WERABE UNIVERSITY

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of English Language and Literature

Enla2042
UNIT ONE: General Introduction of Reading
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
 define reading
 express the reading perspective
 identify the qualities of efficient readers
 differentiate the types of reading and explain the value of reading in the
foreign language context.
1.1. The Meaning of Reading
I. What is reading?
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Although there have been a number of definitions of reading, it is not so easy to define it just
in a single sentence. Scholars have defined reading in many ways and all the definitions seem
to have similar [Link] example,
 Grellet, F. (1981) states reading is “… an active skill which constantly involves
guessing, predicting, checking and asking oneself questions”… This reflects that a
reader needs to work hard to draw meaning out of a text employing different reading
strategies. Generally speaking, most writers define reading as getting meaning
encoded by the writer from the text.
 Nuttal (1982) defines reading as a process of decoding, deciphering, identifying,
articulating, understanding and interpreting meaning or sense from a written
[Link] according to him is defined as: understand, interpret, decoding, etc.
 (2) Herbert J, states that reading understands written texts. It is a complex activity
involving both perception and thought. Reading consists of two related processes:
word recognition and comprehension, Word recognition refers to the process of
perceiving how written symbols correspond to one’s spoken language.
 Comprehension is the process of making sense of words, sentences and connected
text. Readers typically make use of background knowledge, experience with text and
other strategies to help them understand written text.
 Reading is the process of constructing meaning from written texts. It is a complex
skill requiring the coordination of a number of interrelated sources of information.
  Reading is the ability to understand something by looking different materials after
lessoning from different sources.
 Reading is an extraction of information from written materials.
 Reading is a process in which one books at some understands what has been written.
 Reading is the process of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction
among: (1) the reader's existing Reading is the process of retrieving and
comprehending some of the stored information of idea.
 Knowledge; (2) the information suggested by the text being read; and (3) the context
of the reading situation.
 Reading is both visual and mental activity. It is a visual activity because where were
we read there is an eye movement. The eyes move on printed lines. It is a mental
activity because there is a process taking place in the mind of the ready while trying to
understand a text, but our eyes don't struggle to identify letter by letter or word by
word they rather try to identify words or phrases in sense groups.
 It is not enough to know all the language (vocabulary, grammar, etc.) to understand a
text just knowing of the language in a text does not necessary guarantee
understanding the reader needs to know other things outside the text. He/she has bring
his prior knowledge (knowledge of the world, topic, etc.) to the text is reading.
What is reading comprehension?
 Reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning from text. The goal of
all reading instruction is ultimately targeted at helping a reader comprehend text.
 Reading comprehension involves at least two people: the reader and the writer.
 The process of comprehending involves decoding the writer's words and then using
background knowledge to construct an approximate understanding of the writer's
message.
I.1. 1 Reading and the Reading Process
Reading is the receptive process of written communication. Reading is described as a
complex process of making meaning from a text, for variety of purposes and in a wide range
of contexts. Reading is a psycholinguistic process in that it starts with a linguistic surface
representation encoded by a writer and ends with meaning which the reader constructs.
Readers typically make use of background knowledge, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge,
experience with text and other strategies to help them understand a written text. Additionally,
in the reading process, readers use their background knowledge about the text’s topic and
structure along with their linguistic knowledge and reading strategies to achieve their purpose
for reading. During the reading process, the brain seeks to maximize information it acquires
and minimize effort and energy used to acquire it.
The reading process is the way in which the reader gains meaning from what he/she has read.
The reader uses different sources of information from the text (cues) as well as what he/she
already knows about the world to gain meaning.

 Attend and Search: The reader focuses on the text and looks for specific
information, such asknown words, and information in pictures and diagrams.
 Anticipate (Predict): The reader forms expectations about the print based on what
he/she already knows and what he/she finds in the text.
 Check: The reader checks that his/her attempt makes sense and matches it to
information he/she already has.
 Confirm (Verify): The reader accepts his/her attempt.
 Self-correct: The reader notices a mismatch, tries again, and produces an accurate
response.

