of 217
National Heritage Conservation Commission Act

The National Heritage and Conservation Act of 1989 (CAP 173) is administered by the National Heritage
Conservation Commission (NHCC). The Act provides regulatory guidelines for the conservation of ancient,
cultural and natural heritage, relics and other objects of aesthetic, historical, prehistoric, archaeological or
scientific interest.

Forestry Act

The Forestry Act provides for promotion of methods for sustainability, conservation and preservation of
ecosystems and biological diversity in national forests, local forests and open areas.

Factories Act

The Factories Act (CAP 441) makes further and better provision for the regulation of the conditions of
employment in factories and other places as regards the safety, health and welfare of persons employed
therein and provides for the safety, examination and inspection of certain plant and machinery.

Occupational Health and Safety Act

The Occupational Health and Safety Act, 2010 establishes the Occupational Health and Safety Institute as a
body corporate with perpetual succession and defines its composition, powers, and functions. The Act
provides for the establishment of health and safety committees at work places and aims to provide for the
health, safety, and welfare of persons at work and persons who may face risks to health or safety arising from
the said work, and to establish the duties of manufacturers, importers, and suppliers of items for use at work.

Employment of Children and Young Persons Act

The Employment of Young Persons and Children Act (CAP 274) is the major legal instrument for the
protection and regulation of child labour. This Act prohibits the employment of a child under the age of 15 in
an industrial undertaking as defined under the Act.

Explosives Act

The Explosives Act (CAP 115) makes provision for regulatory control over the manufacture, use, possession,
storage, importation, exportation, transportation and destruction of explosives, and for related matters. Trench
excavations in this project may require the use of explosives in which case the use will have to conform to this
Act.

Petroleum Act

The Petroleum Act (CAP 435) regulates the importation, conveyance and storage of petroleum and other
inflammable oils and liquids. This project will require the use of petroleum products. Transportation, storage
and dispensing will have to abide by the stipulations in this Act

Energy Regulation Act

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The Energy Regulation Act (CAP 436) allows for the establishment of procedures for the transportation,
handling and storage of fuels to minimize negative environmental impacts. Transportation, handling and
storage of fuels will have to conform to this Act

Institutional framework of the project

Ministry of Local Government and Housing

The MLGH is the ministry most directly responsible for water supply and sanitation policy, technical and
financial supervision as well as resource mobilization from foreign and local sources. The DHID is located
within the MLGH and has the overall responsibility for planning, implementation, coordination and monitoring
of water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion.

Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water Development

The MEWD is responsible for initiating overall national water management policies and for setting national
standards and priorities for water development and management.

National Water and Sanitation Council

The NWASCO is a statutory body established by the Water Supply and Sanitation Act. According to the Act in
Clause 4, NWASCO is mandated to regulate the provision of water supply and sanitation services. The
NWASCO reports through the MEWD, this is in order to keep the regulatory function separate from the water
and sanitation implementation function housed under the MLGH.

Zambia Environmental Management Authority

The ZEMA is a statutory body established in 1992 and is mandated to protect the environment and control
pollution so as to provide for the health and welfare of persons, and the environment.

National HIV/AIDS/STI/TB Council

The National HIV/AIDS/STI/TB Council (NAC) was established in 2002 under the Ministry of Health to ensure
a focused and coordinated national response to HIV and AIDS. The NAC is expected to provide strategic
leadership by ensuring effective coordination of the HIV and AIDS related activities.

Eastern Water and Sewerage Company Ltd

The Eastern Water and Sewerage Company Ltd (EWSC) is owned by all the district councils in Eastern
province. The EWSC owns and operates water supply and sewerage assets in Chipata district under which
Mwami Border Post falls.

Chipata Municipal Council

The CMC is the governing local authority for the town of Chipata, deriving its authority from several Zambian
laws, but most immediately, Section 61 of the Local Government Act, which lists 63 functions of local
authorities. The CMC responsibilities include, but are not limited to:

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  provision and maintenance of supplies of clean water and the establishment of water works
and water mains;

 construction and maintenance of sanitary lines; and

 establishment and maintenance of sanitation and drainage systems to facilitate the removal of
refuse and effluent.

The two CMC departments most germane to the water supply context in the peri-urban, or unplanned urban
settlement, areas are the Planning Department and the Department of Housing and Social Services.

Community organisations and institutions

Both urban and peri-urban areas of Chipata are organized under Ward Development Committees (WDCs)
whose main responsibility is to oversee development projects in their respective areas. The WDCs are further
sub-divided into Zone Development Committees. WDC does not work in isolation, but undertakes activities in
collaboration with various Community Based organizations (CBOs) such as the Neighbourhood Health
Committee (NHC), the Water Committees and so on.

Project Description

Background

The over 2000 people at Mwami Border Post are without adequate water supply and access to sanitation is
also a challenge. The situation is exacerbated by the travelling public who end up with nowhere to seek these
facilities. This is a recipe for enteric and hygiene related disease outbreaks. Being a border town, such
outbreaks may easily get transmitted to the bordering country.

Water Supply and Sanitation Situation

Mwami border relies on boreholes for its water supply. There are three boreholes that service the population
while the Zambia Revenue Authority (ZRA) has its own borehole. A few households, especially those that are
being constructed recently, have managed to sink boreholes. The water sources are inadequate especially for
those drawing from the common boreholes. The situation was reported to be even worse in the dry season as
the water quantity in the boreholes reduces. This forces people, especially women and children, to spend a lot
of time to draw water.

In terms of sanitation, excreta disposal within the project area is predominantly through traditional pit latrines
which account for about 85%. The rest is through water borne systems and Ventilated Improved Pit latrines
(VIPs) accounting for 11% and 4% respectively. This is according to data from the EHT. However, these
facilities mostly serve the residents and the border workforce. Travellers, especially truck drivers do not have
th
access to facilities. From the FGDs held on 4 April 2015, two issues were voiced out concerning truckers as
follows:

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  Truckers have a challenge with bathing and laundry when they get marooned at the border. This forces
them to seek toilet facilities from nearby homes where they are made to pay for the services. It was
stated that they pay about K5 each time such services are provided; and

 Whereas during day time the marooned truckers may seek toilets from nearby homes, in the night,
they sometimes use nearby areas which are just along the roads. This poses a health risk to both the
residents as well as travellers including the truckers themselves.

There are no services on excreta management in this area from the local authority leaving all issues related to
excreta treatment and disposal as a matter to be handled by residents themselves and individual institutions.
Without a defined management structure for excreta disposal at the site, a lot of challenges arise. Firstly, the
travelling public is inconvenienced. Secondly, when excretion is done indiscriminately, the public health of the
communities in the area is put at risk. Thirdly, small children are sometimes forced to go and draw water in
order to provide the “bathing services” to truckers which may have negative impacts especially with respect to
school attendance by these children.

Project Objectives and Justification

The main objective of this project is to improve the water supply and sanitation status of the project area in
order that water borne diseases and those that are associated with hygiene related to water supply and
sanitation are prevented. This is an important project as it will lead to improved socioeconomic status of the
community. The hygiene levels of both the community as well as the travelling public will be improved due to
this project.

Main project activities

Activities during the preparation stage

This project has two main distinct activities as follows:

 Construction of a water supply system which will involve the development of the source,
construction of the reticulation system and storage facilities; and

 Construction of an ablution block together with the associated septic tank and soakaway.

For both water and sanitation systems, the only anticipated activity during the preparation phase is
mobilization involving securing of camp sites (if these will be required) for workers and storage facilities for
materials.

Activities during the construction stage

For the water supply system, activities during the construction phase will include the following:

 Setting out according to the design

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  Grubbing and site clearing

 Borehole drilling and equipping;

 Transportation of equipment and materials (e.g. pipes and pumps)

 Construction of the distribution system, which will involve laying of pipes. This will require
excavations which may require blasting where pipes pass in rocky areas;

 Construction of the storage facilities;

 Construction of pumping stations.

 Haulage of waste from construction sites

 Use of hydrocarbons including fuel and oils for transportation vehicles, plant and machinery

 Construction of camp sites

 Employment of required labour force

For the sanitation part, activities will include:

 Setting out according to the design;

 Grubbing and site clearing;

 Trenching; and

 Transportation of building materials (i.e. blocks, cement, fittings etc.)

Activities during the operation stage

For the water supply systems, activities during the operation phase will be confined to water abstraction from
the boreholes, treatment (chlorination) and distribution. For the sanitation component, the only major activity in
this phase will be the desludging of the sludge from the septic tank.

Construction Phase

During the construction phase, the following will be the raw materials:-

 Water supply pipes of varying sizes;

 Plumbing fittings for the sanitation facility;

 Building construction materials for the toilet (e.g. cement, sand, blocks, roofing materials, etc.);

 Fuel;

 Pumps; and

 Steel for construction of storage facility

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The expected waste products in this phase will mainly include rubble and excess spoil from construction
activities.

Operational Phase

Raw materials in the operation phase will mainly the water treatment chemicals (chlorine). No waste products
are expected from the water supply system. For the sanitation system, no raw materials are anticipated in the
operation phase. Sludge will be the only waste product.

Materials

Raw Materials

The project’s life cycle will comprise the construction and operation phases. The raw and other materials and
waste products for each of these phases are presented below.

Products and by products

The envisaged products from this project include an adequate water supply system satisfying the needs of
both the residents and the travelling public and an ablution block which will respond to the needs of the
travelling public.

Environmental and Social Baseline Conditions

Introduction

The environmental and social baseline conditions of the study area are presented in this chapter. The
methodology used to collect information presented in this section has already been discussed in earlier
sections of this report.

The Physical environment

Ecology

The project sites are within the developed areas of Mwami Border and most of the project activities will be
confined to this area. These areas, being already developed are devoid of flora and fauna of ecological
significance. The area mostly comprises housing units with small gardens/fields occupying the empty spaces
(Figure 16).

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Figure 16 Images of the project site showing degree of disturbance to the natural flora

Geology

There is no comprehensive geological data for the project site. However, data from a borehole reports
indicates that the site is on an area of variable geological formation. Top soil covers the first one meter below
which is clay and sandstone. The clay and sandstone sits on schists, which in turn rest on the granitic-
quartzite formation. In some cases, the clay sandstone extends to well below 40m.

Air quality

The project site is devoid of limited industrial activities hence there is no industry related air pollution. For
areas located away from the highway, traffic volume is low hence pollution due to emissions from motor
vehicles is also low. However, along the road, pollution from motor vehicles normally results from the
combustion of petrol and diesel fuels. Pollutants from these sources include hydrocarbons (HCs) and
Benzopyrene, Particulate Matter (PM), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Oxides of Sulphur (SO X) and Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOX).

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Indoor air pollution resulting from the use of charcoal and other wood fuels obviously affects residents
especially in areas where charcoal and wood are the main sources of energy. Almost all rural type of housing
units in the area are not connected to electricity and are therefore susceptible to this type of pollution. The
fuels emit PM, HCs, CO, SOX and NOX. The effects of prolonged exposure to these emissions on humans are
Acute Respiratory Infections (ARIs).

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Figure 17 Example of rural housing units within the project site not connected to electricity

It is also expected that the area faces air pollution from non-combustive sources mainly in the form of dust.
Due to absence of vegetation cover in most areas and the sandy nature of the area, it is expected that this
type of pollution is a major issue especially during the months of August and September, which are windy.

Water quality

The project area has no surface water bodies in its immediate vicinity. The only river, located about two
kilometres east of the site is the Lutembwe River. However, several boreholes exist within and around the
project site. Water samples collected and analysed from three boreholes revealed ground water quality of
acceptable standards with respect to potable water. Iron and manganese, which are usually a problem with
groundwater, were all below the threshold values. All heavy metals analysed (Copper, Zinc and Arsenic) were
below detection limits.

Hydrogeology

The project area lies in an area of variable Hydrogeological characteristics. Borehole yields are reported to
range between 0.7l/s to about 1.5 l/s.

Topography

Mwami Border lies at the foot of the hills on the western side whilst the other mountain range is about 4km
away on the eastern side. The area slopes eastwards towards the headwaters of the Lutembwe River located
about 2km east of the site.

The Potential Environmental Impacts

Introduction

This section presents the environmental impacts expected from the proposed project. The impacts were
assessed from the changes likely to be brought about by the project activities on baseline environmental and

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 102 of 217

social conditions. The impacts are discussed under separate headings namely common impacts; water supply
related impacts; and sanitation related impacts. The common impacts are those that apply to both projects
while those that are specific to each of the two projects are discussed under the respective heading. At the
end of the section, all the impacts discussed are summarised in Error! Reference source not found., Error!
Reference source not found. and Error! Reference source not found..

The definitions of the terms used in the Tables are explained in Error! Reference source not found. . The
summary explains whether the impact is direct, indirect, reversible, irreversible and/or cumulative. Their
significance with respect to the design of the water supply and sanitation components is also discussed.

Positive impacts common to the water supply and sanitation projects

The general environmental impacts associated with the implementation of both the water supply and the
sanitation components of the Mwami Water Supply and Sanitation project which may result in changes on the
environmental and socioeconomic conditions are discussed below. Many of these activities are those that are
always associated with construction activities on a civil engineering construction site. The activities that will
result in these common impacts have already been outlined in the preceding sections, which include: delivery
of construction materials; haulage of waste from construction sites; use of hydrocarbons including fuel and oils
for transportation vehicles, plant and machinery; clearing of vegetation; and construction of camp site. Based
on these activities, impacts have been identified which are presented in two different categories namely socio-
economic and environmental impacts.

Socio-economic impacts

Employment opportunities

The execution of the projects will require employment of different professionals and casuals at all the different
phases of the project. Firstly, there will be creation of job opportunities to the consultants. After the designs, a
contractor will be engaged who will employ people for the various aspects of the construction works. The
employment may also provide skills and work experience that can lead to long term employment.

Increased revenue base for the water utility (EWSC)

Implementation of the water supply and sanitation projects will result in increased revenue base for the utility.
Revenue will be generated from fees for using the ablution block as well as from water tariffs.

Environmental impacts

There are no anticipated positive environmental impacts common to both projects

Socio-economic impacts

Destruction of fields either temporarily or permanently

Construction works, especially if carried out during the rainy season may lead to destruction of fields. This is
especially the case for sites where boreholes, tanks and pipe routes will be located.

Impacts associated with worker campsite

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Campsites are associated with a number of impacts. Firstly, if constructed from poor quality materials, they
may be an aesthetic hazard. If inappropriately sited, the camps may disrupt the local communities and lead to
pollution of water sources. They may also pose health hazards to workers if not properly drained especially
where the excreta disposal facilities are on-site like pit latrines as the storm water may flood the area leading
to excreta and storm water mixing. This can lead to pollution of both surface and ground water sources.
Lastly, if left standing after the construction works, the campsites may serve as hiding places for people
involved in illicit activities.

Temporary disruption of pedestrian and traffic movement

During construction, there will be excavations and earthworks along the roads and within the residential area.
Where the pipes cut across the roads, it will be necessary to close the road. This may disrupt pedestrian and
traffic flow. In cases where the pipe trenches are dug in front of households, access to these properties will be
restricted.

Increased child labour

The proposed water supply and sanitation projects may lead to contracted construction workers sometimes
subcontracting under-aged children to work for them which may lead to adverse effects on the minors like
injuries, sexual and physical abuse, and school absenteeism.

Damage/disruption to adjacent services

The project may result in damage or disruption of adjacent services. Although the area has limited services,
there are possibilities of excavation works damaging telephone lines and the optic fibre cables which in most
cases are buried underground. Therefore, excavation activities may lead to damage and consequently,
disruption of some services.

Disruption and/or destruction of sites having archaeological or historical values

Construction activities in this project can lead to disruption and/or destruction of sites having archaeological or
historical value. This is especially so for activities involving excavations. However, most of the proposed works
in this project are within the already developed area.

Spread of sexually transmitted disease by migrant workforce

During the construction phase, there will be an increase in employment opportunities directly and indirectly
arising from these projects. Firstly, standards of living for people who will be employed by the project will be
raised due to income mostly in form of wages. Secondly, some people will be forced to relocate from their
normal places of residence. This situation may potentially result in casual sexual behavior among workers and
between workers and the inhabitants of the surrounding communities. This may lead to increased incidences
of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS infections.

Noise and vibrations arising from construction activities

During construction, noise may be caused by the operation of construction equipment, installation of
equipment and machinery, and transportation of equipment, materials and people. Noise often causes
discomfort, pain and noise-induced hearing loss. Similarly, vibrations will arise from machinery and equipment

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 104 of 217

that will be used in construction works. Vibrations may be excessive for borehole drilling activities as well as
where explosives may also be used (like in cases where the proposed pipes pass through rocky areas where
excavations may only be possible through the use of explosives). Vibrations can damage buildings (e.g.
causing cracks especially to weak structures like the ones that dominate the project site), affect vibration-
sensitive machinery or equipment, disturb, annoy and affect person’s ability to work.

Risks arising from blasting activities

The construction of the proposed water supply and sanitation infrastructure may require blasting (i.e. in rocky
areas) which may involve the use of explosives to excavate the rocks. The risks associated with blasting
include fly-rock, splinters and debris which may injure community members, construction workers and
animals. Damage to buildings, trees and other objects may occur. Blasting also causes vibrations whose
effects have been discussed in the preceding section. Damage to property can lead to litigations and delays in
execution of work.

Explosives left undetonated at a blast site may injure or kill people especially children. Explosives which are
dropped on the ground or left undetonated in the ground can also result in chemicals leaching into ground and
surface water.

The noise associated with blasting can startle people in the neighbourhood as well as cause impacts as has
already been discussed. Noise caused by blasting can lead to death especially for people suffering from
hypertension. Blasting can also cause dust accumulation. The magnitude of all the blasting related impacts
depends on the closeness of the blasting activities to the communities.

Injury or/and loss of life

During the construction phase, accidents may occur resulting in injuries, disability and loss of life. Accidents
may involve employees working on the project, motorists and pedestrians and in some cases trespassers.

Danger of people and traffic falling into excavated trenches

In most areas where construction will take place, disruption of pedestrian and traffic movements will occur.
Laying of pipes requires trenching. The trenches have the potential of increasing accidents; either pedestrians
or traffic can fall into them. This impact will be higher in busier areas like the area just around the border
where pedestrian and traffic movement is more.

Danger of excavation related accidents like trench collapse

Trenches for water supply pipes and septic tank and soakaway may result in accidents. During deep
excavations, if no appropriate safety measures are taken, there is a danger that the trenches can collapse.
This may result in injuries and fatalities.

Danger arising from use of access equipment such as ladders and scaffolds

During construction of some infrastructure like the storage and distribution water tanks and the ablution block,
people will be required to work off ground. This will make the use of ladders and scaffolds unavoidable. This
will result in danger of workers falling from heights which can result in injuries and fatalities.

Traffic safety

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Construction activities will lead to increased traffic movement in the area resulting from transportation of the
work force as well as materials that will be required. This may lead to increased road traffic related accidents
in the project area.

Occupation Health and safety

Over-exertion, and ergonomic injuries and illnesses, slips and falls, fall of materials or tools are some of the
accidents expected on construction sites like the water supply and sanitation sites. Vehicle traffic and use of
lifting equipment in the movement of machinery and materials on a construction site may pose temporary
hazards. Confined spaces and excavations which are associated with pipe laying also pose occupational
health and safety hazards such as suffocation. Construction sites may pose a risk of exposure to dust,
chemicals, hazardous or flammable materials, and wastes in a combination of liquid, solid, or gaseous forms.

Community health and safety

General site hazards include risks that may arise from inadvertent or intentional trespassing, including
potential contact with hazardous materials, contaminated soils and other environmental media, buildings that
are vacant or under construction, or excavations and structures which may pose falling and entrapment
hazards.

Explosion and fire from fuel storage

The proposed project will require the use of petroleum products. It may also require on-site storage and
handling of fuel. This will pose a risk of explosion and fires as the liquid is flammable.

Soil compaction from construction vehicles and equipment

Movement of vehicles and plant equipment during construction will compact the soil thereby changing its
characteristics. This may result in reduced vegetation growth and groundwater recharge.

Soil erosion from clearing of vegetation and movement of soil

Construction activities will inevitably result in soil loosening and movement (e.g. excavations that will be
required in digging trenches for the pipes). Loosened soil including slopes and stockpiles of earth material
may easily be eroded by wind, rain, surface runoff, water and movement of vehicles and equipment.
Excessive erosion may lead to destruction of roads and may lead to problems with water quality of receiving
water bodies which in this case is the Lutembwe River. This silt may eventually end up in the dams on the
river located downstream where it would accelerate the silting of the dams.

Contamination of soils by petroleum products

Construction activities for the proposed project will involve the use of machinery and equipment that will use
petroleum products (mainly diesel). In case of leakages or spillages, the products have the potential to
contaminate the soil. It is also expected that there will be fuel storage tanks at camp sites to be used for
storage of fuel that will be required by the construction vehicles and equipment. There may be leakages or
spillages especially during the delivery of the petroleum products. This can result in the pollution of the soil.

Land degradation from disposal of waste

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During construction works, solid waste will be generated which if not properly managed can accumulate within
the project sites. This has the potential of adversely changing the aesthetic appearance of the surrounding
areas and can pollute the soil and water resources.

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Mixing of topsoil with subsoil during excavations and back filling thereby reversing the soil profile

Where excavations are carried out, during back-filling there can be mixing of topsoil with subsoil. Where care
is not exercised, there may be a complete reversal in the soil profile where the top soil goes in at the bottom
and the subsoil ends up on top. This will negatively affect regeneration of vegetation where required.

Increased dust and air pollution

Construction activities in this project will require use of vehicles and machinery. This will result in air pollution
in form of dust and exhaust fumes which are major negative impacts expected during this project phase. The
primary causes of emissions are contact of construction machinery with bare soil and movement of
construction vehicles on unpaved roads. Sources of emissions are exhaust fumes. Exposure to air pollution is
associated with numerous effects on human health, including pulmonary, cardiac, vascular, and neurological
impairments. Air pollutants such as ozone and nitrogen oxides from vehicles also have harmful effects on
natural ecosystems. They can kill plants and trees by destroying their leaves, and can kill animals, especially
fish in highly polluted rivers.

Contamination of ground/surface water from petroleum products

Construction activities may pose the potential for release of petroleum-based products during their storage,
transfer, or use in equipment. Released products have the potential to contaminate ground and surface water.
The pollution will be in form of hydrocarbons and other pollutants usually associated with petroleum products.
Hydrocarbons can affect water and consequently soil and plants, which may put the health of the public at
risk.

Destruction of vegetation due to construction activities

The construction/installation of water supply and sanitation systems require clearing of vegetation which may
disturb the scenic beauty of the areas. Trees and woodlands may be disturbed. This will be more serious
where structures and pipelines are being constructed in virgin areas.

Positive Impacts Specific to the Water Supply Project

Socio-economic impacts

Improved water supply to the project area

The new water supply system will lead to adequate and reliable water supply to the project area. During the
Focus Group Discussions held with the WDC and NHC, it was revealed that the available water sources
where not adequate. The situation was said to worsen in the dry season as the boreholes are not able to
sustain the demand. This results in queues at the water points and also forces women to wake up at awkward
hours to go and draw water. Increased water availability will entail reduced burden on women and adolescent
girls on drawing water. Less time will be ‘wasted’ on this activity leading to increased time for other activities in
and outside the homes and increased school attendance on the part of school girls.

Change in quality of life and increase in self-esteem in communities due to improved services

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Provision of water supply systems in the project area will result in improved water supply to the communities
within the project site. This will lead to the general improvement in the quality of life in the project area.
Availability of water will lead to resuscitation of the waterborne sanitation facilities, which have currently been
abandoned. This will lead to increased self-esteem among community members.

Improved quality of life due to associated health benefits from water availability like changes in personal
hygiene

Availability of adequate water supply has a positive influence on personal hygiene, which has a direct impact
on reduction of diseases. Examples are cases of water-washed diseases commonly referred to as “water-
hygiene diseases” which include infectious skin diseases; infectious eye diseases like Trachoma; louse-borne
typhus and louse-borne relapse fever. It is documented that diarrhoeal diseases which are also faecal-oral
route diseases decrease with increased availability of water for washing. Implementation of the water supply
systems will lead to availability of adequate water supply and consequently, a reduction in the prevalence of
water borne diseases

Increased property values due to improved water supply services

The availability of water which in some cases will also lead to resuscitation and installation of in-house
sanitary facilities. This will contribute significantly to the value of properties in the project area.

Potential for industrial growth in the district due to availability of water

Adequate water in the project site has the potential to promote industrial growth as availability of water is one
of the requirements for most industrial activities. This can in the long run contribute to improved economic
status of the project site.

Environmental impacts

No positive environmental impacts specific to the water supply project are envisioned in this project

Negative Impacts Specific to the Water Supply Project

Socio-economic impacts

Displacement and relocation

Inappropriate siting and location of boreholes, water pipes and water storage facilities has the potential to
trigger displacement of community members. This would lead to requirements for compensation due to
involuntary resettlement and may exaggerate the project cost.

Temporary displacement of people and disruption of business to pave way for construction works of water
supply infrastructure

Laying of the water supply infrastructure, especially pipes along the main road may lead to temporary
displacement of people and disrupt business activities. For example, when laying pipes along the main road,
business along the road may be affected. Traders along the road may also be forced to temporarily shut down
their operations in order to pave way for construction activities. Where excavations may require the use of
explosives, people may be forced to temporarily vacant their houses as a safety precaution.

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Mwami Feasibility Report Page 110 of 217
Displacement of tenants due to increased rentals arising from improved water supply services

Improved water supply will result in increased value of the properties. Where the property is on rent, this will
lead to increased rentals. This may result in some tenants, with limited capacity to pay new rentals, displaced
from their rented homes.

Storage, handling and use of disinfection chemicals in water treatment facilities

Water treatment will require usage of chlorine in the disinfection process of the water. Chlorine is a highly toxic
substance especially when in gaseous form. It is also a very strong oxidising agent. Inappropriate storage and
use of this chemical may lead to serious health hazards and in some cases can even lead to fatalities.

Environmental impacts

Reduction in ground water due to increased abstraction

3
As the project will get water from ground water sources, it is expected that an average of 470m will be
abstracted on a daily basis. This abstraction will lead to increased ground water abstraction which in the long
run can lead to lowering of ground water table. This may result in drying out of boreholes in the area.

Positive Impacts Specific to the Sanitation Project

Socio-economic impacts

Improved access to sanitation facilities by the travelling public and truckers

Provision of an ablution block at the border post is expected to enhance access to sanitation services by the
travelling public and truckers who currently do not have access to these facilities.

Improved quality of life for the travelling public due to improved sanitation

The quality of life for the travelling public, especially truckers who get marooned at the border for several days
at times will be improved due to improved sanitation. The provision of laundry and showering facilities in
addition to the toilets will greatly enhance the quality of life for truckers at the border post.

Improved productivity due to anticipated disease burden reduction arising from provision of sanitation services

Currently, the project site is contaminated from open defaecation practiced by stranded travellers. Open
defaecation is a recipe to the outbreak and perpetuation of enteric diseases. Provision of an ablution block will
reverse this situation. The reduced diseases burden will translate into higher productivity.

Environmental impacts

Improved environmental aesthetics (i.e. odours and sight) due to reduced indiscriminate defaecation

Where open defaecation is a means of excretion, it is always expected that the area in which it is practiced will
be littered with excreta. Odour will also ensue from the excreta thereby compromising the aesthetic quality of
the living environment. Provision of an ablution block will reduce or completely eliminate the practice of open
defaecation thereby improving the aesthetic quality of the area.

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Reduced excreta related contamination from indiscriminate defecation

Provision of an ablution block will reduce or completely eliminate cases of open defaecation. This will
reduce/eliminate incidences of contamination of the environment (water, soil or air) from faecal matter.

Negative Impacts Specific to the Sanitation Project

Socio-economic impacts

Nuisance and public health hazards from overflows from the septic tank

Improper operations and maintenance of the ablution block may lead to blockages and overflows of the
sewage onto the streets thereby compromising the aesthetics of the surrounding areas and also result in
proliferation of enteric disease outbreaks. Situations that can lead to these problems include the use on
inappropriate anal cleansing materials and delayed desludging of the facilities.

Environmental impacts

Soil contamination from sludge spillages during transportation and inappropriate disposal

The sludge from the septic tank, if not appropriately transported, can result in soil contamination. Where
sludge is indiscriminately dumped on the ground, it may pollute the soil as some of the contaminants
contained in it, during leaching will contaminate the soil. This soil will then become a hazard and may promote
the transmission of enteric diseases like those associated with helminths and parasitic worms.

Contamination of water resources from inappropriate sludge storage, transportation and disposal

Inappropriate storage, transportation and disposal of sludge can result in contamination of ground and surface
water resources. Where sludge is stored inappropriately, it may result in leachate which can end up in ground
water aquifers. It can also mix with storm water and end up into surface water bodies. Inappropriate
transportation and disposal may also lead to contamination of water resources through leachates and
transportation by storm water.

Classification and Significance of impacts

The significance of impacts discussed in the preceding section summarised in Error! Reference source not
found., Error! Reference source not found. and Error! Reference source not found.. The significance of
impacts has been determined by combining the perceived frequency of occurrence of the source of the
impact, the duration, severity, and spatial extent of the impact and the sensitivity of the area being impacted
upon as already explained earlier. The analysis was also aided by using information presented in Error!
Reference source not found. below which explains the terms used in the impact ranking.

Table 25 Summary explanation of the criterion and classification of impacts

Impact Criterion Effect On Environment Classification Of Effect

Expression Effect Description
Positive or Will impact be positive or Positive A positive impact

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Impact Criterion Effect On Environment Classification Of Effect
Expression Effect Description
negative negative? Negative A negative impact
Likelihood of What certainty of Unlikely Probably will not occur
occurring occurrence is associated May occur Small chance that it will occur
with impact? Possible Significant chance that it will occur
Certain Will occur
Duration What timeframe or period is Short-term Will last up to end construction activity
effect to be felt or last? Medium-term Will last as long as operational activity
Long-term Will last beyond project operation
Permanent Will last a lifetime
Timing At what stage will the impact Immediately Will occur upon starting project activities
occur or be felt? Near future Will occur during project operation
Distant future Will occur beyond project operation
Severity How severe will the impact slight Little impact
be? Moderate Moderate impact
severe High impact
Very severe Very high impact
Spatial extent What is the real extent or Localised Impact will be felt at localised scale
coverage of impact? covering a few hectares
Study area Impact will be felt within project area
including immediate environment
Regional Impact will be felt at district or provincial
level
National Impact will be felt at country level
International Impact will be felt beyond national
boundaries
Nature What type of impact is it? Direct Arsing as a direct result of the activity
Induced Arising indirectly as a result of an activity
Cumulative Arising due to compoundment of several
minor impacts
Overall rating How important is impact in Insignificant Impact not substantial, needs no
Project design? mitigation/enhancement
Minor Impact of little importance, needs limited
mitigation/enhancement
Moderate Impact has influence and requires
mitigating/enhancing
Significant Impact of great importance,

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Impact Criterion Effect On Environment Classification Of Effect
Expression Effect Description
mitigation/enhancement a must

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 114 of 217

Table 26 Category and significance of impacts common to both the water supply and sanitation projects

Item Potential Impact Phase Likelihood of Effect Total Overall

Occurrence Duration Timing Severity/ Extent Score Impact
Benefit Nature Rating
Positive Socioeconomic Impacts
1 Employment Construction Certainly Short term Immediately Very National Direct 14 Significant
opportunities beneficial
2 Increased revenue Operation Certainly Long term Near future Beneficial Regional Induced 12 Significant
base for the water
utility (EWSC)
Positive Environmental Impacts
NIL
Negative Socioeconomic Impacts
1 Destruction of fields Construction Possible Short term Immediately Slightly Localised Direct 8 Moderate
either temporarily
or permanently
2 Impacts associated Construction Possible Short term Immediately slightly Localised Direct 8 Moderate
with worker
campsite
3 Temporary Construction Possible Short term Immediately Moderate Localised Direct 12 Significant
disruption of
pedestrian and
traffic movement
4 Increased child Construction May occur Short term Immediately Moderate Study area Induced 8 Moderate
labour

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5 Damage/disruption Construction Possible Short term Immediately Severe National/ Direct 12 Significant
to adjacent International
services
6 Disruption and/or Construction May occur Permanent Immediately Moderate National Direct 12 Significant
destruction of sites
having
archaeological or
historical values
7 Spread of sexually Construction Possible Short term Immediately Severe National Induced 14 Significant
transmitted disease to
by migrant Permanent
workforce
8 Noise and Construction Certain Short term Immediately Moderate Study area Direct 12 Significant
vibrations arising
from construction
activities
9 Risks arising from Construction Possible Short term Immediately Moderate Study area Direct 12 Significant
blasting activities
10 Injury or/and loss of Construction May Occur Short term Immediately Severe Study area Induced 15 Very
life to significant
Permanent

11 Danger of people Construction May occur Short term Immediately Severe Localised Direct 12 Significant
and traffic falling
into excavated

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 trenches
12 Danger of Construction May occur Short term Immediately Severe Localised Direct 12 Significant
excavation related
accidents like
trench collapse
13 Danger arising from Construction May occur Short term Immediately Severe Localised Direct 13 Significant
use of access
equipment such as
ladders and
scaffolds
14 Traffic safety Construction Possible Short term Immediately Severe Study area Induced 13 Significant

15 Occupation Health Construction Certain Short term Immediately Severe Study area Direct/Induced 14 Significant
and safety to
Permanent

16 Community health Construction Certain Short term Immediately Severe Study area Induced 12 Significant
and safety to
Permanent
17 Explosion and fire Construction May Occur Short term Immediately Severe Localised Direct 8 Moderate
from fuel storage
NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS
1 Soil compaction Construction Possible Short term Immediately Slight Localised Direct 7 Insignificant
from construction
vehicles and

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 equipment
2 Soil erosion from Construction Possible Short term Immediately Moderate Study area Direct 12 Significant
clearing of
vegetation and
movement of soil
3 Contamination of Construction May occur Short term Immediately Severe Study area Direct 12 Significant
soils by petroleum
products
4 Land degradation Construction May occur Short to Immediately moderate Study area Induced 8 Moderate
from disposal of long term
waste
5 Mixing of topsoil Construction May occur Long term Immediately Slight Localised Direct 7 Insignificant
with subsoil during
excavations and
back filling thereby
reversing the soil
profile
6 Increased dust and Construction Certain Short term Immediately Moderate Localised Direct 12 Significant
air pollution
7 Contamination of Construction May occur Short term Immediately Moderate Study area Direct 11 Moderate
ground/surface
water from
petroleum products

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8 Destruction of Construction Certain Short to Immediately Slight Localised Direct 7 Insignificant
vegetation due to long term
construction
activities

Table 27 Summary of category and significance of impacts specific to the water supply project

Item Potential Impact Phase Likelihood Of Effect Total Overall

Occurrence Duration Timing Severity/ Extent Nature Score Impact
benefit Rating
POSITIVE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
1 Improved water Operational Certain Long Near future Very Localised Direct 16 Very
supply to the project term beneficial Significant
area
2 Change in quality of Operational Certain Long Near future Very Study Cumulative 15 Very
life and increase in term beneficial area Significant
self-esteem in
communities due to
improved services
3 Improved quality of Operational Certain Long Near future Very Study Cumulative 15 Very
life due to term beneficial area Significant
associated health
benefits from water
availability like
changes in personal
hygiene

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4 Increased property Operational Certain Long Near future Very Localised Cumulative 14 Significant
values due to term beneficial
improved water
supply services
5 Potential for Operational Possible Long Near future Very Study Induced 14 Significant
industrial growth in term beneficial area
the district due to
availability of water
POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
1 NIL
NEGATIVE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
1 Displacement and Construction May occur Short Immediately moderate Localised Induced 9 Moderate
relocation term
2 Temporary Construction May occur Short Immediately moderate Localised Induced 8 Moderate
displacement of term
people and
disruption of
business to pave
way for construction
works of water
supply infrastructure
3 Displacement of Operational May occur Long Near future Moderate Localised Induced/cumulative 9 Moderate
tenants due to term
increased rentals
arising from

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 improved water
supply services
6 Storage, handling Operation Possible Long Near future Severe Localised Direct 11 Moderate
and use of term
disinfection
chemicals in water
treatment facilities
NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS
1 Reduction in ground Operation Possible Long Near future Very Study Direct 15 Very
water due to term severe area Significant
increased
abstraction

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Table 28 Summary of category and significance of impacts specific to the sanitation project

Item Potential Impact Phase Likelihood of Effect Total Overall

Occurrence Duration Timing Severity/ Extent Score Impact
benefit Nature Rating
POSITIVE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
1 Improved access to Operational Certain Long Near future Very International Direct 15 Very
sanitation facilities by term beneficial Significant
the travelling public
and truckers
2 Improved quality of Operational Certain Long Near future Very International Direct/cumulative 15 Very
life for the travelling term beneficial Significant
public due to
improved sanitation
3 Improved productivity Operational Possible Long Near future Very Study area Direct/cumulative 14 Significant
due to anticipated term beneficial
disease burden
reduction arising
from provision of
sanitation services
POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
1 Improved Operational Certain Long Near future Very Localised Direct/cumulative 15 Very
environmental term beneficial Significant
aesthetics (i.e.
odours and sight)
due to reduced

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 indiscriminate
defaecation
2 Reduced excreta Operational Certain Long Near future Very Localised Direct/cumulative 15 Very
related contamination term beneficial Significant
from indiscriminate
defaecation
NEGATIVE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
1 Nuisance and public Operational May occur Long Near future Severe Localised Induced 12 Significant
health hazards from term
overflows from the
septic tank
NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS
1 Soil contamination Operational May occur Long Near future Severe Localised Direct/cumulative 11 Moderate
from sludge spillages term
during transportation
and inappropriate
disposal
2 Contamination of Operational May occur Long Near future Severe Localised Direct/cumulative 11 Moderate
water resources from term
inappropriate sludge
storage,
transportation and
disposal

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The Environmental Management Plan

Introduction

This section presents the proposed Environmental Management Plans (EMPs) which have been formulated
based on impacts predicted above. The EMP is intended provide a link between the impacts predicted,
proposed mitigation measures and the proposed framework for their implementation.

Framework for oversight and implementation of the EMPs

In this project, key stakeholders in the environmental management activities include the project proponent
which is the MLGH, Eastern Water and sewerage Company Limited (EWSC), the consultants (COWI),
contractor(s) yet to be engaged, the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA), NWASCO, Chipata
Municipal Council (CMC), National Heritage Conservation Commission (NHCC), Zambia Bureau of Standards
(ZABS), Mines Safety Agency (MSA), Energy Regulation Board (ERB), RTSA, Labour Office, the general
public and communities and institutions within the project area which in this case is the Mwami Border
Community. The MLGH through EWSC will assume the overall responsibility for the implementation of the
management plans in all phases of the project (Design, construction and operation). However, in the
construction phase, implementation of most measures will be done by the contractor through the appointed
site engineer (CSE). During this phase, the consultants will assume a supervisory role over the contractor(s)
to ensure adherence to the proposed management plans and shall be answerable to MLGH. The consultant
shall make checks, from time to time, on the contractor(s) to make sure that the contractor is complying with
the stipulations of the EMPs. The contractor will be required to make monthly reports on the implementation of
the proposed activities in the EMPs. Implementation of the proposed measures in the plans for activities that
will be occurring during the operation phase shall be a responsibility of MLGH through EWSC.