Activity:Characteristics of efficient readers

Study the list of reading skills given below and give each one a mark, 1, 3, or 5 according to
the following criteria.
5: I think effective readers always do this.
 3: I think effective readers do this when their reading purpose requires it.
1: I think effective readers rarely do this.
Efficient readers
A. Focus on details in a reading text.
B. Read slowly and carefully for clear understanding.
C. Read aloud.
D. Compare and contrast what they read with what they know already.
E. Maketheir own interpretations of a text.
F. Scan a passage if they want specific information.
G. Skim a passage if they want the general idea.
H. Vary their reading speed according to their purpose.
I. Focus on all the new words in a passage very carefully.
J. Guess at meanings of new words in a text using various clues.
K. Have specific reasons for reading.
L. Use a dictionary when they find words they don't know.
M. Try to interpret the intentions of the writer.
N. Pay attention to grammatical patterns as they read.
O. Predict what the text will contain / what will come next.
P. Look for implied meanings as well as stated meanings.
Q. Aim for 100% comprehension of a text.
R. Learn language and content from reading.
S. Are able to understand (extract) relevant information even when they cannot
understand some parts of the text.
1.1.2. Good versus poor readers
 An efficient reader always has a specific purpose for reading. He knows why he is
reading whatever he is reading. It may be for pleasure, or because he wants to work
out how to do something (e.g. He may be reading instructions, a recipe, instructions
on how to make something, etc.), or he may be looking for specific information, or
trying to compare his own opinion with the author's. How he reads, i.e. speed, level of
concentration, whether he skims, scans, or reads in detail will depend on his purpose.
 Generally, we can ask a question such as: why do we read? We read something
because we want to get facts, ideas, pleasure, feelings of family community (from a
letter), etc.
 It is generally believed that consciously or unconsciously we ask questions as soon as
we see the topic of a text. Before we read the text, we raise questions to ourselves.
What questions do we ask when we are reading a text? There is no simple answer
because the questions readers ask depend on the purpose of their reading and the prior
knowledge (background knowledge) they possess on the topic. Except for rather
obvious examples like looking a particular telephone number or examining a menu or
a sign, it is unlikely that any two people would ever, in fact, ask exactly the same
questions of the same piece of text. That is why it would be unusual to get two
identical interpretations.
 A good reader has specific expectations of what he will find in the text. If it is a
newspaper, he expects to find news, if it is a textbook on medicine, he will expect
details on how to diagnose an illness. He will almost always already know something
about the subject he is reading and he will bring this knowledge to the text.
 As he reads he will compare what he reads with what he knows already. He will
probably evaluate the text against this and against his expectations.
 A successful reader can recognize the purpose of the text as a whole. He can see how
the text is organized and can understand the relationship between sentences. He is, in
fact, able to 'follow' the writer and not simply understand the sentences. In a general
sense, we may say he is able to interpret the writer.
 It is also possible to say that successful readers bring something with them to the text,
in terms of a general stock of knowledge, sometimes termed as knowledge of the
world or prior knowledge.
 A good reader knows enough of the language of the text he is reading to satisfy his
purpose. He understands enough content words and what they mean; enough of the
grammar of the language - the operation and effect of structural words, of word form,
and of word order - and he uses this knowledge to help him read the text.
 A good reader engages in principled guessing and predicting what will come next,
drawing upon the text itself and his prior knowledge for help. He is able to arrive at a
sufficient understanding without knowing every word.
 When a successful reader reads, he brings a number of different skills and strategies
to a text in order to understand it.
  A good reader is not simply a passive object, fed with sentences and concerned
simply with extracting meaning. He is actively working in the text to create meaning;
in other words, he interacts with the text.
 Reading is a personal, individual, reader- centered activity and therefore silent.
1.2. Views of Reading
Activity-1 Do you agree or disagree with the following?
1. The reader is a passive participant in the reading process.
2. Meaning is always found only in the text.
3. There is no identical interpretation of a given text among different readers.
4. Reading is a passive process.
5. There is similarity between conversation and reading.
I. What does perception of reading mean?
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A. What is traditional view of reading?
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1.2.1. The Traditional View
Activity:Look at the following reading model carefully. What does it tell you in relation to
reading? How do you interpret it? Do you accept it? Why? Share your opinion to your group
members? And then discuss it with your class and instructor.
Reading model 1
 (Taken from Nuttal, 1982)
In the traditional view reading was considered as a process of pouring meaning into passive
readers mind from a text that they consider full of meaning. They are expected to soak like a
sponge and all the work has been done by the write and the readers have only to open their
mind and let the meaning pour in (Nuttal, 1982). Traditionally the reader was seen as the
‘recipient’ of information or as ‘empty vessel’ that brought nothing to the text. This notion of
‘text as object’ is now frequently discredited in reading circles, as readers are not entirely
passive. We may liken this to a one-way traffic system in which everything flows in one
direction only. Readers are passive recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in
the text and the reader has to reproduce that meaning is the view held by traditional writers.
According to Nunan (1991) reading in this view is a matter of decoding a series of written
symbols into their aural equivalents in the quest for making sense of the text. He referred to
this process as the 'bottom-up' view of reading.
The above reading model illustrates on fairly widely held view of reading. The text is full of
meaning like a jug full of water, and it can be poured straight into the reader's mind which
soaks it up like a sponge. In this view, the reader's role is a passive one; all the work has been
done by the writer and the reader has only to open his mind and let the meaning pour [Link]
do we reject this?
B. What is modern view of reading?
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1.2.2. The Modern view
Activity 2.8: Look at the following reading model carefully. What does it tell you in relation
to reading? What differences do you observe between reading model 1 and this model? How
do you interpret it? Do you accept it? Why? Share your opinion to your group members and
be ready to discuss with the class and the instructor.
Reading model 2
 (Taken from Nuttal, 1982)
In the modern views of reading as a process the reader actively involves getting meaning
from the text. The reader is an active participant who struggles with the written text to get a
meaning. In this view, even if reading is done for pleasure it is still purposeful. In recent
years, however, an increasing number of ELT materials, which profess to develop reading
skills, have moved from the ‘text as object’ viewpoint to the ‘text as processes by
encouraging close interaction between the reader and the text.
According to the current view, the reader and the writer should share certain assumptions
about the world and the way it works. If, for example, the writer expects the reader to have a
basic understanding of chemistry, the text will not be readily understood by anyone who
lucks the knowledge of chemistry. So problems in understanding arise when there is a
mismatch between the presuppositions of the writer and those of the reader. This is what
reading model 2, especially the reader on the right, shows.