Environmental and Social Management Plan

For sustainability of the biophysical, socio-economic environments and the project itself, the impacts identified
must be managed responsibly and effectively. To this effect, MLGH, with the assistance of other relevant
stakeholders, will need to implement an EMPs to address the identified impacts on the biophysical and socio-
economic environment. The EMPs are presented in Tables 23, 24 and 25 which summarise proposed
measures for common impacts and impacts specific to the water supply and sanitation project

For all tables, under the heading Time Frame, the terms “Ongoing” and “As required” have been used.
“Ongoing” means throughout the project phase and applies to impacts that are continuous. “As required”
applies to impacts with no definite time of occurrence but are expected to occur several times during the
project phase. It should be noted that no definite time has been proposed in the EMPs as the project
implementation dates have not yet been confirmed as the project is still in its preliminary stages.

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Table 29 Environmental Management Plans for impacts common to both projects

Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Socio- Employment To maximise on benefits Ensure locals are considered as CSE/Consultant As required 3000
economic opportunities from employment priority and only outsourcing where
opportunities labour is not locally available.
Women and the vulnerable groups CSE/Consultant As required
like widows should be given
preference.
Where possible, project materials to CSE/Consultant As required
be sourced locally
Increased revenue base To maximise on benefits Ensure efficient management of the EWSC On-going Part of
for the water utility resulting from increased systems EWSC’s
(EWSC) revenue Implement WDM measures to reduce EWSC On-going operational
on NRW costs
Destruction of fields To avoid destruction of Works to be scheduled in the dry CSE/Consultant Pre- Design
either temporarily or fields and minimise impacts season Construction costs
permanently where unavoidable Avoid siting infrastructure in areas Consultant Pre-
reserved for farming activities Construction
Ensure adequate compensation to all EWSC/MLGH As Cost for
people whose fields/crops will be Required- RAP
affected Construction
Phase
Impacts associated with To minimise/eliminate Structures to be constructed only of CSE/Consultant Pre- 5,000
worker campsite impacts associated with standard material Construction

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
campsites phase
Locating camps in approved areas CSE/Consultant Pre-
which minimize disruption to local Construction
population and water courses phase
Impacts associated with To minimise/eliminate Provision of adequate drainage CSE Pre-
worker campsite cont’ impacts associated with facilities Construction
campsites cont’ phase
Provision of adequate on-site excreta CSE/Consultant As required
treatment and solid waste disposal in
facilities Construction
phase
Ensuring that camp areas are CSE/Consultant Post-
dismantled and rehabilitated at the construction
completion of construction works phase
Temporary disruption of To avoid/minimise Public to be informed through media CMC/CSE As required 4,200
pedestrian and traffic disruption of pedestrian and about planned activities and how they in the
movement traffic movement (the activities) will affect movement construction
phase
Ensuring adequate space is left for CSE As required
safe passage of both pedestrians and during the
vehicles construction
phase
If pipe has to cross the road, CSE As required

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
considered trenching in segments to in the
avoid total closure of the road. construction
phase
Ensure provision of adequate safe CSE As required
crossing points for vehicles and in the
people for access to properties construction
phase

Temporary disruption of To avoid/minimise Scheduling of works on busy roads CSE As required- 5,200
pedestrian and traffic disruption of pedestrian and (like the Malawi road) during off peak construction
movement cont’ traffic movement cont’ periods phase
Plan advance arrangements of detour CSE/CMC As required-
routes where roads are to be construction
completely closed off. phase
Sensitize the workforce on the CSE/ Labour construction
illegality of child labour Office/NGOs phase
Obtaining up-to-date information on CSE As required-
the locations of services that can be construction
disturbed or damaged when works phase
are being implemented
Exercising care not to damage or CSE As required-

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 127 of 217

Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
disrupt these services construction
phase
Liaison between contractor and CSE/Service As required-
stakeholder where services are providers construction
disrupted so that adequate measures phase
to cushion the impact are put in place
Informing customers of impending CSE/Service As required-
disruptions through media providers construction
phase
Adequate liaison between contractor Service providers As required-
and service providers, to ensure that construction
such disruptions are for the shortest phase
possible time
Disruption and/or To prevent destruction of Works to be stopped and an officer CSE/NHCC As required- 1,000
destruction of sites sites and artefacts with from the NHCC contacted construction
having archaeological or significant archaeological or immediately if deposits/artefacts are phase
historical values historical value found
Spread of sexually To prevent/minimise Sensitizing and educating the CSE/MLGH/NGOs Ongoing- 16,000
transmitted disease by transmission of sexually workforce construction
migrant workforce transmitted diseases phase
Give preference to locals when CSE/Consultant Ongoing-
employing to minimise on migrant construction
workers phase

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Organising HIV and AIDS CSE /NGOs Ongoing -
sensitisation meetings for the workers construction
at the sites phase
Distribution of literature on HIV/AIDS CSE / NGOs Ongoing -
to the workers construction
phase
Making condoms available at camp CSE /NGOs Ongoing -
sites construction
phase
Noise and vibrations To safeguard workers and Using noise control devices, such as CSE Ongoing - 10,500
arising from construction neighbouring communities temporary noise barriers and construction
activities from hazards associated deflectors for impact and blasting phase
with high noise levels activities, and exhaust muffling
devices for combustion engines
Having a routine maintenance CSE Ongoing -
program in place for construction construction
vehicles and equipment to ensure phase
they are all in good working condition
Confining all noisy activities that are CSE As required-
to be carried out near communities to construction
day time hours phase
Early notification to those affected CSE As required-
construction

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
phase
Noise and vibrations To safeguard workers and Provision of adequate PPE to all CSE As required-
arising from construction neighbouring communities workers involved noisy works construction
activities cont’ from hazards associated phase
with high noise levels cont’ Ensuring that all equipment and Contractor As required
machinery to be imported adhere to
international and/or ZABS regulatory
guidelines on noisy levels
Risks arising from To protect workers and Accounting for all the explosives in CSE/MSA As required- 7,500
blasting activities communities from hazards transit, its possession or storage for construction
associated with blasting enhanced safe usage and custody phase

Conducting blasting operations CSE/MSA As required-

between sunrise and sunset construction
phase
All personnel to execute blasting CSE/MSA As required-
activities will have to be adequately construction
qualified phase

Surrounding communities to be CSE As required-

adequately warned about impending construction
blasting activities phase

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Charging holes to be blasted within a CSE/MSA As required-
reasonable time before blasting construction
phase
All blasting works to be adequately CSE/MSA As required-
reviewed and inspected before and construction
after blasting phase
Injury or/and loss of life To prevent site accidents Adopt best transport safety practices CSE Ongoing - 9,000
arising from construction across all aspects of project construction
traffic operations phase
Emphasize safety aspects among CSE Ongoing -
drivers construction
phase
Improve driving skills and require CSE As required-
licensing of drivers construction
phase
Adopt limits for trip duration and CSE Ongoing -
arrange driver rosters to avoid fatigue construction
phase
Avoid dangerous routes and times of CSE Ongoing -
day to reduce the risk of accidents construction
phase
Use of speed control devices, Contractor-Site Ongoing -
establishment of speed limits and Engineer construction

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
provision of adequate and proper phase
signage on site
Regular maintenance of vehicles CSE As required-
construction
phase
Regular maintenance of vehicles and CSE As required-
use of manufacturer approved parts construction
phase
Danger of people and To prevent people and All works that require trenching in CSE As required- 1,700
traffic falling into traffic from falling into busy areas to be carried out in the construction
excavated trenches excavated trenches shortest possible time phase
All open trenches to be clearly CSE As required-
marked with danger signs construction
phase
Danger of people and To prevent people and Where trenches are to be left open for CSE As required-
traffic falling into traffic from falling into extended periods they should be construction
excavated trenches excavated trenches cont’ marked with tape and where possible phase
cont’ fenced off
Danger of excavation To prevent trench collapse Where possible, deep trenching to be Consultant Pre- 3,000
related accidents like related accidents avoided construction
trench collapse phase
Deep trenching to be restricted to the CSE/Consultant As required-
dry season construction

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
phase
During excavation of deep trenches, CSE/Consultant As required-
appropriate safety measures like construction
trench stabilisation to be put in place phase
Danger arising from use To prevent accidents due to Provision of adequate safety attire CSE As required- 3,000
of access equipment falling from heights construction
such as ladders and phase
scaffolds Provision of fall arrest systems like full CSE As required-
body harness, an interconnecting sub construction
system or component designed to phase
arrest a fall from height and a suitable
anchorage etc.
Traffic safety To prevent accidents Employing measures under CSE As required- 1,600
arising from construction Occupational health and safety below construction
vehicles and machinery phase
Regulating speed by ensuring that CSE As required-
speed limits are set and proper road construction
signage is provided phase
Occupation Health and Prevention and control of Training workers in lifting and CSE Ongoing - 4,000
safety over-exertion, and materials handling techniques and Construction
ergonomic injuries and placement of weight phase
illnesses Planning work site layout to minimize CSE Ongoing -
the need for manual transfer of heavy Construction

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
loads phase
Selecting tools and designing work CSE Ongoing -
stations that reduce force Construction
requirements and holding times, phase
having user adjustable work stations
Implementing administrative controls CSE Ongoing -
into work processes e.g., job rotations Construction
and rest or stretch breaks phase
Prevention of slips and falls Implementing good house-keeping CSE Ongoing - 5,000
from, or on, the same practices e.g., sorting and placing of Construction
elevation loose construction materials in phase
established areas away from foot
paths
Cleaning up excessive waste debris CSE Ongoing -
and liquid spills regularly Construction
phase
Locating electrical cords and ropes in CSE Ongoing-
common areas and marked corridors construction
phase
Using of slip retardant footwear CSE Ongoing-
construction
phase
Occupation Health and Prevention of slips and falls Implementing fall protection e.g., CSE Ongoing-

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
safety cont’ from, or on, the same training and use of temporary fall construction
elevation prevention devices, such as rails or phase
other barriers, personal fall arrest
systems, control zones and safety
monitoring systems to warn workers
Prevention and control of Using a designated and restricted CSE Ongoing- 7,000
being struck by objects waste drop or discharge zones, construction
and/or a chute for safe movement of phase
wastes from upper to lower levels
Conducting sawing, cutting, grinding, CSE Ongoing-
sanding, chipping or chiselling with construction
proper guards and anchoring phase
Maintaining clear traffic ways CSE Ongoing-
construction
phase
Using temporary fall protection CSE Ongoing-
measures in scaffolds and out edges construction
of elevated work surfaces phase
Evacuating work areas during CSE Ongoing-
blasting, & using blast mats or other construction
means of deflection to minimize fly phase
rock, use of micro blasting techniques
or chemical splitting

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Wearing appropriate PPE e.g., safety CSE Ongoing-
glasses with side shields, face construction
shields, hard hats, and safety shoes phase
Occupation Health and Prevention of dust Implementing dust suppression CSE Ongoing- 1,000
safety cont’ techniques construction
phase
PPE, (i.e. dusk masks), to be used CSE Ongoing-
where dust levels are excessive construction
phase
Prevention and control of Planning and segregating the location CSE Ongoing- 2,000
accidents due to vehicle of vehicle traffic, machine operation, construction
traffic and use of lifting and walking areas, using of one-way phase
equipment on worksites traffic routes, establishment of speed
limits, and on-site trained flag-people
wearing high-visibility vests or outer
clothing covering
Using of high visibility vests by CSE Ongoing-
personnel when working in or walking construction
through heavy equipment operating phase
areas, and training of workers to
verify eye contact with equipment
operators before approaching the
operating vehicle

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 136 of 217

Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Ensuring moving equipment is CSE Ongoing-
outfitted with audible back-up alarms construction
phase
Using inspected and well-maintained CSE Ongoing-
lifting devices that are appropriate for construction
the load and securing loads when phase
lifting them to higher job-site
elevations.
Occupation Health and Prevention of hazards Controlling site-specific factors which CSE Ongoing- 3,000
safety cont’ related to confined spaces may contribute to excavation slope construction
and excavations instability e.g., excavation dewatering, phase
side-walls support, and slope gradient
adjustments that eliminate or
minimize the risk of collapse,
entrapment, or drowning
Providing safe means of access and CSE Ongoing-
egress from excavations like graded construction
slopes, graded access route, or stairs phase
and ladders
Avoiding the operation of combustion CSE Ongoing-
equipment for prolonged periods construction
inside excavations areas where other phase
workers are required to enter unless

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 137 of 217

Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
the area is actively ventilated
Community health and To protect surrounding Restricting access to the site, through CSE As required- 3,200
safety communities from general a combination of institutional and construction
site hazards administrative controls including phase
fencing and signage
Removing hazardous conditions on Contractor-Site As required-
construction sites that cannot be Engineer construction
controlled affectively with site access phase
restrictions
Explosion and fire from To prevent explosion and Preventing uncontrolled releases of CSE Ongoing - 2,000
fuel storage fire from the use, storage hazardous materials to the construction
and handling of fuel environment or uncontrolled reactions phase
that might result in fire or explosion
Explosion and fire from To prevent explosion and Using engineering controls CSE Ongoing - 4,700
fuel storage cont’ fire from the use, storage (containment, automatic alarms, and construction
and handling of fuel cont’ shut-off systems) phase
Implementing management controls CSE Ongoing -
(procedures, inspections, construction
communications, training, and drills) phase
Environmental Soil compaction from To avoid/minimise soil Restrict heavy construction vehicles CSE Ongoing- 1,000
construction vehicles compaction resulting from and equipment to prescribed routes construction
and equipment construction vehicles and phase
machinery

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Soil erosion from To minimize soil erosion Restrict all works involving soil CSE As required- 6,400
clearing of vegetation loosening and movement to the dry construction
and movement of soil season or periods of dry spell phase
Prompt re-vegetation of all areas de- CSE As required-
vegetated construction
phase
Reduce or prevent off-site sediment CSE As required-
transport by modifying or suspending construction
activities during periods of extreme phase
rainfall and high winds
Provide effective, sediment and CSE As required-
subsidence control and implementing construction
short term measures for slope phase
stabilization during construction
Contamination of soils To prevent contamination of Provide adequate and secure CSE / ERB Ongoing - 11,500
by petroleum products the soil from petroleum containment for petroleum products; construction
products phase
Use impervious surfaces for refuelling CSE / ERB Ongoing -
and other fluid transfer areas construction
phase
Environmental Contamination of soils To prevent contamination of Train workers on correct transfer and CSE Ongoing -
by petroleum products the soil from petroleum handling of fuels and the response to construction
cont’ products cont’ spills phase

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Provide portable spill containment CSE At inception
and cleanup equipment and
chemicals
Use certified tankers to deliver fuel to CSE / ERB Ongoing -
storage facilities according to the construction
Petroleum Act Cap 424 phase
Use approved dispensing equipment CSE / ERB Ongoing -
to minimize chances of spillages construction
phase
Maintain construction equipment CSE As required-
adequately to minimize/eliminate construction
chances of spillages/leakages phase
Land degradation from To prevent land Establish waste management CSE /ZEMA In the pre- 2,000
disposal of waste degradation due to priorities at the outset of activities construction
inappropriate disposal of based on an understanding of EHS phase
solid waste risks and impacts and considering
waste generation and its
consequences
Establish a waste management CSE /ZEMA In the pre-
hierarchy that considers prevention, construction
reduction, reuse, recovery, recycling, phase
removal and disposal according to
ZEMA guidelines

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Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Mixing of topsoil with To avoid reversing the soil Where required, soil clearing to be CSE As required- 1,700
subsoil during profile limited to a maximum depth of construction
excavations and back 300mm. phase
filling thereby reversing
the soil profile
Environmental Mixing of topsoil with To avoid reversing the soil Where clearing is accompanied by CSE As required-
subsoil during profile cont’ trenching, the excavated material to construction
excavations and back be placed strategically so that during phase
filling thereby reversing backfilling, the original soil profile is
the soil profile cont’ retained
Increased dust and air To minimise air pollution Minimize dust from material handling CSE As required- 6,600
pollution due to particulate dust and sources, such as haulage trucks, construction
exhaust fumes conveyors and bins by using covers phase
and/or control equipment
Minimize dust from open area CSE As required-
sources, including storage piles, by construction
using control measures such as phase
installing enclosures and covers, and
increasing the moisture content
Implement dust suppression CSE As required-
techniques, to minimize dust from construction
vehicle movements phase
Implement practices that reduce both CSE As required-

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 141 of 217

Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
the risk of accidents and fuel construction
consumption (i.e., measured phase
acceleration, driving within safe speed
limits)
Manage emissions from mobile CSE As required-
sources by use of cleaner fuels or construction
technologies, implementing the phase
manufacturer recommended engine
maintenance programs; drivers
complying to safe driving practices
that reduce both the risk of accidents
and fuel consumption, including
measured acceleration
Environmental Increased dust and air To minimise air pollution installation of an ozone-destroying CSE As required-
pollution cont’ due to particulate dust and device at the exhaust of the ozone- construction
exhaust fumes cont’ reactor (e.g., catalytic oxidation, phase
thermal oxidation, or GAC)
Contamination of To prevent pollution of Institute a proper and effective CSE As required- 2,800
ground/surface water water resources from spills maintenance program of equipment construction
from petroleum products and leakages of petroleum phase
products Application of oil absorbing CSE As required-
substances on affected sites to avoid construction
spillage being carried into water phase

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 142 of 217

Environment Specific Potential Impact Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
bodies
Destruction of To minimise destruction of Route of pipelines and siting of CSE As required- 3,700
vegetation due to vegetation due to infrastructure to avoid wooded areas construction
construction activities construction activities phase
Routes for construction vehicles to CSE As required-
avoid wooded areas construction
phase

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 143 of 217

Table 30 Environmental Management Plans for impacts specific to the water supply project

Environment Specific Potential Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Measure Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Impact Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
Socio- Improved water To ensure sustained Implement measures for adequate EWSC Ongoing- Operational
economic supply to the improved water supply in and efficient management of the operation costs for
project area the project area infrastructure to ensure phase EWSC
sustainability
Change in quality of To ensure sustained Implement measures for adequate EWSC Ongoing- Operational
life and increase in improvement in people’s and efficient management of the operation costs for
self-esteem in quality of life associated infrastructure to ensure phase EWSC
communities due to with improved service sustainability
improved services provision
Improved quality of To ensure enhanced Implement measures for adequate EWSC Ongoing- Operational
life due to quality of life due to health and efficient management of the operation costs for
associated health benefits associated with infrastructure to ensure phase EWSC
benefits from water water supply is sustained sustainability
availability like
changes in
personal hygiene
Increased property To ensure improved Implement measures for adequate EWSC Ongoing- Operational
values due to property values are and efficient management of the operation costs for
improved water sustained infrastructure to ensure phase EWSC
supply services sustainability
Potential for Ensure water supply is not Implement measures for adequate EWSC Ongoing- Operational

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Environment Specific Potential Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Measure Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Impact Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
industrial growth in a hindrance to industrial and efficient management of the operation costs for
the district due to growth of the area infrastructure to ensure phase EWSC
availability of water sustainability
Displacement and To alleviate deterioration Design to avoid displacing structure Consultants In Pre- 8,600
relocation of living standards among construction
people who may be phase
affected
Displacement and To alleviate deterioration Early notification to all those to be MLGH/EWS In Pre-
relocation cont’ of living standards among affected and discuss in advance C construction
people who may be measures for restitution phase
affected cont’
Compensation of all affected people MLGH/EWS In Pre-
C construction
phase

Temporary To minimise disturbances Where possible, works to be carried CSE As required- 4,500
displacement of to residents and avoid out in short sections to reduce on Construction
people and disturbing business the number of people affected at phase
disruption of activities during any one particular time
business to pave construction Works to be executed in the CSE As required-
way for construction shortest time possible Construction
works of water phase
supply Synchronize the construction works CSE As required-

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Environment Specific Potential Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Measure Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Impact Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
infrastructure for the Water Supply Project with Construction
those for the Sanitation Project to phase
avoid disturbing the same people
twice where the two coincide
To the extent practical, all those MLGH/EWS In Pre-
who will be negatively affected as a C construction
result of project activities to be phase
compensated for loss of income in
line with government stipulations
Displacement of To minimise displacement Water tariffs to be in line with NWASCO/E On-going- -
tenants due to of tenants which may be NWASCO’s recommendations WSC operation
increased rentals due to high water tariffs phase
arising from
improved water
supply services
Storage, handling To reduce/avoid hazards For systems that use gas EWSC On-going- Operational
and use of associated with chlorine chlorination operation costs for
disinfection handling - Install alarm and safety phase EWSC
chemicals systems that are
(Chlorine) in water automatically activated
treatment facilities when a chlorine release is
detected
- Install containment and

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Environment Specific Potential Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Measure Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Impact Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
scrubber systems to
capture and neutralize
chlorine should a leak occur
Use corrosion-resistant piping, Consultant/C Construction Operational
valves, metering equipment, and SE/EWSC phase and costs for
any other equipment coming in as required EWSC
contact with gaseous or liquid in operation
chlorine, and keep this equipment phase
free from contaminants, including oil
and grease
Store chlorine away from all EWSC On-going- Operational
sources of organic chemicals, and operation costs for
protect from sunlight, moisture, and phase EWSC
high temperatures
Store sodium hypochlorite in cool, EWSC On-going- Operational
dry, and dark conditions for no more operation costs for
than one month, and use equipment phase EWSC
constructed of corrosion-resistant
materials
Storage, handling To reduce/avoid hazards Store calcium hypochlorite away EWSC On-going- Operational
and use of associated with chlorine from any organic materials and operation costs for
disinfection handling cont’ protect from moisture; fully empty or phase EWSC
chemicals re-seal shipping containers to

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Environment Specific Potential Objective(S) For Mitigation/Enhancement Measure Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted on Impact Addressing Impact Entity Per Annum
(Chlorine) in water exclude moisture. Calcium
treatment facilities hypochlorite not to be stored for
cont’ more than one year
Isolate ammonia storage and feed Consultant/C Construction Operational
areas from chlorine and SE/EWSC phase and costs for
hypochlorite storage and feed areas as required EWSC
in operation
phase
Minimize the amount of chlorination EWSC On-going- Operational
chemicals stored on site while operation costs for
maintaining a sufficient inventory to phase EWSC
cover intermittent disruptions in
supply
Develop and implement a plan for EWSC As required- Operational
responding to accidental releases operation costs for
phase EWSC
Environment Reduction in To minimise over Implement Water Demand EWSC On-going- Operational
al ground water due to abstraction of ground Management (WDM) Measures operation costs for
increased water phase EWSC
abstraction

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 148 of 217

Table 31 Environmental Management Plans for impacts specific to the sanitation project

Environment Specific Potential Objective(s) For Addressing Mitigation/Enhancement Measure Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted On Impact Impact Entity
Per Annum

Socio- Improved access to To ensure sustained access Implement measures for adequate and EWSC Ongoing- Operational
economic sanitation facilities by to sanitation facilities by the efficient management of the operation costs for
the travelling public travelling public and truckers infrastructure to ensure sustainability phase EWSC
and truckers
Improved quality of To ensure sustained Implement measures for adequate and EWSC Ongoing- Operational
life for the travelling improved quality of life by efficient management of the operation costs for
public due to travellers at the border in infrastructure to ensure sustainability phase EWSC
improved sanitation terms of access to sanitation
Improved productivity To ensure continued Implement measures for adequate and EWSC Ongoing- Operational
due to anticipated enhanced productivity due to efficient management of the operation costs for
disease burden disease burden reduction infrastructure to ensure sustainability phase EWSC
reduction arising from
provision of sanitation
services
Nuisance and public To avoid/minimise the Ensure timely desludging of the septic EWSC Ongoing- Operational
health hazards from nuisance and hazards tank operation costs for
overflows from the associated with septic tank phase EWSC
septic tank overflows Devise a quick response plan to attend EWSC Ongoing- Operational
to problems with the conveyance and operation costs for
treatment systems phase EWSC
Environmental Improved To perpetuate the improved Ensure sustainable management of the EWSC Ongoing- Operational

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 149 of 217

Environment Specific Potential Objective(s) For Addressing Mitigation/Enhancement Measure Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted On Impact Impact Entity
Per Annum

environmental environmental aesthetics infrastructure operation costs for

aesthetics (i.e. odours phase EWSC
and sight) due to Ensure facilities are always clean to EWSC Ongoing- Operational
reduced avoid unsanitary conditions that can operation costs for
indiscriminate discourage users phase EWSC
defaecation

Environmental Reduced excreta To ensure perpetuation of Ensure sustainable management of the EWSC Ongoing- Operational
related contamination reduced excreta related infrastructure operation costs for
from indiscriminate contamination due to phase EWSC
defaecation indiscriminate defaecation Ensure facilities are always clean to EWSC Ongoing- Operational
avoid unsanitary conditions that can operation costs for
discourage users phase EWSC
Soil contamination To prevent contamination of Ensure usage of appropriate desludging EWSC As required- Operational
from sludge spillages soil due to septic tank facilities (e.g. use of certified desludging operation costs for
during transportation spillages during tankers phase EWSC
and inappropriate transportation Disposal of the sludge to ensure EWSC As required- Operational
disposal adequate treatment (e.g. discharge into operation costs for
anaerobic ponds for stabilization phase EWSC
Contamination of Ensure sludge storage, transportation EWSC As required- Operational
water resources from and disposal is in a manner that does operation costs for
inappropriate sludge not favour pollution of water resources phase EWSC

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 150 of 217

Environment Specific Potential Objective(s) For Addressing Mitigation/Enhancement Measure Responsible Time Frame Cost (GB £)
Impacted On Impact Impact Entity
Per Annum

storage, Dispose all sludge in line with ZEMA EWSC As required- Operational
transportation and recommendations for handling of waste operation costs for
disposal phase EWSC
Unless the quality has been EWSC As required- Operational
ascertained, assume that sludge is operation costs for
hazardous phase EWSC

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 151 of 217

Financial and Economic Assessment
Introduction
This section of the report outlines the financial and economic assessment, which forms an input to the
feasibility study of the Mwami project. The tool used to determine financial and economic feasibility is the
Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA). CBA is a framework for appraising the viability of capital projects by weighing
up financial flows, as well as the explicit and implicit positive and negative socio-economic impacts of the
investment. As such, the use of the project CBA is to provide an evidence base for the commercial and social
rationale of the project. The CBA is also an invaluable tool for informing and guiding project development in
order for the project design to maximise both the commercial and social imperatives of the project.

Approach to the CBA

It is anticipated that a project of this nature is unlikely to attract private-sector investors due to limited returns
and the associated risks; however, its broader public-good nature is likely to increase the welfare of the
population significantly. CBA is a useful approach in demonstrating this as it is able to weigh up future project
costs and benefits in a present value approach, thus helping to give direction to whether the project is
desirable and should be implemented.

The report follows the CRIDF CBA Guidance and Template, and consists of the following sections – purpose
and context, options appraisal, financial appraisal, economic appraisal, sustainability analysis, risk
assessment and conclusions and recommendations. The first two sections serve to clarify the demand for and
required scope of the infrastructure intervention and outline the preferred technical solution. These two
sections are outlined in more detail in the Technical Assessment section of the Feasibility Report and are thus
only briefly summarised in this section.

The main elements of this report includes the core assumptions to the CBA, followed by the financial
appraisal which looks at the financial flows (expenditures and revenues) over the life of the project, to
calculate the Financial Net Present Value (FNPV) of the investment, Financial Internal Rate of Return (FIRR)
on the project investment, and Financial Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR). The economic appraisal then assesses a
wider spectrum of costs and benefits compared to the case of pure profit determination of the financial
appraisal. The outcome of the quantitative economic appraisal includes the Economic Net Present Value
(ENPV), Economic Rate of Return (ERR), and Economic Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) of the project. In addition
to these quantitative indicators, a description of the qualitative economic impacts serves to inform an
understanding of the expected net socio-economic impact of the project to society.

Based on the results of the financial and economic appraisals, and drawing on a broader understanding of the
context, institutional arrangements, and prevailing local socio-economic conditions, a sustainability analysis
provides an assessment of the on-going financial and economic sustainability of the project, primarily from the
perspective of the affordability of the project to the local community. Lastly a high-level risk assessment
serves to highlight the key risks to the financial and economic viability of the project and discusses associated

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 152 of 217

recommendations for risk mitigation arrangements, before final conclusions and recommendations of the CBA
are put forward.

Purpose and Context

Mwami is a small border post town in Zambia. The town links Zambia with Malawi, and is an important point of
transit for steel, cement, cotton, tobacco, bitumen, timber and other goods. It occupies strategic importance
for both Zambia and Malawi and for trade between Eastern and Southern Africa in general. It is for these
reasons that the town has been identified as a strategic focus for development in the SADC region. Mwami,
however, faces severe water supply and sanitation challenges.

Currently, Mwami border post does not have a centralised water supply system. Three boreholes operated by
Chipata District Council supply water to the general community, while the Zambia Revenue Authority (ZRA)
operates one borehole to supply its staff, as well as other homesteads. While a few households have drilled
boreholes for their own private supply, mostly the town’s water supply is vastly inadequate. The town’s three
communal hand pumps are prone to interruption due to a lack of maintenance or drying up of the well in the
winter months. With rapid growth in its resident and border patron population, securing an improved water
supply and sanitation is of vital importance to the town.

While inadequate water supply results in reduced productive time for the town, with proportionally larger
effects felt by women and children, inadequate levels of water can also trigger water-borne disease
transmission across borders. This in turn stifles trade and other commercial activities within the sub-region
and, at an extreme, may catalyse cross-border conflict. At present, trucks are often required to wait at the
6
Mwami border post for over a day but do not have access to water supply or sanitation services . To date,
truckers have made use of an informal market (where truckers either use residents’ toilets or pay to stay at a
privately owned ‘truck-inn’ outside the town), or practice open defecation. These all have associated costs on
the society, including health and safety concerns for local residents.

Project Objectives

The primary objective of the Mwami project is to provide adequate and safe water supply and sanitation
infrastructure to the residents and transient populations of Mwami. The project is aimed at three beneficiary
groups, with the appropriate infrastructure for each category. Specifically, the project has the following
components:

 Water supply to local residents without household water connections through the use of four water
kiosks

 Bulk water supply to houses through metered in-house connections, where these households are
expected to pay for their own connection to the water mains

6 Based on discussions held with Immigration Officials, site visit (June 2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 153 of 217

  Sanitation for border patrons through an ablution facility whose primary purpose is to provide truck
drivers with toilet, shower, laundry and drinking water facilities

Households without in-house water connections

Under the proposed system, households who currently get their water from communal boreholes will now be
able to access water from water kiosks. Existing households do not currently pay for water from communal
hand pumps; however, if a hand pump breaks they are responsible for the cost of its repair. Additionally, one
of the communal hand pumps is prone to stop working in the dry winter months, and while the Lutembwe
River is an alternative source of water, water quality can be poor due to livestock use. Additionally, the
distance to the river is a strong deterrent of its use. The proposed system involves a per unit charge on water
in line with Zambia’s National Water Supply and Sanitation Council (NWASCO) tariffs with no additional
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) charge attached to water. Demand for the new system is thus heavily
dependent on the quality, quantity, cost and ease of access to water in the new system since an alternative
currently exists. It is expected that the proposed design will provide treated water of better quality than that of
the unprotected hand pumps. Additionally, the new system will allow for faster and more efficient distribution
of water, thus lowering the waiting time for water. Important to note, although the existing system provides
some alternative to the proposed kiosks, when the current communal hand pumps break, as happens
regularly, it is unlikely that the community will pay for them to be fixed once the new proposed system is
functional. Thus it has been assumed that demand will shift to the proposed scheme.

It is proposed to construct four water kiosks for the sale of water to these households. Each kiosk will be
directly connected to the network, with provisions for the metering of water.

Metered households

The proposed design sees the extension of water supply and infrastructure to the town and the ability of
medium and high cost houses to be connected into the water mains through individual connections. At
present, housing developments in Mwami have been haphazard, with some houses build with in-house
connections, while others rely on communal boreholes. At present, around 4% of existing sanitation facilities
is comprised of water-borne systems. However, most of these are dysfunctional as there is no reticulated
water supply in Mwami. Some high cost houses must either use pit latrines in the absence of flush toilets, or
must collect water manually to be used in this system. There is acute need for water supply to the existing
houses with metered water facilities, while the community has high aspirational demand for an expansion in
houses with water-borne facilities.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 154 of 217

Truck drivers (border patrons)

Border patrons, including trucks and passenger vehicles, constitute a large transitory population in Mwami. It
7
is assumed that on average 200 people pass through Mwami per day. This amounts to 73,000 border
patrons annually. It is also assumed that the number of trucks will grow by 5% per year over the next 15 years
in line with developments in the Nacala trade corridor and increasing trade between Zambia and the rest of
8
SADC .

The sanitation facility that is proposed will provide shower, toilet, laundry and drinking water facilities. It is
assumed that 80% of border patrons will use the toilet facilities, 20% will use the shower/laundry facilities,
9
while 80% will use the facility to access drinking water . Additionally, border patrons that visit the facility are
conservatively assumed to only access the facility once per day.

Options Appraisal

The technical assessment of the Mwami project reviewed a number of options by which the project could be
implemented. The technical options related to five components of the infrastructure design – water supply,
pump infrastructure, water storage, the distribution network and sanitation intervention.

1. Water supply

Groundwater, surface water and rainwater are three possible alternatives assessed for the water
supply source for the project. The project area has no surface water bodies in its immediate vicinity.
The only river, located approximately two kilometres east of the site is the Lutembwe River. The
flows in the Lutembwe River are, however, significantly low in the Mwami locality. This is the result
of low runoff generated in the small catchment in the area surrounding the town. The surface water
resources were therefore not considered as a sustainable option to meet the water supply
requirements of the proposed intervention. Rainwater harvesting was also not considered a viable
option for the proposed intervention due mainly to the fact that while there is adequate rainfall in the
wet months, rainfall in the dry winter months is extremely limited.

Groundwater was identified as the most feasible water source. A rapid assessment of the potential
of the ground water resources of the area was conducted using both historical and collected data.
Technical staff from the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) were consulted on the ground water
potential and availability in the area based on their previously documented experiences with
boreholes in the area. While the project area is characterised by low-yielding crystalline aquifers
averaging 1 litre per second, it should be possible to draw sufficient water from the operation of four
boreholes to meet future water demand from the community.

7 Updated Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)

8 Nacala Road Corridor Development Project- Phase IV Country: Multinational (Malawi/ Zambia), ADF: Online
[Link] Corridor_Development_
Project_-_Phase_IV_-_Appraisal_Report.pdf
9 Adapted from Technical Assessment, Mwami (2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 155 of 217

 2. Pump infrastructure

Boreholes require water pumps to be able to draw the water from the ground as well as transport it
along the network of pipes or to the water storage tanks. There are various types of pumps, with
varying fuel inputs required. The options appraisal on the pump infrastructure focused on the fuel
sources required to run the borehole pumps. The main options explored were petrol/diesel or
electricity. Given the project’s simple design, other fuel types such as solar powered pumps were
not considered due to their capital cost and complexity.

The proposed solution makes use of electrical pumps due to the fact that there is electricity in the
town already and thus it would be relatively easy to access this power source for the pumps.
Additionally, electricity would be a cheaper fuel source than petrol or diesel for the proposed
infrastructure. The downside of using electricity to pump water would be that the pumps would not
work in the case of a power cut. This is accounted for in the design pump operating time and at
least two days water use storage in the system.

3. Water storage

Water storage is necessary to account for variability in water demand from the population, as well as
in situations where there is a breakdown with the borehole pumps or distribution system. While there
are various options for water storage, such as dams or reservoirs, only water storage tanks were
considered appropriate in the proposed design. This is because the design requires only a limited
amount of water stored at each point in time and the water is required for drinking and needs to be
kept disinfected, there the construction of a dam is inappropriate and would be an over-investment.
3
It is proposed that a 250 m brick reservoir is constructed to cater for 2 day storage requirements,
10
based on the 2025 average water demand.

4. Distribution network

The distribution network of pipes for Mwami consists of various sizes of PVC pipes. PVC piping is
assumed to be the appropriate technical option due to the fact that they are durable (up to 100
years) as well as the fact that they are easy to install. This network has been simplified in the
current design of the project in order to limit capital costs. It is proposed that high-cost households
pay for their own household connections to the water supply, but that the water distribution system
caters for such developments.

5. Sanitation

For this project only provision of a sanitation facility for the daily transitory population (border
crossing population) will be provided. All households will be responsible for the provision of their
own on-site disposal of wastewater, using either a septic tank or VIP (depending on water supply
connection and affordability). Support for on-site sanitation systems can be provided in terms of

10 Updated Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 156 of 217

 reviewing or providing standard designs for the EWSC to provide households wishing to construct
sanitation infrastructure.

The preferred technical solution recommended by the feasibility study is thus to sink four new boreholes which
connect to a brick water storage tank. A simple network comprising one ring main has been developed for the
project area. This will supply individual connections on application and a total of four water kiosks.

The proposed water supply component of the project includes the following infrastructure:

 The sinking and equipping four boreholes

 The supply and installation of main line to boreholes, with distribution network

 The supply and construction of a water tank together with required fittings

 The construction of four water kiosks

 The construction of a sanitation facility for cross border population.

Key CBA Assumptions

The CBA analysis is premised on a number of key input assumptions. The assumptions are drawn from the
Technical Assessment, observations by the project team in the Mwami area, and peer-reviewed
publications/international benchmarks. The tables below provide the detail of the assumptions that frame the
CBA analysis. The details underlying these assumptions are provided in Appendix A.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 157 of 217

Table 32 Financial assumptions

Item Assumption

11
Financial Discount Rate 11.5%

12
Exchange Rate ZMW 1.00 = GBP 0.088

13
O&M Costs 5% of capital costs

Constant Versus Current Prices All prices are given in constant 2015 terms

Source: CRIDF CBA

Table 33 Revenue generating assumptions

Item Assumption

14
Number of households 300

15
Household size 5.2

Population size 1,560

Annual population growth 2.2%


16
Current proportion of household types High-cost (metered access): 30%

 Low cost (metered access): 35%


17
Low cost (communal access): 35%

Per capita water consumption per day  High-cost (metered access): 100l per
capita/day

 Low cost (metered access) and transient

11 A real interest rate of 11.5% was used in the financial analysis, suggested by the AfDB in their 2013 study done on irrigation
infrastructure in the Kafue sub-basin. African Development Bank (2013). Strengthening Climate Resilience In The Kafue Sub-Basin.
Appraisal Report. Online: [Link]
_Strengthening_Climate_Resilience_in_the_Kafue_Sub-Marin_-_Appraisal_Report.pdf
12 Updated Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)
13 The design of the project necessitates ‘tap-assistants’ at kiosks and staff at the sanitation facility. These are expected to increase the
O&M costs of the scheme. A rate of 5% is suggested by the Swiss Resource Centre for Development (2008), as sufficient for a water
supply system. See SKAT (2008). Operation and Maintenance of Rural Water Supplies. Online: [Link]-water-
[Link]/_ressources/documents/default/[Link]
14 Information provided by Ward Development Committee (WDC), the Water point committee and the Neighbourhood Health Committee
(NHC)
15 Census of Population National Analytical Report, Zambia. 2010
16 Categorised according to size and facilities, as per description in the Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)
17 Updated Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 158 of 217

Item Assumption

population: 40l per capita/day

 Low cost (communal access): 25l per

capita/day

18 3
Domestic water tariffs (GBP) Per m

0–6 0.24

6 – 20 0.40

20 – 40 0.54

50 + 0.61

Kiosk 0.22

19
Ablution tariffs (GBP) Toilet (per entry) 0.44

Shower/laundry (per 0.44

entry)

Drinking water (per 25l 0.09

bucket)

20
Number of border patrons per day 200

21
Annual growth in truck traffic 5%

Non-revenue water 20%

Source: CRIDF CBA

18 Approved NWASCO Tariffs, 2015

19 Based on current payments in the informal market
20 Updated Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)
21[Link]
_Nacala_Road_Corridor_Development_Project_-_Phase_IV_-_Appraisal_Report.pdf

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 159 of 217

Table 34 Population and household projections

Item 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Population 1,560 1,739 1,939 2,162 2,411

High-cost (metered access) 468 522 582 649 723

Low cost (metered access) 546 609 679 757 844

Low cost (communal access) 546 609 679 757 844

Source: CRIDF CBA

Table 35 Economic assumptions

Factor Discount/conversion factor

Social Discount Factors 3.5% 10%

Tradable goods 0.8

Unskilled labour 0.65

Skilled labour 1.00

Non tradable goods 1.00

Source: CRIDF CBA

The CBA is carried out within the context of a with- and without-project basis, and hence includes only
incremental values for the costs and benefit inputs. This is in an effort to include only the incremental costs
and benefits of the project, including variables such as time spent collecting water in the current system
versus time spent in the new system. In terms of the financial appraisal, the current system does not have any
formal operations and maintenance costs; although the community is responsible for the repair of the hand-
pumps should they break. Hence, the O&M costs are included in their entirety. Revenues from water tariffs
are also included in their entirety as reticulated households are currently not connected to a water supply. In
terms of the sanitation facilities at the border, the costs and benefits are also included in their entirety as there
is no such facility at present.