When we look at the two reading models, we can see why the first model was unsatisfactory.
The meaning is not merely lying in the text waiting to be passively absorbed. On the contrary,
the reader is actively involved and will very often have to work to get the meaning out. A
model like the second may seem nearer to the truth: it shows us a view of reading in which
the reader can be seen approaching meaning more actively. The reader on the left is finding
little difficulty in interpreting the text: the meaning is fairly clear to him all along; he has
much in common with the writer and has few problems probably with the language used. To
the reader on the right, however, the same text appears very difficult. To get at the meaning
involves an uphill struggle and he is not at all sure of the route. He can bring to the task so
little of what the writer has taken for granted that his way is continually blocked by problems
of unfamiliar vocabulary, ignorance of facts or intellectual limitations. However, the reader
on the right is aware that he does not understand; this awareness is important if you hope to
be a competent reader. Poor readers often do not even recognize that they do not understand;
so recognizing that there are problems is the first step towards competence.
The reader on the right is also tackling his problems with vigour and with all the tools at his
disposal. He has understood that to reach the message involves his own efforts as well as
those of the writer: it is in a way a co - operative task (Millan, 1996). The so - called 'co-
operative principle ', as it applies to reading, might be formulated along these lines:
The reader assumes
A. That he and the writer are using the same code (the same language).
B. That the writer has a message.
C. That the writer wants the reader to understand the message.

I.3. The value of reading in the foreign language context

Effective reading is essential for success in acquiring a second language. After all, reading is
the basis of instruction in all aspects of language learning: using textbooks for language
courses, writing, revising, developing vocabulary, acquiring grammar, editing, and using
computer-assisted language learning programs. Reading instruction, therefore, is an essential
component of every second-language curriculum. Understanding some important facts about
reading, literacy, and teaching methods is essential for providing effective instruction in
reading, so reading is an essential part of language instruction at every level because it
supports learning in multiple ways.