In the economic appraisal, incremental values are important in calculating the health and time savings. Both
health and time savings are expected to increase due to the proposed project, however these benefits are
unlikely to be the full health and time savings. In other words, it is unlikely that the project will result in all
water-related health concerns being addressed, while there will still be some residual time spent by rural

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 160 of 217

households in collecting water from kiosks. The incremental benefits will be discussed in more detail in the
Economic Appraisal below.

Financial Appraisal
The purpose of the financial appraisal is to identify the financial return to the project infrastructure investment
and the operational sustainability of the infrastructure. The financial appraisal is conducted from the
perspective of Eastern Water and Sewerage Company (EWSC), who will be the project owner, and will be
responsible for the operation and maintenance of the infrastructure. EWSC will also be the direct recipient of
the water and sewerage service tariffs and charges.

The costs considered in the financial appraisal include the capital investment for the water and sanitation
infrastructure, and the operation and maintenance cost for the systems. The revenue considered includes the
expected water tariffs that will be charged to domestic customers and the border patrons. Assessing the
financial return of the project over its lifespan against the capital and operational costs yields a financial return
to the project. The following indicators represent the key outputs of the financial appraisal:

 Financial net present value – the discounted flow of expected investment and operating costs
deducted from expected return

 Financial internal rate of return – the financial return on the project. The financial rate of return should
be above the cost of capital (discount rate)

 Financial net benefit cost ratio – the ratio of the present value of the returns on the project set against
the project’s costs.

Importantly, should the project not be financially viable on its own, the financial appraisal will set out the
amount of subsidisation the project will require to make it financially viable and sustainable. The project’s
costs and revenues are set out below, before the financial appraisal results are outlined.

Project Costs

The total project investment for both the water supply and sanitation components of the design amounts to
GBP 300,735. The majority of these costs (GBP 235,810) relates to the water supply component of the
project, and the remainder accounts for the sanitation facilities. Project costs for the town are relatively high
due to the low base from which the project must build. However, it is notable that the project has been
redesigned twice to decrease these costs, including a substantial decrease in the distribution network of
pipes. Training of ESWC has also been excluded from the final project cost, this is discussed in more detail
under the section on project risks.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 161 of 217

Table 36 Water supply capital investment requirements (GBP)

Item Description Amount

1 Allow for 20% Contractor's P&Gs 43,585

2 Investigation and Development of groundwater source 18,480

3 Raw water delivery system 61,409

4 Storage Reservoirs 31,334

5 Distribution Network 51,074

6 Water Kiosks 8,580

7 Sanitation facilities 47,047

8 Subtotal Cost 261,509

9 Add 15% contingencies 39,226

TOTAL PROJECT COST 300,735

Source: CRIDF CBA

Annual Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation costs for the water supply infrastructure include electricity to pump water from the boreholes,
chlorine to treat the water and labour to man the kiosks and ablution block. Operation costs for the ablution
22
block include electricity costs of running the building, cleaning materials, labour and regular desludging.
Applying the O&M assumptions outlined above, the annual O&M costs for both the water supply and
sanitation infrastructure amounts to GBP 15,037. O&M costs are assumed to be constant across the project
life span as inflation is excluded from the financial appraisal.

Revenues

Revenue streams are expected to flow from the three groups of users – households who access water from
communal kiosks, metered households (both low cost and high cost households with household connections)
and border patrons. The revenue analysis is based on estimations of water demand by the three usage
groups and the corresponding tariffs charged per usage. Tariff rates are based on the NWASCO 2015
approved domestic block rates for the Eastern Province, and vary from low cost per unit charges at low levels

22 Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015) suggests that desludging will be required every three years

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 162 of 217

of consumptions and then escalate to higher charges at higher levels of consumption. Mapping demand over
the project’s lifespan is derived from population growth figures and the evolution of consumption patterns
between communal water kiosks and household connections.

The project is highly dependent on the revenue that is derived from the ablution facilities at the border post.
This makes up over 70% of revenue in 2016. This is an important finding as the sanitation facilities make up a
small component of the capital investment requirements. The water supply infrastructure, which forms the bulk
of the capital investment, provides approximately 20% of revenue in the first year.

Table 37 Projected revenue from water tariffs (GBP)

Revenue category 2016 2020 2025 2030 2035

High-cost (metered access) 5,623 6,135 6,840 7,626 8,503

Low cost (metered access) 1,586 1,730 1,929 2,151 2,398

Low cost (communal access) 901 983 1,096 1,222 1,363

Border ablution patrons 39,340 47,818 61,029 77,891 99,410

Total 47,450 56,666 70,894 88,890 111,647

Source: CRIDF CBA

3
Estimated monthly water demand for rural households is 3.95m , this works out to an annual water demand
3
for unmetered households of 4,982m in 2016. Functionally, these low-cost households under the proposed
system will collect their water from kiosks rather than hand pumps from unprotected shallow wells. Kiosks will
consist of small buildings, manned by tap assistants, where rural households pay per 20 litre bucket of water
23
the collect . A flat tariff of GBP 0.22 per cubic meter of water supplied is applied. This tariff is set lower than
tariffs for the high cost households in consideration of the affordability for these poorer households.

23 Discussions with Dr Banda during site visit (2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 163 of 217

Table 38 Expected revenue from unmetered households

Demand Monthly Tariff rate 2016 2020 2025 2030 2035

3
household (GBP/m )
demand

Households 107 117 130 146 162

3
Water demand (m ) 3.95 0.22 5,092 5,555 6,193 6,905 7,699

24
Non-revenue water 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

Total projected water 901 983 1,096 1,222 1,363

tariff revenue
(GBP/year)

Source: CRIDF CBA

There are both low costs and high cost households in Mwami which have in-house water connections.
3
Metered low-cost households are expected to use approximately 6.33m per month, with an annual demand
3
of 7,972m in 2016. Both high cost and low cost housing includes metered water tariffs and sewerage
treatment charges associated with water supply and sewerage service provision.

Table 39 Expected revenue from low-cost metered households

Demand Monthly Tariff rate 2016 2020 2025 2030 2035

3
household (GBP/m )
demand

Households 107 117 130 146 162

3
Water demand (m ) 6.33 0.24 7,972 8,888 9,910 11,049 12,319

25
Non-revenue water 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

Projected water tariff revenue 1,586 1,693 1,888 2,105 2,398

(GBP/year)

Sewerage charges (GBP/year) 159 173 193 215 240

Total revenue 1,745 1,903 2,122 2,366 2,638

24 Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)

25 Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 164 of 217

Source: CRIDF CBA

High cost households have a much higher monthly water demand than rural households (about 3 times more),
and thus pay a higher tariff. As expected, most of the revenue is generated through the water tariffs, with the
sewerage treatment and fixed costs contributing approximately 10% of the revenue generated from high cost
households.

Table 40 Expected revenue from high cost households

Demand Monthly Tariff rate 2016 2020 2025 2030 2035

3
household (GBP/m )
demand

Households 92 102 114 127 139

Annual water demand 15.82 0.40 17,458 19,046 21,235 23,676 26,397
3
(m )

26
Non-revenue water 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

Total projected water 5,623 6,135 6,840 7,626 8,503

tariff revenue (GBP/year)

Sewerage charges 562 613 684 763 850

(GBP/year)

Total revenue 6,186 6,748 7,524 8,289 9,353

Source: CRIDF CBA

Border patrons are charged for the use of the facility rather than per unit of water. There are two separate
charges associated with the ablution block: GBP 0.44 for use of flush toilet facilities and shower/laundry
facilities and GBP 0.9 for 20 litre drinking water. Values used in the CBA are based on the current charges
that truck drivers face in Mwami’s informal water supply system. It is expected that a higher willingness to pay
exists for these services in an efficient and formal water supply network.

The notable revenue from the border sanitation facilities is driven by the large number of border patrons per
year. The high daily volume of traffic going through the border post daily, coupled with delays at the border,
implies that the ablution facilities will be used by most truck drivers.

26 Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 165 of 217

Table 41 Expected revenue from border patrons

3
Demand Tariff rate (GBP/m ) 2016 2020 2025 2030 2035

Toilet facilities 0.44 27,131 32,978 42,089 53,718 68,559

Shower and laundry facilities 0.44 6,783 8,244 10,522 13,429 17,140

Drinking water facilities 0.09 5 426 6 596 8 418 10 744 13 712

Total revenue from border 39,340 50,209 64,081 81,785 99,410

patrons (GBP/yr)

Source: CRIDF CBA

Financial Appraisal Results

The results of the appraisal indicate that the project is financially viable: at a discount rate of 11.5% the FNPV
is GBP 94,215; the FIRR (15%) is above the discount rate; and the FBCR (1.23) is above 1. These results
show that the revenues generated by the project are sufficient to cover the full investment costs over the
project life, but that this return will only accrue after the full 20 years of operation. This has important
implications for the funding of the project, which will be discussed below under Funding Scenarios.

Table 42 Financial appraisal results

Indicator Results (11.5% discount rate)

FNPV (GBP) 94,215

FIRR (%) 15%

FBCR 1.23

N/K Ratio 0.31

Source: CRIDF CBA

In terms of its ongoing financial sustainability, the projected operational cost-recovery of the infrastructure is
positive. Net cash-flows (annual revenues less annual O&M costs) have a positive FNPV of GBP 440,369,
implying that EWSC will be able to recover its yearly operational costs and make a small return. This is
substantiated by the BCR of the ongoing cash-flows of 4.

However, the project is unlikely to attract commercial funding due to a return which is not sufficient to warrant
taking on high levels of risk. Concessional finance (e.g. interest-free loans) paid back over the life of the
project are also not feasible given the significant capital costs relative to revenues from tariff collection. The

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 166 of 217

project will therefore require grant funding to proceed. However, should external financing be secure for the
required initial capital investment be accessed, the project infrastructure should be operationally sustainable.

Funding Scenarios

Error! Reference source not found. indicates the financial return on the project investment when external grant
funding is leveraged. It is suggested that a donor funder is sought for the full capital investment of the project
as the FIRR is too low to warrant private investment. While the government, or EWSC as the legislated water
utility in the Eastern Province, may be willing to cover the upfront investment cost over and above the break
even investment value, the quick-win nature of this project suggests that is suitable as a donor-driven project.

Additionally, if additional capital is sought from the Zambian state budget, it is expected that there will be a
delay in the project’s implementation. As will be argued under the Economic Appraisal section of this report,
Mwami is facing a critical juncture in its development from a small rural village to a growing border town.
Without improved water supply and sanitation infrastructure the town is at significant risk of serious health
concerns. Being a strategic border town suggests that this risk is more acute and that the cost of a water-
related health epidemic would be significantly harmful to Zambia in terms of a loss in trade, productivity and
potential cross border conflict.

Table 43 Project funding scenarios

Description FNPV (GBP) FIRR (%)

Project alone 94,215 15%

Full grant funding 363,933 43.5%

Source: CRIDF CBA

Sensitivity Analysis

A sensitivity analysis is an important way to analyse whether the key input assumptions for the project have a
material impact on its outcomes, particularly those of its overall viability. The objective is to identify the factors
that have the biggest impact on the project’s sustainability and returns. The sensitivity assessment looks at
the main factors that could impact the project’s costs, as well as the factors affecting the project’s revenue
generation.

The project’s operational sustainability is dwarfed by the significant upfront costs, leading to a poor overall
financial outlook. Increasing the upfront costs of the project by 10% sees a material impact on the project’s
NPV from GBP 94,215 to GBP 52,548. The associated change in the FIRR is from 15% to 13%. The increase
required in upfront investment would have to be 25% of the total cost in order to elicit a negative NPV (GBP
9,951), with an associated IRR of 11.2% and BCR of 0.98. While these results suggest that capital costs play

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 167 of 217

a fundamental role in the overall financial viability of this project, a relatively large change would be required to
make the project financially unviable.

While capital costs play a role in determining the overall financial viability of the project, it is also necessary to
do a sensitivity analysis on the operational sustainability of the project. This is particularly the case for
project’s which are funded by an external source but which will need to rely on operational sustainability for
their on-going success. In the case of Mwami, a sensitivity analysis was carried out on the operational flows of
the proposed intervention in isolation of the capital costs.

As reflected in the tables below, changes in the O&M costs have some bearing on the BCR; however the BCR
remains strongly positive with a 10% increase in the O&M costs. This is indicative of the strong revenues
generated by the project which far outweigh the operational costs. On the revenue side, the project
parameters have a minimal impact on the project viability, with the project’s NPV and BCR remaining strongly
positive. However, the project is sensitive to the number of border patrons due to the fact that much of the
revenue of the project is generated through their use of the sanitation facility. A 50% decline in border traffic
sees a change in the operational BCR from 4.41 to 2.58.

Table 44 Sensitivity analysis – cost parameters (GBP)

Parameter Change FNPV before FNPV after BCR before BCR after
change change change change

Increase in O&M costs +10% 440,369 57,930 4.4 4.0

Decrease in O&M costs -10% 440,369 47,397 4.4 4.9

Source: CRIDF CBA

Table 45 Sensitivity analysis – revenue parameters

Parameter Change FNPV before FNPV after BCR before BCR after
change change change change

Increase in +10% 440,369 450,150 4.41 4.48

number of
households

Decrease in -10% 440,369 430,590 4.41 4.33

number of
households

Increase in +10% 440,369 487,553 4.41 4.77

border traffic

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 168 of 217

Parameter Change FNPV before FNPV after BCR before BCR after
change change change change

Decrease in -10% 440,369 393,186 4.41 4.02

border traffic

Decrease in -50% 440,369 204,450 4.41 2.58

border traffic

Source: CRIDF CBA

The sensitivity analysis confirms that operational sustainability of the project is robust – with a benefit cost
ratio significantly higher than four, the project is able to recover its operation and maintenance costs. When
altering the key parameters in the operational viability of the project, i.e. the O&M costs and the revenue
generating parameters, a change in the O&M costs has a slightly smaller impact on the operational
sustainability of the project than traffic at the border post.

Economic Appraisal
The economic appraisal is conducted from the perspective of the economy as a whole and is done in order to
assess to what extent the project has net positive socio-economic impacts on the population of Mwami. The
economic appraisal assesses cost and benefits beyond the financial returns alone, and does so at prices
equal to their real value to society rather than financial/market prices. Due to the fact that such a project is
expected to have intangible benefits not captured in the financial model, such as productivity savings, the
economic appraisal is key in understanding the value of these benefits.

The economic benefits of the Mwami water supply and sanitation project include impacts which that can be
quantified into monetary terms as well as those which can only be captured qualitatively. The CBA aims to
capture both the quantitative and qualitative benefits which stem from the project, although the economic
appraisal is limited to the inclusion of the latter.

Project costs

The costs included in the economic analysis are the capital and O&M costs adjusted by appropriate
conversion factors to account for market distortions, as discussed in the assumptions section. The resultant
economic costs are summarised in the following tables (see Appendix A for a more detailed breakdown of
these costs). For both the capital investment and operational costs, the economic costs are slightly lower than
the financial factors after adjustments by the conversion factors.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 169 of 217

Table 46 Economic capital investment and operational costs (GBP)

Item Capital costs O&M costs

Water supply and sanitation infrastructure 265,504 12,706

Source: CRIDF CBA

Quantitative benefits

Financial revenues are a poor indication of the true value of water supply and sanitation infrastructure to the
town of Mwami. While they capture some of the willingness-to-pay for these water services, financial values
are often moderated to account for the human right to water, incentive structures and affordability concerns.
Essentially, the tariffs charged for water in Zambia do not reflect the full associated costs of providing
sustainable services.

The real value of water supply and sanitation is commonly estimated through an estimation of the maximum
willingness to pay (WTP) of consumers for the service rather than the market tariff. WTP includes the full
benefit of water and sanitation to a consumer – in terms of health, time savings, productivity, preference of
supply, etc. It is usually assessed through stated preference (contingent valuation) methodologies, which can
be resource intensive and misleading where there is significant asymmetry of information.

In this economic appraisal (in lieu of a WTP survey and analysis), the following expected project benefits are
assigned a monetary value in order to estimate the real (economic) value of the project:

 Time savings (and productivity gains)

 Health benefits

Time Savings

At present, the community has three hand pumps, one of which dries up over winter. The supply from these
shallow wells is said to be inadequate in that in addition to the time taken to walk to the hand pump, their slow
yields result in long queues. Fetching water is predominantly a woman and children’s role in Mwami and long
waiting periods are spent queuing at hand-pumps. The community asserted that some households can spend
up to five hours per day collecting water. Children are expected to collect water in the afternoon, upon
27
returning from school, and they spend about 45-60 minutes daily on this activity. Children do not miss school
as a result of the task, but they can be late for school in the morning or home late after school as a result.

Assigning a monetary value to the time that can be saved for households collecting water for domestic
purposes as a result of the project is subjective, given that it depends on how much time households currently
spend fetching water and the expected time savings associated with the new project infrastructure. Time
savings was thus broken down into the two types of households in the town, namely households which have
in-house water connections and those who do not (i.e. those who fetch water from communal access points).

27 CRIDF: Outline Business Case Mwami (2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 170 of 217

The monetary value of time savings can be calculated as the opportunity cost of the time spent fetching water.
The economic value of one hour saved is expected to be less than the minimum wage per hour in the
community due to the high levels of unemployment in the town, especially for women who are usually tasked
28
with water collection for the household. A conversion factor 65% was applied to the minimum wage.

Metered households are expected to have the larger time savings of the two dwelling types due to the fact the
entire time that used to be spent on fetching water is now avoided due to household water connections. They
will no longer have to travel to fetch water nor wait for slow yielding hand pumps. It is assumed that each
household would make approximately one trip per household member per day to fetch water and would spend
29
45 minutes per trip. Assuming that 75% of this time is saved (which accounts for the fact that some
households may have yard connections rather than in-house connections), the total opportunity cost of time
for metered households is equal to GBP 30,176 in 2016.

As this CBA includes only the incremental benefits of the project, only the additional savings brought about
from the proposed intervention are included. In the current system, low-cost unmetered households collect
water from communal stand pipes, whereas in the new system they will collect water from kiosks. Four kiosks
have been proposed in the new design, and it is assumed that households will save 20% of the time taken to
fetch water due to the new infrastructure. This is attributable to a number of factors which will decrease the
collection time for water, including lower demand per kiosk as high cost housing will now be supplied with
metered water, faster supply of water due to electric pumping and a more efficient collection process. The
total annual opportunity cost of time saved for rural households is equal to GBP 4,333 in 2016.

The combined time savings is valued at GBP 34,509 in the first year of the project. Time savings is assumed
to grow proportionally to the size of the population. Refer to Error! Reference source not found. in Appendix
B for a detailed breakdown of these calculations. Overall, metered households save more time per household
at an individual level as well as at an aggregate level than communal access households.

Table 47 Time savings benefits (GBP)

Annual value of time savings 2016 2020 2025 2030 2035

Metered households 30,176 32,920 36,705 40,924 45,628

Communal access households 4,333 4,727 5,270 3,616 2,912

Total time savings 34,509 37,647 41,975 44, 540 48,540

Source: CRIDF CBA

Health improvements associated with water supply and sanitation

28 FAO (2002). Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa

29 Updated Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 171 of 217

The World Health Organisation (WHO) (2004) asserts that 1.8 million people die every year from diarrhoeal
diseases; 90% of which are children under five, mostly in developing countries. The National Environmental
Health Policy (2001) estimates that up to 80% of the preventable diseases in Zambia are related to poor
sanitation. The proposed interventions for Mwami will directly and indirectly contribute to the reduction of a
30
range of water and sanitation related diseases, such as cholera, dysentery and trachoma.
31
Eastern Province of Zambia has the highest incidence nationwide of infant, child and under-5 mortality .
Diarrhoea is the primary initial indicator of many sanitation related diseases, current figures for Mwami show
an incidence of about 270 cases of diarrhoea per month in 2015. This equates to a monthly prevalence of
17% of the total population of the town. These figures are significantly high and pose a severe burden on the
economy of Mwami. Exposure to diarrhoea-causing agents is frequently related to the use of contaminated
32
water and to unhygienic practices in the preparation of food and disposal of excreta. WHO and SIWI find
33
that improved water supply can decrease diarrhoea morbidity by up to 45%.

The town of Mwami relies heavily on untreated water from the three communal taps. When these break or run
dry, some members of the community use water from the nearby wetland, adjacent to the Lutembwe River.
This water is of poor quality due to the fact that it is also used for livestock watering. Sanitation in the town is
also of concern; while many of the community use pit latrines which have the risk of contaminating water
supplies in the event of a flood, the most significant concern is that of the open defecation practiced by truck
drivers while waiting to cross the border. This is due to the fact that this transitory population in the town does
not have a formal water supply or ablution block at present.

It is therefore expected that the Mwami community would benefit greatly from both better access to water and
sanitation interventions.

The World Bank Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) has calculated the economic costs of poor sanitation in
34
Zambia ; it found that Zambia loses USD 194 million annually – or GBP 11 per person annually – due to poor
water supply and sanitation, which include health impacts of poor water supply and sanitation, the cost of
premature death due to illness caused by diarrhoea and the cost of productivity losses while sick or accessing
health care.

The economic cost estimate of poor sanitation is used as a basis to estimate the health benefits (or avoided
cost) of the project on the resident population. It is assumed that the project intervention will result in a 45%
35
reduction in diarrhoea-related health concerns at the clinic. The total annual cost savings to the state is thus
GBP 8,545 for local residents in 2016. The health savings increase in proportion with population growth in the

30 Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)

31 Updated Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)
32 Central Statistics Office (CSO), Ministry of Health (MOH), Tropical Diseases Research Centre (TDRC), University of Zambia, and
Macro International Inc. (2009) “Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2007”, CSO & Macro International Inc., Calverton, Maryland,
USA
33 WHO & SIWI, “ Making Water a Part of Economic Development” , Govt Norway & Sweden as input into Commission on Sustainable
Development (CSD) (2004-2005)
34 WSP Africa (2012) “Economic Impacts of Poor Sanitation in Zambia” Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank,
[Link]
35 World Health Organization (2004) “Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Links to Health Facts and Figures”
[Link] [2015, July 07]

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 172 of 217

local resident population. This is a conservative estimate as the water-related incidence of health concerns
may in fact increase exponentially if population pressures increase in the absence of any improvements to
water supply and sanitation.

Border patrons, specifically truck drivers, currently use an informal system to access water in Mwami. They
are vulnerable to health risks associated with unprotected water as well as inadequate supply of water and
sanitation. In order to calculate the total cost savings for the State from this population, it was assumed that
the incidence of water-related health concerns was similar to that of the local population (17%) and that 73%
of these would seek medical attention at the clinic. Following the figures provided in the updated Technical
Report, the cost of GBP 3.5 per incident is used to treat these cases at the local clinic. Assuming
conservatively that sanitation improvements would reduce their incidence of diarrhoea-related cases by 25%,
the estimated cost savings to the state would be GBP 944 in 2016. This cost would not fall on the patients as
this cost is subsidised by government in the Mwami clinic. The value of health savings for the transitory
population increases in proportion with the growth in border traffic passing through the town (i.e. 5%).

There are other health savings associated with the transient population, including the cost of getting to the
local clinic or hospital, as well as productivity losses. These could be valued at the cost of one day of sick
leave per water-related incident at the clinic reflected in terms of its shadow price, however, due to a lack of
information on these costs and impacts they are excluded from the quantification of benefits.

Table 48 Economic benefits (GBP)

Item 2016 2020 2025 2030 2035

Total time savings 34,509 37,647 41,975 44,540 48,540

Total health savings 8,545 9,440 10,711 12,178 13,879

Total economic benefits 43,054 47,088 52,685 55,718 62,419

Source: CRIDF CBA

While the health benefits estimated in this CBA are calculated on the quantifiable health savings due to the
proposed intervention, it is expected that they are significantly less than the full cost to society. This is
because they ignore a number of benefits that are difficult to quantify and monetise. These are listed below:

 The cost of reduced long-term cognitive development which is a result of early childhood
diarrhoea and associated under-nutrition, stunting and wasting

 The cost of funerals, which are borne directly by households and are particularly significant in
African culture. A study in South Africa found that on average, households spend the
equivalent of year’s total expenditure on food and groceries on funerals.

 The cost of epidemic outbreaks, of which faecal contamination of the environment is the root
cause of an annual average 3,200 cases of cholera affecting Zambia. Mwami is particularly
vulnerable to epidemic outbreaks due to the large number of border patrons that pass through

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 173 of 217

 the town on a daily basis. An epidemic outbreak of cholera would pose a severe cost to the
economy due to productivity losses, premature death, diversion of expenditure to health, and
losses in trade and tourism.

Quantitative results

The results of the quantitative economic appraisal, as summarised in the table below, indicate that the project
is economically desirable at both a 3.5% and 10% discount rate, with positive ENPVs and an ERR which is
higher than both discount rates.

Table 49 Economic appraisal results

Indicator 3.5 % discount rate 10 % discount rate

ENPV (GBP) 285,455 48,785

ERR (%) 12% 12%

EBCR 1.38 1.02

Source: CRIDF CBA

Sensitivity Analysis

Two important factors in the estimation of economic benefits are that of the length of time taken to fetch water
as well as the percentage of diarrhoea-related illness cases avoided due to the intervention. The impact of
these assumptions is investigated in Error! Reference source not found..

Table 50 Economic Sensitivity Analysis (GBP, 10% SDR)

Parameter Change ENPV before ENPV after BCR before BCR after
change change change change

Increase in time taken +10% 48,785 82,381 1.02 1.10

to collect water

Decrease time taken to -10% 48,785 15,189 1.02 0.94

collect water

Increase in ability to +10% 48,785 57,438 1.02 1.04

reduce incidence of
diarrhoea-related cases

Decrease in ability to -10% 48,785 40,134 1.02 1.00

reduce incidence of

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 174 of 217

diarrhoea-related cases

Source: CRIDF CBA

Changing the time taken to fetch water has a proportionally larger impact on the economic results of the
project than the ability of the intervention to reduce in water-related illness. The project is not significantly
affected by changes in the latter; however, a decrease in the assumed time taken to fetch water by 10% shifts
the BCR to below 1.

Qualitative Project Benefits

While the economic appraisal above aims to capture the main components of the economic benefits of the
project, it is likely that they are an understatement of the true value of the water and sanitation services
supplied by the project. Thus, the qualitative description of the full spectrum of benefits is an important aspect
of this economic analysis. The likely qualitative economic benefits associated with improved water and
sanitation includes: positive impacts on gender equality, educational outcomes, economic development, and
regional dividends. In particular, benefits to education, regional development and climate resilience are
particularly important to Mwami and are discussed below.

Education & labour productivity

The economic benefits of improved access to safe water are both immediate and long term. Immediate
benefits include averted health-related costs and time savings associated with having water facilities with
shorter waiting times. In the longer term however, these benefits compound one other: sufficient supply of
treated water will translate into long-run health benefits, which in turn will relate into more productive
populations. In terms of educational outcomes, decreased illness due to improved water supply is likely to
result in better attendance and ability to learn.

Additionally, time savings will result in additional productivity in the town, felt especially by women and
children who are usually tasked with fetching water. While it is difficult to quantify the value of one hour spent
fetching water by children due to the fact that there is no obvious (monetary) opportunity cost to this time,
increased productive time for children can be spent playing or studying for school, both of which have
important positive impacts on cognitive ability in the long run.

Regional Dividends

Mwami’s holds a strategic position on the trade route between Malawi and Zambia and has been identified for
its strategic importance to both Zambia and the SADC region in general. A total of 73,000 truck passengers
pass through the border town each year, carrying a variety of commodities between the two countries. This
substantial number of vehicles is expected to increase as trade within SADC grows. The number of truck
drivers passing through the Mwami border depends on the amount of time that it takes to cross the border, as
well as a range of other amenities available to them while they wait. Water supply and sanitation infrastructure
is one of these basic and fundamental amenities.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 175 of 217

Improved water supply and sanitation will enable increased and smoother regional connectivity, trade and
ultimately regional integration. With a high standard of basic infrastructure, Mwami will remain a primary
conduit for traffic crossing the Zambezi on the Regional Transport Corridors.

Without water supply and sanitation improvements, truck drivers will continue putting strain on the town’s
already limited water supplies. The fact that Mwami is a border town means that the chance of these
epidemics spreading throughout the region is significant. Additionally, much of Mwami’s economy is based
around border activities, and for the town to continue functioning as a successful border, an adequate water
36
supply is fundamental to its progress and development. The WSP estimate that the cost of an epidemic
outbreak – of which faecal contamination of the environment is the root cause – will cost Zambia
approximately USD 2 million per year. Should an epidemic break out in Mwami, there is a high likelihood that
it will spread to surrounding countries.

Climate Resilience

At present the population of Mwami has limited resilience to climate shocks such as floods or droughts. The
three communal shallow wells are prone to water supply variability, with the reported drying up of the one well
37
in winter. Additionally, 85% of the population uses traditional pit latrines. Open defecation is practiced by
some of the local community, as well as by the truck drivers passing through the border posts who do not
have an ablution facility. In the case of a flood, these ablution practices are severely detrimental to the health
of the population through their contamination of the water supply.

The compounding pressures of growing populations, increasing number of border patrons and climate
38
change, which sees a decrease in the average rainfall to the area while simultaneously more variable
rainfall, suggests the urgent need for better water infrastructure.

Selection of the Social Discount Rate

DFID uses a standard rate of 3.5% for climate-related projects, in part due to the fact that the costs of climate
change on communities and the environment will be felt in the long run, with compounding severity. A high
39
discount rate can discount these long run costs to almost nothing within a relevant timespan of 20 years. On
the other hand, a low discount rate favours projects with high initial costs and low future costs.

In this particular project, the upfront costs are high due to the fact that the town currently has almost no water
supply or sanitation infrastructure. The redesign of the project has meant that all of the proposed infrastructure
will be in use by the end of the project life span, and its expense can be attributed to the fact that it is
providing the community with a fundamental service. Additionally, its benefits will be long-term in nature.
Without the project it is likely that health concerns will be exacerbated in the border post, particularly by the

36 WSP Africa (2012) “Economic Impacts of Poor Sanitation in Zambia” Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank,
[Link] [2015, July 14]
37 Technical Assessment: Mwami (2015)
38 CEEPA (2006). The economic impacts of climate change on agriculture in Zambia.
[Link] [2015, July 14]
39 Conningarth Economists (2007) “A Manual for Cost-Benefit Analysis in South Africa with Specific reference to Water Resource
Development” Water Research Commission

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 176 of 217

burgeoning truck driver population and is compounded by climate pressures such as droughts and floods. A
strong argument can thus be made that the 3.5% social discount factor should be used in the analysis of the
project, suggesting a strong BCR of 1.38.

Sustainability Analysis

The economic appraisal shows that the project is justified from a socio-economic perspective. The financial
appraisal shows that with external funding support for capital investment costs, there is adequate cash flow to
maintain operations at the assumed current tariff levels. The remaining issue for a sustainability analysis is to
assess the affordability of the project for its intended beneficiaries. The analysis assesses the affordability of
the current tariff levels that will be charged for the services provided in the Mwami project, based on the
40
average monthly income of the population.
41
Benchmarks are a useful source of affordability standards for water and sanitation services. Hutton (2012)
finds that in Africa, the affordability index for median households is around 2.8% of monthly income, and for
poor households connected to public water supply can easily reach 7.5%. International agencies have
provided their own affordability thresholds – UNDP (3%), World Bank (5%), OECD unofficial (4%), and African
Development Bank (5%).

The average monthly spend for a rural household in Mwami is equal to GBP 0.87 per month (based on an
3
average monthly water consumption of 3.95m and an associated tariff of GBP 0.22). Using the average
monthly wage in the agriculture of GBP 33.2 (600 ZMW), rural households will spend roughly 2% of their
household budget, assuming that only one household member works. For high-cost households, the average
3
monthly usage of water is 15.82 m . This translates into a monthly cost of roughly GBP 6. Using the average
monthly wage for formal employment of GBP 305 (5,512 ZMW), these households are spending roughly 1.3%
of their monthly household income, assuming only one member of the family works.

At the current assumed income levels, the tariffs appear to be affordable for both rural and high cost
households. Comparing these with the benchmarks outlined above, the project will be affordable to the
Mwami population.

As discussed in the Financial Appraisal section above, tariffs for border patrons are based on current charges
in the informal market for water and sanitation services. They thus represent sufficient willingness to pay for
the water supply and sanitation services proposed in the project design.

Financial / Economic Risk Analysis

The sensitivity analysis on the financial and economic appraisals indicated that none of the core project
parameters were extremely critical to the financial and economic feasibility of the projects. A high level risk

40
We have conservatively assumed that tariffs will remain fixed at 2015 prices
41
Hutton, G. (2012) “ Monitoring “Affordability” of water and sanitation services after 2015: Review of global indicator options”, PhD – A
paper submitted to the United Nations Office of the High Commission for Human Rights,
[Link]

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 177 of 217

analysis is outlined below, reflecting possible technical, financial and operational risks that might impact on
the project’s viability.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 178 of 217

Table 51 Identified project risks and mitigation measures

Risk Level Mitigation Level

Groundwater abstraction High  Do a pump test on the groundwater yield of each

proposed borehole and make sure that monthly
Groundwater abstraction occurs at
abstraction does not rise above the
unsustainable rates, causing water quality
recommended level
concerns in the aquifer with associated
environmental and social costs  Continue to monitor groundwater yield from each
proposed borehole and be aware of the dangers
of unsustainable yield

 Embark on a public awareness campaign if

residents are using more water than the system
is designed to cater for in order to control
demand side pressures

Septic tanks spill overs High  Invest in awareness-raising about the costs of
inappropriate use of your septic tank. This is
Soil contamination from sludge spillages
especially important given the fact that some of
as well as inappropriate use of septic
the septic tanks have not been used before by
tanks by households and border patrons
houses who are yet to be connected to the water
mains

Domestic Demand Medium  Ensure adequate collaboration with the Distict

Council as well as the Chief of the Ngoni people,
Population may not grow as predicted.
His Royal Highness Mpezeni – The Inkhosi Ya
This will impact revenues generated by
ma Nkhosi of the Ngoni tribe – before project
the project and thus its operational
implementation. Stress the importance of town
sustainability. O&M costs will then be
planning in collaboration meetings.
serviced by small number of persons
which will challenge the affordability or  Ensure detailed designs are based on realistic
cost recovery of the intervention. projections of current and future water demand.
Additionally, if Mwami’s development This includes a review of the number of
happens outside of the proposed design, boreholes needed, the number of kiosks needed
this will mean that the target population and the size of the water tank.
will not be served by the infrastructure. In
turn this will result in the socio-economic
benefits and financial revenues of the
project not being realised.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 179 of 217

Risk Level Mitigation Level

Water kiosk demand Medium  Involve the community from the beginning and
raise awareness on need to pay for the service.
Rural households unable or not willing to
Involve the District Council in this. Devise
pay for consumption at kiosks due to the
strategies to encourage and assist with costs of
fact that until now they only pay when a
connections
hand-pump needs repair
 Stress the benefits of using safe water (that
which is treated) over water from unprotected
wells and the wetland area

 Make full use of the budget set aside in the

upfront investment costs for training community
based organisations. If possible, set out a plan
with key performance indicators to monitor how
this money is spent

Vandalism of the system Medium  Facilitate establishment of community water

supply committee(s)

 Promote community education, awareness

campaigns and promotion of social capital

Community to continue to rely on Medium  Work with the town’s health workers to educate
unsafe sources the community on the dangers of using unsafe
water

 Emphasize the ease, time savings and reliability

of using the proposed system

 Consider disconnecting current hand pumps to

encourage community members to switch to the
new water supply

Metered household collections Low  Invest in public awareness raising of why water
is charged per unit in metered housing
EWSC finds it difficult to collect monthly
tariffs from metered households  Emphasize that this cost covers the O & M costs
of the infrastructure so that if it breaks there will
not be additional costs to the metered
households

 EWSC has a good track record with collections

in Chipata town. If it can avoid unnecessarily

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 180 of 217

Risk Level Mitigation Level

large water bills to houses due to leakages then

it is likely to be successful at collections in the
town of Mwami

Sanitation facilities Low  Base tariffs charged in the ablution block on

those charged in the informal market for water
Border patrons unwilling to pay for
supply and sanitation as these represent
ablution facility
observed willingness to pay in this market.

 Keep ablution facilities functional and clean so

that border patrons continue to value its services

Inadequate O&M invested by EWSC Low  EWSC to commit to deploy adequate and
appropriate staff on site and regular supervision
and oversight visits by senior staff

 Include EWSC training and capacity building

during project management

Wastewater Low  Continue to charge people per unit of water

Proposed design results in higher levels of  Invest in awareness raising about the value of
waste water produced by the population water

Source: CRIDF CBA

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 181 of 217

Institutional Assessment
The project falls within the responsibility of the Eastern Water and Sewerage Company (EWSC) Limited, who
will be the owner of any infrastructure provided and are expected to be the implementing agent for the
procurement of the infrastructure project.

The following Institutional Assessment is a summary of the detailed assessment done as part of the Financial
42
Closure .

EWSC Supply Area

EWSC is located in the eastern part of the country, i.e. the area bordering on Malawi and Mozambique. The
EWSC area of supply is relatively sparsely populated although there are eight significant towns. The largest of
these is Chipata with a population of 133 644 in 2011. The total population in the EWSC area was estimated
to be approximately 270 000 in 2014. Of these, approximately 224 000 are currently served with water by
means of 15 544 connections.

Historically the economy of the area has been largely based on agriculture and this tends to result in seasonal
fluctuations in terms of economic activity and employment. Recently there has been significant investment,
particularly in the construction of roads to enhance transport links. There are also significant aspirations in
terms of increased tourism in the area, particularly with the improvement of links to the Luangwa National
Park. Power supply to the area is often unreliable and this has slowed economic growth and also affects the
performance of the water utility.

EWSC is classified by NWASCO as a Category 3 utility implying that it either has less than 15 000
connections or supplies less than 41 Megalitres per day treatment capacity. In recent years it has performed
well in the national ranking undertaken by NWASCO, finishing second, fourth and fourth in the last three
years. It was also judged to be the best in servicing the peri-urban areas in 2014, and had the best metering
ratio, jointly with two other utilities, at 100%. On the negative side, the provision of safe sanitation in EWSC is
only at a level of 47%. Approximately 11% of the population are estimated to be connected to the water-borne
sewer network.