 Reading to learn the language: Reading material is language input. By giving

students a variety of materials to read, instructors provide multiple opportunities for
students to absorb vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and discourse structure as
they occur in authentic contexts. Students thus gain a more complete picture of the
ways in which the elements of the language work together to convey meaning.
 Reading for content information: Students' purpose for reading in their native
language is often to obtain information about a subject they are studying, and this
purpose can be useful in the language learning classroom as well. Reading for content
 information in the language classroom gives students both authentic reading material
and an authentic purpose for reading.
 Reading for cultural knowledge and awareness: Reading everyday materials that
are designed for native speakers can give students insight into the lifestyles and
worldviews of the people whose language they are studying. When students have
access to newspapers, magazines, and Web sites, they are exposed to culture in all its
variety, and monolithic cultural stereotypes begin to break down.

1.4. Reading and reader’s background knowledge

Background knowledge is an important factor for creating meaning, and teachers should help
students activate prior knowledge before reading so that information connected with concepts
or topics in the text is more easily accessible during reading (Keene & Zimmermann, 1997;
Miller, 2002). If students do not have adequate background knowledge, teachers can help
students build the appropriate knowledge. Duke (2003) suggested that one way to add to
world knowledge is to use informational books with all students, particularly very young
students. By using information books, students build world knowledge so that they will have
the appropriate information to activate at a later time. Teachers also support students’
acquisition of world knowledge by establishing and maintaining a rich, literate environment,
full of texts that provide students with numerous opportunities to learn content in a wide
variety of topics. Another way teachers help students build background knowledge is to
create visual or graphic organizers that help students to see not only new concepts but also
how previously known concepts are related and connected to the new ones (Keene &
Zimmermann, 1997; Miller, 2002). Teachers teach students how to make text-to-text, text-to
self and text-to-world connections so that readerscan more easily comprehend the texts they
read. Reading aloud and teacher modelling show students how to activate schema and make
connections. For example, a first-grade teacher read aloud from Ira Says Goodbye (Waber,
1991). She began the lesson by thinking aloud about the title and cover of the book. “Oh I see
that the author is Bernard Waber and the title is Ira Says Goodbye. I think this book is about
the same Ira as in IraSleeps Over (Waber, 1973).
I can activate my schema from that book. I am making a text-to-text connection. I remember
that....” She continued modelling for her students how to activate schema and make
connections that helped her make meaning from this text. As she read the book to her
students, she stopped occasionally to model and thinks aloud how she activated her own
schema to makeconnections.
 1.5. Types of Reading
Activities: Of which types of reading helps us to develop our vocabulary skills?
 Which reading type is useful for academic achievements?
 Reading is categorized into two major types. These are extensive and intensive
reading.
1.5.1. Extensive Reading
A. what is extensive reading?
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As different researchers define, extensive reading refers to the reading of large quantities
of material or long texts for global or general understanding with the intention of obtaining
pleasure from the text. Waring (2000) also points out that extensive reading involves the
reader reading “huge amounts of very simple text”. Large amounts of language input that
is comprehensible, thus satisfies a very important condition of language acquisition, and
that is massive exposure to comprehensible language.
Moreover, the pedagogical value attributed to extensive reading is based on the belief that
exposing students to large quantities of meaningful and interesting second language
material will gradually produce a beneficial effect on students’ second language
proficiency. Nuttall (1982:168) says “the best way to improve your knowledge of a foreign
language is to go and live among speakers. The next best way is to read extensively in it”.
This indicates that students should be encouraged to read more inside and outside the
classroom so as to develop their second language competence (proficiency).