A summary of some of the relevant statistics for the towns in the EWSC supply area is given in

. As can be seen, Chipata is the largest town and thereby provides a disproportionate share of the income to
EWSC. EWSC treats approximately 15 Megalitres per day of wastewater.

42
CRIDF, Strategic Institutional Assessment of the EWSC, April 2016.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 182 of 217

Table 52 Key Statistics for EWSC Towns

Urban & Peri- HHs No. of Coverage Population Growth rate [%]
Town
Urban Conns.
[No.] [%]
Population
2011

2012 2013
Chipata 133,644 58,944 7411 79 2.8 2.8
Chadiza 7,174 3,424 434 78 2.8 2.8
Mambwe 2,592 1,392 175 72 2.8 2.8
Lundazi 16,792 9,592 1205 79 2.8 2.8
Chama 7,488 3,888 489 84 2.8 2.8
Petauke 24,312 11,112 1400 87 2.8 2.8
Katete 10,816 6,016 756 97 2.8 2.8
Nyimba 2,936 2,536 318 54 2.8 2.8

Total 205,754 96,904 12,188 80 2.8 2.8

The principle risk in relation to ensuring that the Mwami scheme attracts sufficient budget is its size in relation
to other schemes and the fact that it is not listed as one of the towns for which EWSC is responsible, nor is it a
peri-urban area of Chipata (the nearest listed town).

It is presumed that some legal process may be needed to enable EWSC to operate in Mwami, and it seems
likely also that without a ‘budget history’ there may initially be difficulties associated with staffing and
budgeting.

The situation in Chanida is broadly the same though the scheme is smaller and located quite some distance
away from other EWSC facilities. This may necessitate the need for more innovative approaches such as
outsourcing in order to keep operating costs at a reasonable level.

Governance
There were four Board meetings held during 2014 and 94% attendance during this period. During this time the
ICT policy was approved, the Internal Audit Charter, the Board Charter and the Code of Ethics.

In their 2014 Sector Report, NWASCO indicated a relatively high degree of satisfaction with governance
matters in EWSC and they commented positively on the attendance at Board meetings and the approval of
substantive matters such as the important policy documents. They also commented favourably on the
strategic plan, approved budget, and audited Annual Report.

NWASSCO however indicated that there was no EWSC “Investment Plan” (Infrastructure Master Plan or a
multi-year Capital Expenditure Plan).

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 183 of 217

Organisational Strategy
The vision, mission and strategic objectives of the EWSC are stated as:

Vision

To be a model commercial utility exceeding expectations in delivering water supply and sanitation services to
all the population in the urban and peri-urban areas of Eastern Province.

Mission

To effectively provide safe adequate and affordable water supply and sanitation services with maximum
efficiency to our existing and potential clients in the urban and peri-urban areas of Eastern Province.

Objectives for the planning period

 Achieve financial and economic viability
 Staff the company with competent, well-motivated and affordable personnel incorporating gender and
HIV / AIDS concerns.
 Put in place sound commercial principles
 Achieve above average industrial, technical and operational effectiveness
 Achieve above average customer satisfaction
 Achieve improved information flow both within and outside
 Achieve stakeholder understanding and support
 Formulate and implement sound management policies and procedures
 EWSC have identified the major challenges that face them as being the following:
 To monitor and control the impact of power supply
 To reduce non-revenue water
 To improve planned maintenance
 Cost reduction
 To secure staff competencies
 To secure water sources (security of water sources including climate change, weed encroachment,
etc.)
 Documentation and standardised procedures
 To improve on procurement
 To increase coverage of sanitation and water supply to all customers. EWSC is concerned about all
customers within its catchment areas, whether connected or not.

There has been a high turnover of staff at top management level in EWSC in recent years, although it is
reported that this situation has now largely stabilised.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 184 of 217

Financial

Annual Financial Statements

Based on the 2014 Annual Report, the total billing amount for 2014 was approximately 15.6 million Kwacha. It
was reported that EWSC were very successful in terms of revenue management with a total metering of 100%
and a collection efficiency of 100%.

This resulted in an “O&M cost coverage” of 73% and a full cost coverage including aspects such as
depreciation, pension allowances and servicing debt costs of 61%. This is in spite of the fact that EWSC has
the highest water tariffs in the country. EWSC’s current ratio for 2014 is 0.7, which is well below the
acceptable norm of 1.0 to 1.5. In spite of the high tariffs and very good performance on revenue management,
the loss amounted to192 000 Kwacha or -16.4%. The nett loss and working capital is resolved by obtaining
revenue grants. EWSC received grants of 1.145 million Kwacha in the 2014 year.

Although there are probably inefficiencies in EWSC that can be optimised, this overall poor financial
performance is probably more due to the poor economies of scale in terms of the configuration of customers
they need to supply. In particular, the fact that their customers are dispersed over a number of towns, which
are widely dispersed and most of which are relatively small.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

In terms of O&M costs, approximately 54% were indicated to be due to chemicals, 25% due to energy and
15% due to personnel. The proportion spent on chemicals is surprisingly large. This would normally be due to
poor raw water quality.

EWSC follow a budget planning and development process that includes the participation of the managers who
43
control spending in background planning and subsequent development of the budget . This practice should,
over time, result in budgets that become sufficient to enable sound operations and maintenance to take place.

Debtors

In 2014, the outstanding debtors came to an amount of 6.3 million Kwacha with the biggest culprit being
Government with a debt of 3 million Kwacha. The size of the debtors book would tend to imply that there may
be a large proportion of bad debt that will have to be written off.

43
EWSC 2014/16 Business Plan

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 185 of 217

Organisational design and human resources

Management Structure

The Executive Management of the EWSC is constituted of a Managing Director, assisted by Directorates for
Technical Operations, Finance and Commercial Services, and Human Resources and Administration.
Collectively they are tasked with the implementation of policy and strategic direction of the Company as
determined by the Board. It is further expected that the Executive Management will ensure that the Board is
well informed about the operations of the Company and supported in respect of strategic decisions. As at
44
January 2015, a number of these posts are unfilled .

Management Functioning

The EWSC has a history of efficient and effective functioning and has fairly consistently been ranked amongst
the top performing water utilities in Zambia. External factors outside the immediate control of the EWSC, such
as electricity rationing and extended periods of low voltage (including within Chipata) and reduced water
resources levels, have seriously impacted on delivery against agreed targets as set by the Regulator.
45
The most recent revision of the EWSC Business Plan demonstrates that management has the ability to fully
operationalise fundamental components of delivery. Elements of underachievement have been identified and
incorporated as part of a structured and appropriate action plan. The fact that the Business Planning process
has taken on board actions that speak of foresight and the need to address essential components of
functioning such as asset management, routine maintenance, cost recovery and customer care speaks of
fundamental understanding of the business and what is required, as well as management capacity within the
Company.
46
In addition to the above, the following aspects speak of accountable management functioning :
 The Business Plan is closely aligned with the Organisational Strategy and the process to develop the
Business Plan was supported by an extensive consultation process;
 The Organisational Structure shows a clear and coherent alignment with the Organisational Strategy;
 The EWSC is sensitive to the need to ensure a constructive Customer Orientation. Mixed levels of
services are offered, based on customer preference and ability to pay;
 The Company has systems in place to ensure that operational and procedural controls are effective;
 The Business Plan emphasizes the need to extend the current management oversight systems to
allow a more integrated approach and includes the initiation of monthly meetings to monitor
implementation and review Business Plan strategies according to demands;

44
EWSC (2015) Organograms for Head Office and Regional / District Offices
45
EWSC Reviewed Business Plan 2014 - 2016
46
Based on data extracted from the EWSC (2015) Reviewed Business Plan 2014 – 2016; the NWASCO (2014) Urban and Peri-urban
Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Report; the EWSC (2015) Report to the Shareholders for the Year January to December 2014; the
CRIDF (2015) Chanida Feasibility and Chipata (Mwami) Technical Feasibility Reports, forming part of the CRIDF (2015) Chipata and
Chanida Water Supply and Sanitation – Feasibility Study

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 186 of 217

  Cooperation and collaboration with stakeholders are pursued through activities such as the EWSC
actively participating in the Districts Development Coordinating Committees (DDCC) meetings, District
Plan Works (PWDC) and the intention to provide input into the activities of the provincial planning
authority;
 The importance of adequate sanitation and associated community-based advocacy is understood and
has been prioritized within the Company’s operational framework through the development of a
Sanitation Strategy;
 Revenue collection is seen as an important prerequisite for ongoing functioning and the Company has
been incisive in the management of non-payment, in particular in respect of government institutions.
 Non-Revenue Water (commercial and technical) is understood to be a priority focus area.

Based on the initial review of management capacity as described above, as well as implementation at
operational level, it may be concluded that the Company demonstrates solid management functioning.

Decentralised Service Delivery

Due to the size and nature of its operations, the EWSC structure is decentralised with aspects such as
customer services and operations and maintenance functions devolved to its district offices.

Figure 18 provides an overview of this decentralised operational delivery structure. The proposed
developments at Mwami in Chipata and Chanida (close to Katete) have been shown as ‘sub-centre water
47
supply schemes’, resorting under Chipata .

EWSC Head
Office
Chipata

Sinda Vubwi
Chipata Katete Chadiza Lundazi Mambwe Nyimba Petauke (no (no
staff) staff)
Chipa-
Mwami Chanida
ramba

Figure 18 Decentralised Offices of EWSC

Human Resources Management Practices

Available information provides some insight into the existing human resources management function and
48
systems of the EWSC :
 Specific steps have been taken and are being proposed to strengthen the Company HR development
function.

47
EWSC (2015) Reviewed Business Plan 2014 – 2016
48
EWSC (2015) Reviewed Business Plan 2014 – 2016

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 187 of 217

  A number of Human Resource Policies are in place, including for mainstreaming Gender and
HIV/AIDS. Additional policies include:
o Occupational, Health and Safety and Environment,
o Performance Management,
o Disciplinary Code and Grievance Handling
o Recruitment and Selection,
o Training and Development, and
o Housing.
 The EWSC regards organisational development as fundamental to the achievement of the Business
Plan objectives.
 It appears that workforce data and information are routinely collected and used for HR planning,
including for periodic staff projections.
 Workplace safety has been taken on board, specifically in respect of the fact that a Safety, Health and
the Environment (SHE) Policy is in place.
 Processes and procedures are in place that demonstrate an understanding of the need for training to
improve work related competencies, job specific proficiency and the associated optimal utilization of
personnel.
 There appear to be policies, mechanisms, and practices in place or being put in place to ensure
performance management, including Disciplinary and Grievance Procedures, Workforce Retention
Strategies as well as processes for Succession planning.

Training Programmes

The EWSC has stressed the need to ensure that the training needs of staff as measured against job
requirements, are addressed. As a result, training is structured to respond to specific gaps in work related
competence, and based on the needs of the Company.

From the information provided, it is clear that the focus of such skills development revolves around the
implementation of short courses and workshops. Topics focus on the development of a deeper understanding
of salient aspects of Organisational functioning and/or on specific skills and competencies that will support
work related performance.

49
General Aspects of Employment

Employee pension contributions are paid to the National Pensions Scheme Authority and the Company has a
Group Life Assurance (GLA) Policy in place.

49
This section based on data extracted from the EWSC (2015) Reviewed Business Plan 2014 – 2016; the NWASCO (2014) Urban and
Peri-urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Report; the EWSC (2015) Report to the Shareholders for the Year January to December
2014; the CRIDF (2015) Chanida Feasibility and Chipata (Mwami) Technical Feasibility Reports, forming part of the CRIDF (2015)
Chipata and Chanida Water Supply and Sanitation – Feasibility Study

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 188 of 217

EWSC ensures the payment of Workman’s Compensation to the State Scheme for all employees in service, to
ensure employee compensation should they be injured on duty.

Staffing Numbers

50
The EWSC has a total staff complement of 143, which provides a staff to connection ratio of 1:100. An
additional 22 positions exist or have been created that are not yet filled.

The following gender disaggregated data has been provided in respect of staff members at the Head Office as
51
well as across all District Offices :

Table 53 Total Staffing Numbers

CATEGORY MALE FEMALE

Permanent 103 23

Contract 13 4

Total 116 27

52
Organisational Structure

The Company demonstrates a clear division of operational functions across different levels, with devolution of
specific functions to the various district offices. Chipata, which accounts for close on 60% of water
consumption within the EWSC area of operation, runs the larger district office. Each district is, in turn,
responsible for what are termed ‘sub-central water supply schemes which include delivery from surface and/or
ground water.

There has been ongoing restructuring of the Company to ensure that it is able to fulfil its mandated functions in
a streamlined manner. Currently the Company is organised into three Functional Departments that fall under
the Managing Director. These are:
 Financial and Commercial Services, with direct oversight in respect of the Commercial and Finance
Management Departments (each with its own Manager);
 Technical Services, with direct oversight of the District (Regional) Offices and the Technical
Department (Planning and Maintenance), each with its own Manager; and the
 Human Resources and Administration Department with its own manager.

50
NWASCO (2014) Urban and Peri-urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Report
51
EWSC (2015) Report to the Shareholders for the Year January to December 2014.
52
EWSC (2015) Organisational Structuring for the EWSC Head Office and Districts

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 189 of 217

The Technical Services Directorate makes provision for GIS and Quality Assurance Officers under the
oversight of the Technical Manager, whilst a Laboratory Technician has reporting linkages directly to the
Quality Assurance Officer.

The districts are incorporated into the Organisational Structure as part of the Technical Department, with
oversight provided by two Regional Managers. District offices have been assigned all duties and functions
related to, inter alia, operations, finance, commercial and sewerage services within their own areas of
operation. In accordance with the commercial approach followed by the EWSC, districts are tasked with the
implementation of customer services.

Support to regions takes one of three forms:

 From the Technical Services Directorate in terms of operations and direct oversight.
 From the Head Office, specifically in terms of high level policy and strategic decisions and direction;
engagement of outside organisations.
 From the Finance and Commercial Directorate in respect of direct support in respect of district
operations and the provision of policies, control and integration at corporate level.
53
The EWSC Organogram is shown in Figure 19.

53
EWSC (2015) Organisational Structuring for the EWSC Head Office and Districts

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 190 of 217

 Board of Directors

Managing Director Audit Committee

S1
1

S2 Technical Director Finance & Human Resource &

Commercial Administration
Director Director

Procurement & Regional Technical Finance Commercial Human

S3 Supplies Manager Manager Manager Services Resource &
Manager Manager Administration
Manager

Public Relations
S4 ICT Officer Internal Auditor
Manager

Executive Assistant ICT

S5 Assistant Officer

Figure 19 EWSC Organogram

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 191 of 217

Institutional Assessment Conclusion
Based on the analysis of the EWSC it is expected that there is low institutional risk with respect to these
projects. This is partly due to the relatively small size of the projects and partly because EWSC is a credible
organisation that has demonstrated significant institutional capacity over the years. There are admittedly
concerns regarding the ongoing financial viability of EWSC, however it has shown a trend over a number of
years of steadily gaining institutional and financial strength. For this reason, some consideration should be
given to initiatives that further strengthen EWSC’s viability. CRIDF could consider a future
advocacy/facilitating role in this regard.

The location of these projects is clearly of a strategic nature with potentially positive spin offs in terms of
enhanced commerce, trade and tourism. This will benefit the local population and therefore by extension,
EWSC itself. The outlying and distant location of especially Chanida, but also Mwami, will require careful
consideration of the operation and management structure.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 192 of 217

Risk Assessment
A detailed assessment of the risks for the Mwami border water supply and sanitation project was undertaken
to assess the potential risks that could inhibit project implementation. The assessment has been effected from
two particular fronts, namely, inherent risks and external risks which are out of the project team’s control. The
risks are categorised under technical, operations and maintenance, socio-economic, environmental, political
and financial.

Table 54 Risk Assessment Matrix

Risk Extent of control Risk Assessment Summary risk mitigation

over the risk strategies
identified Probability Impact

 Technical

 A lack of  Involvement and

CRIDF has fully Low High.
understanding of consulting of all key
consulted all the Increased
the requirements stakeholders at all
key stakeholders on costs and
of the project stages of the project
all ambiguous and inadequate
formulation process.
potentially service
 Recognition of the
contentious issues
roles and
responsibilities of
each stakeholder in
the process
 Varying the scope
CRIDF has closely Low High.  Clearly outline the
and or project
collaborated with all Increased objectives, scope and
objectives
the Stakeholders. costs, delays expected outputs and
and reduced outcomes to all the
service levels. stakeholders some of
whom communicate
the same to the
beneficiaries.
 Groundwater
CRIDF has Low High. Can  Water affairs to avail
availability (or
consulted lead to findings of
scarcity)
Department of increase in groundwater study
Water Affairs with costs and conducted for the
regard to ground delays area
water yields within

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 193 of 217

 Risk Extent of control Risk Assessment Summary risk mitigation
over the risk strategies
identified Probability Impact

the project area of

MWAMI
 Groundwater
EWSC to acquire High High. Can  No housing or
contamination
title to land where compromise commercial
the boreholes are to the entire developments within
be located water supply the protected area
installation
 No indiscriminate
dumping of
household and
industrial waste
within or in close
proximity to the
protected area

 Conduct awareness
campaigns for all
stakeholder groups
 Unregulated
The designs for the High High. Can  Install meters at all
consumption and
installations have render the water access points
wastage of water
incorporated entire
 Specify proven good
mechanisms that installation to
quality fittings that
deter wastage and be unviable
are not easily
unregulated use. and ultimately
susceptible to wear
unsustainable
and tear

 Institute a well refined

preventive
maintenance
programme that
includes a public
awareness campaign
on the scourges of
vandalism, adverse
effects of using poor
fixtures and optimal

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 194 of 217

 Risk Extent of control Risk Assessment Summary risk mitigation
over the risk strategies
identified Probability Impact

use of water

 Denial of
Planning Low High. Project  Involvement of
construction
permission will be would not EWSC during the
permits
sought through proceed design process
EWSC and their
 Adherence to
shareholder
national standards
Chipata Council
and specifications
who have
jurisdiction over
MWAMI. A drilling
permit will be
sought from WRMA
if they institute
these measures
before
commencement of
the project
 Operation and
EWSC have a Low Low. EWSC Augment existing
Maintenance
running operations has operations and
unit that currently demonstrable maintenance
maintains network experience in activities of EWSC
infrastructure for it’s operating and through this project
operations in all the maintaining
towns in Eastern much larger
Province operations
than that

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 195 of 217

 Risk Extent of control Risk Assessment Summary risk mitigation
over the risk strategies
identified Probability Impact

required at
MWAMI
 Socio-economic

 Affordability and
The proposed water Medium High.  Kiosk access points
willingness to pay
access options Adequate where tariff will be
include the kiosk quantities to regulated by
based system and be accessed NWASCO
individual by all
 Stakeholder meetings
household consumers
have confirmed
connection which depend on
willingness by
cater for all income affordability
community to receive
groups which is
this service in light of
greatly
the existing situation
influenced by
where supply is
the
 Sustainability erratic
technological
option
selected

Low
 Continued
CRIDF has fostered involvement of the
High
a sense of stakeholders at all
ownership from the key stages
inception by
involving all the
stakeholders in the
project
development
process especially
EWSC and the
Community
 Environmental
Groundwater Medium High  Full involvement of
source pollution the planning authority
as a key stakeholder

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 196 of 217

 Risk Extent of control Risk Assessment Summary risk mitigation
over the risk strategies
identified Probability Impact

from the onset which

shall assure land use
practices that will not
negatively impact or
contaminate the
aquifers

 Ensure that all plans

are in compliance
with the Zambia
Environmental
Management
Authority regulations

 Political

CRIDF has High High  Regular briefings to

engaged the Ministry through
Ministry of Local EWSC
Government and
 Project objectives to
Housing from the
be in compliance with
onset and has had
sectoral national
high level meetings
policies
with the Director
 Financial
CRIDF will mobilise High High  Constant and regular
the required updates to MLGH
resources in full and EWSC
collaboration with
 Adoption of designs
EWSC and MLGH
that are cost effective
and give highest
value for money

Risk Assessment Summary

This Environmental screening objectively assessed and evaluated impacts that may arise as a consequence
of implementing the proposed project by MLGH/EWSC in Chipata at Mwami Border. In-depth analysis of the
project and anticipated impacts revealed the following key findings:

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 197 of 217

 1. Proposed projects will mainly be located in an already developed residential areas;

2. Due to the openness of the areas, it is unlikely that the projects will trigger involuntary displacement;

3. Most of the anticipated negative impacts are confined to the construction phase and all of them will be
adequately mitigated; and

4. Implementation of the projects will result in very significant socioeconomic and environmental benefits
to both the residents and the travelling public including truckers.

Based on the level of detail and depth of the study, all envisaged negative environmental and socio-economic
impacts have been fully addressed

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 198 of 217

Conclusions and Recommendations
The CBA of the Mwami border town project has assessed the project’s financial and economic viability. Three
components of the project – water supply to rural households through kiosks, metered water supply to high-
cost households and ablution facilities for border patrons were assessed holistically as one project. The
financial appraisal analysed the required capital investment and ongoing O&M costs, compared with the
expected revenue. While the project is marginally financially viable, it is unlikely that EWSC has the funds to
implement it, given that revenues will be accrued only over long periods of time. Consequently, an up-front
capital grant would be required after which the project is able to support itself financially.

The financial appraisal reveals that the project is operationally sustainable if a capital grant is secured. Annual
revenues exceed ongoing operational costs. This implies that should external grant financing be made
available to cover the capital investment, the project will be viable. There is a strong economic justification for
the project when both the quantitative and qualitative benefits of the project are included. This is in part due to
the fact that there are large social benefits to the project intervention which are difficult to monetise and are
thus left out of the economic appraisal. A sustainability analysis indicated that the assumed tariff rates for the
services to be provided appear to be well within international benchmarks.

It is important to consider this project in comparison with a similar initiative in the nearby town of Chanida. The
Chanida project has a similar design and caters for the same groups of users – namely metered households,
households who access water through kiosks, and the border patron population. However the Chanida project
serves a smaller population (estimated to be 975 in 2015, versus 1560 in Mwami). A CBA conducted of the
Chanida project showed that it had a far weaker economic outcome, an outcome driven mainly due to the fact
that there are fewer border patrons passing through Chanida on a daily basis (80 versus 200 in Mwami),
coupled with higher capital and O&M costs (GBP 412,362 versus GBP 300,735 in Mwami). The Chanida
project is marginally economically unviable at a discount rate of 10%. It can therefore be inferred that the
Mwami project is comparatively less expensive on a per capita basis.

However, it is also important to bear in mind that both projects have significant benefits which cannot be
monetised. These benefits have tangible and meaningful impacts for the community – including education,
productivity and welfare benefits associated with access to basic human rights such as safe water and
sanitation. These would increase the BCR ratios of both projects and would most likely result in net benefits
exceeding their costs, even in the case of Chanida.

In terms of the key Value for Money (VfM) indicators, Mwami is significantly less per beneficiary than the
infrastructure proposed in Chanida.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 199 of 217

Financier Analysis

54
The CRIDF Outline Business Case (OBC) recommended that depending on the outcome of the Cost-Benefit
Analysis (CBA), conducted as part of the feasibility study, CRIDF should consider providing grant funding to
finance the capital infrastructure for Mwami and Chanida Water Supply and Sanitation project. Utilising these
small infrastructure projects as demonstration projects for potential financiers.
55
Furthermore, CRIDF prepared a financing strategy for the prioritised Zambian Border Towns , which
identified three potential sources of funding AfDB, KFW and EIB, as well as the Zambian Government's
Devolution Trust Fund (DFT).

As with the Mwami / Chanida OBC, the Zambian Border Towns financing strategy proposed that CRIDF
finance investments in Chanida and Mwami, with the following motivation:

 Both of these border settlements are small and therefore constitute small infrastructure demonstration
projects.
 The projects can be combined as one contract for execution by the Eastern Water and Sewerage
Company, with sub-contracts as necessary.
 CRIDF funds for construction will follow completion of the feasibility work.
 Due to the small projects, it should be possible for the construction to take place shortly after the
feasibility is complete, which will demonstrate CRIDF's commitment to infrastructure in Zambia.

For these reasons CRIDF recommended providing grant funding to Eastern Water and Sewerage Company
for the infrastructure projects at Mwami and Chania Border Towns. The feasibility study provided financial
and economic motivation that the combined projects were operationally sustainable, based on the
requirement for grant funding.

54
CRIDF, 'Chipata (Mwami) WSS - Outline Business Case', February 2015
55
CRIDF, 'Financing Strategy for Zambia Border Towns', May 2015.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 200 of 217

Table 55 Value for Money indicators (2015, GBP)

Indicator Mwami Chanida

Cost per beneficiary (excluding 193 425

border patrons)

Cost per beneficiary (including 170 391

border patrons)

Source: CRIDF CBA

The following recommendations arise from the CBA:

 There is the urgent need for improved water and sanitation in the town, the absence of which is
expected to have significantly negative impacts on the local community through health and welfare
impacts, as well as on the larger Zambian economy due to the town’s strategic location within SADC.

 The project clearly demonstrates operational sustainability and economic viability, particularly when
qualitative benefits are considered. Grant funding of GBP 300,735 should be secured for the project
to go ahead.

 Mwami demonstrates “healthy” economic BCRs, capturing the fact that the project provides
significant social benefits to the community. The project displays strong additionality in that it is
unlikely that funding from the private sector would provide an alternative to grant funding. It also
displays higher VfM than Chanida.

 Additionally, the project supports the climate resilience of the community, with a particular emphasis
on improving the lives of woman and children on which the burden of water collection and water-
related illness falls disproportionately.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 201 of 217

Appendices
Appendix A - CBA Assumptions

Appendix B - Financial / Economic Analysis

Appendix C – CCRA Explanatory Notes

Appendix D – GESI Rating Tool

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 202 of 217

Appendix A – CBA Assumptions

Technical assumptions
Population
Population figures as given by the Ward Development Committee (WDC) and supported by primary
56
observation indicate that there are currently 300 households in Mwami . A growth rate of 2.2% was used for
the town, in line with the 2010 census in Zambia (Chipata district).

Mwami is distinct from many of the surrounding villages in that it has a combination of rural households and
what is known as high-cost housing. High cost housing refers to relatively larger plot sizes which are built with
taps, a water closet and water borne sanitation. In Mwami, due to a lack of piped water mains, these systems
are not functional; however, they are expected to become functional with the proposed water supply system.
Many of these high cost houses are owned by state employees employed at the immigration offices of the
Zambian Revenue Authority (ZRA).

The project is built to take both the current population and usage type into account as well as growth in the
population and demand for high-cost housing. Rural housing and high cost housing are assumed to both grow
at 2.2%.

Housing types and water demand

The type of housing is an important determinant of water demand as houses with reticulated water systems
are expected to use significantly more water than those of ‘rural’ households where water must be carried
home. Rural households in this CBA refer to households that are not connected to water mains and have to
use communal water points to access their daily water needs.

Table 56 Water consumption per household group

57 58
Household type Actual demand (litres per Zambian Standard (litres per
capita per person) capita per person)

Rural/peri-urban 25 40

High-cost 100 255 - 150

The per capital consumption of water differs significantly between the Zambian standard and what is actually
consumed. The Zambian Standard can be interpreted as the aspirational water supply of the government and

56
Information provided by Ward Development Committee (WDC), the Water point committee and the Neighbourhood Health Committee
(NHC)
57
AWIRU (2005). Domestic Water Provision. Available [Link] [2015,07 July], supported by observations
of how many trips a household makes to fetch water per day
58
The Zambian Standard (ZS 361 of 2009)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 203 of 217

not actual water usage. While it is useful to do a sensitivity analysis on water consumption using these figures,
using the lower per capita consumption figures is preferable as they translate into conservative revenue
estimation. If the project is viable at the lower figures then it will be viable at the higher demand estimates.

Non-revenue water

While Mr Kanowa, Managing Director of Eastern Water and Sewage Company (EWSC), states that currently
59
46% of water is unaccounted for in Chipata city, non-revenue water (NRW) is assumed to be 20% for the
proposed design. This is because the proposed design involves the construction of entirely new infrastructure
which is assumed to have far fewer leakages than a refurbishment of old infrastructure. Projected water tariff
revenues included in the CBA are net of the projected level of NRW.

Financial assumptions
Constant versus current prices
Inflation represents a change in prices and does not represent an actual change in the value of a good. Thus,
both the financial and economic appraisal of the project seeks to use constant prices in order to assess the
true costs and benefits of the proposed project. Accordingly, all prices are stated in 2015 levels. Discounted
rates, as discussed next, are, consequently, adjusted for inflation.

Financial discount rate

In order to compare present capital outflows with future costs and benefits, applying a discount rate is
necessary. The discount rate represents society’s time preference for money, reflecting a higher value for
present benefits than those expected in the future. The discount rate represents the rate at which the value of
costs and benefits decrease in the future compared to the present. The rate can be based on the opportunity
cost of a resource which is equal to its value in its next best use or on society’s preference for benefits today
60
rather than later.

In the financial appraisal, the discount rate is taken as the long run real interest rate in Zambia of 11.5%. The
real interest is the nominal interest rate adjusted for inflation and represents the return on the capital
investment if it were saved rather than spent on this intervention. The long run interest rate is thus a good
proxy for the opportunity cost of capital.

Economic assumptions
Economic discount rates
For the economic analyses, two social discount rates are used as recommended by the CRIDF CBA
guidelines. The rate of 3.5% is used, in line with DFID’s standard rate for climate related projects, reflecting a
low time preference for money. This discount rate represents the fact that project’s with social benefits have

59
Discussions with Mr Kanowa during site visit (2015)
60
Asian Development Bank (1999) “Handbook for the Economic Analysis of Water Supply Projects”,
[Link]

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 204 of 217

long run benefits to communities and ecosystems and should be carried out with cognisance of trans-
generational equity.

A 10% discount rate was chosen in line with the World Bank and European Bank for Research and
61
Development’s standard conventional cut-off rate . The cut-off rate is the rate of return below which a project
is considered unacceptable. This rate is already adjusted for inflation.

Conversion Factors
The purpose of the economic appraisal is to determine whether there is an economic rationale for the project
based on its net positive benefits to society as a whole and regardless of its commercial profitability. To this
end, in order to measure economic value, financial (market) prices should be adjusted to correct for market
distortions. These adjustments are termed ‘shadow pricing’ and ensure that economic prices applied to inputs
and outputs in the economic appraisal reflect their opportunity cost in society. Shadow pricing is achieved
through the application of standard conversion factors (SCF) to financial prices.

A wide literature exists on the use and magnitude of conversation factors, suggesting that they are heavily
context specific.

For this CBA, conversion factors are applied in brackets:

Table 57 Economic conversion factors

Input / Output Conversion factor Rationale

 This conversion factor represents the fact that the real
Tradable goods 0.8
value of these goods is lower than the price paid for
them. This is due to the fact that many of the project
inputs will be imported and will thus be subject to tariffs
and other market distortions such as exchange rate
commissions.
 These additional costs to the price of capital are not true
reflections of additional value and are thus removed.
This conversion factor was developed by the African
Development Bank (AfDB) for the Kazungula Bridge
62
Project in 2011 . Kazungula is a similar, although larger,
border town in Zambia, which faces the same price
distortions on its tradable capital goods.

Unskilled labour 0.65 In the derivation of the economic price of labour, again the
principle of shadow pricing is applied. This is done to reflect the

61
Economic Commission for Africa (2012) “Cost-Benefit Analysis for Regional Infrastructure in Water and Power Sectors in Southern
Africa” ECA Publications, Addis Ababa
62
African Development Fund (2011) Project: Kazungula Bridge Project (SADC North-South Transport Corridor Improvement), Project
Appraisal Report, AfDB

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 205 of 217

Input / Output Conversion factor Rationale

high levels of unemployment in Mwami. The opportunity cost of

63
labour is thus below the market wage due to its over-supply . In
line with the Rural Infrastructure Development Programme, an
SCF of 65% is assumed in this CBA.

This SCF is calculated using agricultural work as the opportunity

cost of unskilled labour, and represents the fact that, on average,
unskilled labour is usefully employed for approximately 65% of
their available time (90% during wet seasons and about 30-40%
64
during dry seasons ). It is fitting in that a large portion of the
population in Mwami is engaged in agriculture. This SCF is
similar to that of the Asian Development Bank, which estimates
the opportunity cost of time used for collecting water to be 64%
of the relevant minimum wage.

Skilled labour 1.00 Skilled labour is assumed to have a conversion factor equal to
one reflecting its relative scarcity and due to the fact that its
opportunity cost is not less than its wage.

Non tradable 1.00 There are no conversion factors available for the remaining
goods inputs and it is assumed for the sake of the analyses that their
market prices are adequately reflective of the real value to the
economy. This assumption is justified in that many of the inputs
to the economic appraisal are services rather than goods and do
not face the market distortions that tradable goods do.

63
EU (2014). Rural Infrastructure Development Programme. Detailed Design Report for the South Rukuru Irrigation Scheme. Volume 1:
Main Report.
64
Ibid.

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Appendix B – Financial / Economic Analysis
Table 58 Financial appraisal summary table

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 207 of 217

Table 59 Economic Appraisal Summary Table

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 208 of 217

Table 60 Time and Health Savings

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Appendix C – CCRA Explanatory Notes
Climatic Zones in SADC

Figure 20: Climatic Zones in SADC

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 210 of 217

CRIDF Climate Vulnerability Tool Risk Indicators

Risk Category Comments

This indicator is based on WRI’s Aqueduct 2.0 dataset

and measures total annual water withdrawals
(municipal, industrial, and agricultural) expressed as a
Baseline Water percent of the total annual available flow. Higher values
Stress indicate more competition among users. It provides an
overview of the water stress situation at a country or
area in cases where the dataset underpinning the
stress level has enough granularity.

This indicator is based on WRI’s Aqueduct 2.0 dataset

and measures the variation in water supply between
years. This indicator is useful for understanding risks
Inter-annual
particularly to agriculture. High inter-annual variability
variability
creates difficulties in managing water resources in low
water availability periods and can create stresses to
ecosystems.

This indicator is based on WRI’s Aqueduct 2.0 dataset

and measures variation in water supply between
months of the year. The higher this indicator the less
reliable water supply can be expected during any given
Seasonal
a year. High seasonal variability can have negative
variability
implications for steady water supply for households
and year round agriculture particularly when rain-fed.
This indicator can be helpful to characterise drought
risks for rain-fed agriculture.

This indicator is based on WRI’s Aqueduct 2.0 dataset

and measures drought severity calculated as the
average length of droughts times the dryness of the
droughts. It includes data from 1901 to 2008. This
Drought severity
indicator can be taken into account to characterise
drought risk in an area.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 211 of 217

 This indicator is based on WRI’s Aqueduct 2.0 dataset
and measures the water storage capacity available
upstream of a location relative to the total water supply
Upstream at that location. Higher values indicate areas more
storage capable of buffering variations in water supply (i.e.
droughts and floods) because they have more water
storage capacity upstream.

This indicator is based on WRI’s Aqueduct 2.0 dataset

and measures the ratio of groundwater withdrawal
relative to its recharge rate over a given aquifer. Higher
values indicate areas where unsustainable
Groundwater
groundwater consumption could affect groundwater
stress
availability and groundwater-dependent ecosystems.
This indicator can be taken into account to characterise
water availability risk at an area that is mainly
dependent for groundwater for its water supply needs.

This indicator is based on the Climate security

vulnerability model by the Robert S. Strauss Centre
and combines data on physical, socio-economic,
demographic, and political insecurities to provide an
Household and indication on household and community vulnerability to
community climate change. It can be taken into account when
resilience characterising impacts to local communities. The lower
the resiliency the higher the consequence can be
expected for any given impact. Most resilient
communities can withstand a 20% crop loss however
this can be catastrophic for the least resilient

This Population density index is based on the Climate

security vulnerability model by the Robert S. Strauss
Centre. This indicator can be taken into account when
Population trying to understand H&S impacts to local communities
density from extreme weather events.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 212 of 217

 HR Wallingford has developed this indicator by
combining population density, the CCAPS governance
layer and the CCAPS household and community
resilience layer. It can be taken into account when
Resilient
characterising impacts to local communities. The lower
population
the resiliency the higher the consequence can be
expected for any given impact. Highly resilient
communities can withstand a 20% crop loss however
this can be catastrophic for the least resilient

HR Wallingford has developed this indicator by

combining the resilient population layer and the
AQUEDUCT physical water quantity risk.
Baseline risks to
people

HR Wallingford has developed this indicator by

combining the baseline risks to people layer, the
climate change pressure layer and the physical water
Future risks to risk layer.
people

HR Wallingford has developed this indicator by

combining the climate change pressure layer and the
physical water risk layer.
Water risk under
climate change

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 213 of 217

 HR Wallingford has developed this indicator by using
the average rainfall and temperatures from 2006 to
2026 of the low emissions scenario (RCP 2.6) and
compared this to the average rainfall and temperatures
Climate change
from 2080 to 2100 of the high emission scenario (RCP
pressure
8.5). To calculate a climate change pressure indicator
the change in temperature was subtracted from the
change in rainfall, multiplied by two. These values have
been rescaled linearly to a scoring system of 1 to 5.

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 214 of 217

Appendix D – GESI Rating Tool Report
DIMENSIONS CRITERIA: CHECKLIST: DOES THE PROJECT CHECK SCORE RATING
THE ………
ACTIVITY ….

 Identify and analyse gender issues

Analysis Includes
relevant to the project objectives or 
analysis
components?
and/or
consultation  Report findings of country/regional
on gender gender diagnostics (gender
related issues assessment, poverty assessment, etc.) 
as part of a social, economic and/or
environmental impact assessment
 Reflect the result of consultations with
women/ men/ girls/ boys/ indigenous
groups/marginalised groups and/or 
NGOs that focus on these groups
and/or their specific line ministries?

If at least one check above (yes) YES

Significance rating (relevant, evidence-based & numerical/proportional significance) 3

(none = 0; weak = 1; modest = 2; encouraging = 3; and significant = 4)

 Include specific or targeted actions that

Actions Is expected to 
address the needs of women
narrow
gender  Propose gender specific and/or social
disparities, inclusion safeguards in a
x
including social/environmental assessment or in
through a resettlement framework
specific  Show how interventions are expected
actions to to narrow existing gender disparities
address the
distinct needs
of women/
girls and/or
men/ boys/
and/or 
marginalised
or vulnerable
groups and/or
to have
positive
impact(s) on
gender
equality

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 215 of 217

DIMENSIONS CRITERIA: CHECKLIST: DOES THE PROJECT CHECK SCORE RATING
THE ………
ACTIVITY ….
and/or social
inclusion

If at least one check above (yes) YES 3

Significance rating (relevant, evidence-based & numerical/proportional significance)

(none = 0; weak = 1; modest = 2; encouraging = 3; and significant = 4)

 Include specific gender and sex-

Monitoring & Includes
disaggregated indicators in the results 
Evaluation mechanisms
framework?
to monitor
gender impact  Propose an evaluation which will
and facilitate analyse the gender specific impacts of
gender the project? 
disaggregated
analysis

If at least one check above (yes) YES

Significance rating (relevant, evidence-based & numerical/proportional significance) 3

(none = 0; weak = 1; modest = 2; encouraging = 3; and significant = 4)

RATINGS

Overall Score In how many dimensions does the project score 1? 3/3 3

GESI-informed Does the document score in at least one dimension Y YES

GESI significance In how many dimensions does the project demonstrate a 3

contribution to GESI results

Significance Score What is the total score across all three dimensions related to
demonstrating a contribution to GESI results (none = 0; weak = 9/12 [3/4]
1; modest = 2; encouraging = 3; and significant = 4)

Mwami Feasibility Report Page 216 of 217