Extensive reading is usually carried outside classroom with a limited or no control of the
language teacher. Students are involved in reading of various kinds of materials ranging
from academic reference books to novels, newspapers, magazines, and the like. Students
are allowed to choose the books they read depending on their interests. If they find a book
too difficult or they don’t enjoy it, they can change it for another one. In this type of
reading there is not always a follow-up discussion or work in class. The following
potential advantages of extensive reading in language learning:
 It can provide comprehensible input
 It can enhance learners general language competence
  It increases students’ exposure to the language
 It can increase knowledge of vocabulary
 It can motivate learners to read
 It can consolidate previously learned language
 It helps to build confidence with extended texts
 It facilitates the development of prediction skills.
Though extensive reading is very important for general language competence, most
students will not do a lot of extensive reading by themselves unless they are encouraged to
do so by their teachers. Obviously, then, the role of the teachers is very crucial. According
to Harmer (2001) teacher should promote reading and by their own espousal of reading as
a valid occupation, persuade students of its benefits. Perhaps, for instance, they can
occasionally read aloud from books they like and show, by their manner of reading, how
exciting books can be.

1.5.2. Intensive Reading

B. What do you think about intensive reading?
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Intensive reading, according to Bruton (2004), involves reading for the purpose of
language study, to learn some element of the language or a particular language skill. With
such reading the learner is intensively involved in looking inside the text. Scrivener (1994)
states that intensive reading is typically used with short section or sentence when we need
to understand or study information or language use in detail. This is how we read a
paragraph on philosophy, a dense letter from the bank manager or a grammar explanation
at the back of a course book.
The aim of intensive reading is to arrive at a profound and detailed understanding of the
text; not only of what it means but also of how the meaning is produced. In intensive
reading activities, learners are in the main exposed to relatively short texts which are used
either to exemplify specific aspects of the lexical, syntactic or discoursal system of the
second language, or to provide the basis for targeted reading strategy practice.
Intensive reading takes place under the closer guidance of the teacher, or under the
guidance of a task that forces a student to pay greater attention to the text (Nuttall, 1982).
In this reading activity, the teacher dictates the objectives, procedures and amount of time
of the reading lesson. The reading text may either be taken from students’ text book or
 carefully prepared by the teacher beforehand. Some of the reading activities that demand
students to read intensively
 Analyzing coherence
 Reading for inference
 Reading for reference
 Analyzing text cohesion
 Working out the meaning of difficult words from context
 Working out the organization of a text, etc.
In order to get students to read enthusiastically in class, teachers need to work to create
interest in the topic and tasks. Nevertheless, as Harmer (2001) notes, there are further roles
that teachers should play when asking students to read intensively.
 Organizer: teachers should tell students clearly what their reading purpose is, and
give them clear instruction about how to achieve it, and how long they have to do
this. For example, once they have said you have four minutes for this’ they should
not change that time unless observation suggests it is necessary.
 Observer: while students are reading teachers can observe their progress since this
will give them valuable information about how well they are doing individually
and collectively, and will tell them whether to give students some extra time or,
instead, move to organizing feedback more quickly than they had expected.
 Feedback organizer: when students have completed the task, teachers can lead a
feedback session to check that they havecompleted the task successfully. They may
start by having students compare their answers in pairs and then ask for answers
from the class in general or from pairs in particular. When teachers ask students to
giveanswers they should always ask them to say where in the text they found the
information for their answers. This provokes a detailed study of the text which will
help them the next time they come to a similar reading passage. It also tells
teachers exactly what comprehension problems they have if and when they get
answers wrong.
 Prompter: when students have read a text teachers can prompt them to notice
language features in that text. Teachers may also, as controllers, direct them to
certain features of text construction, clarifying ambiguities and making them aware
of issues of text structure which they had not come across previously.
Assessment
 I. Give short answer for the following
1. What is reading?
2. Why do you read any written material?
3. Explain the difference between traditional and modern view of reading

Unit Two: Models of the Reading Process and Phases of Reading

Unit objective
At the end of this unit student will be able to: definemodel of reading, identify types of
reading models,explain factors involved in reading models, define phases of reading, identify
different types of reading phase and describe reading phases.
2. Models oftheReading Process
Model (i.e some kind of design that describes a process) emanates from thedifferences
between theorists on the principles which govern how the components of reading skills
operate. There are three main models of the reading process. These are bottom-up model, top-
down model and interactive model.
2.1. Bottom-up Model to reading
Activity one
I. What does it mean bottom – up model to reading?
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_________________________________________________________________
Bottom-up approach assumes that the translation process begins with the print (in letter or
word identification) and proceeds through progressively larger linguistic units, ending in
meaning. The first task of the reader is to decode the symbols into sound representations.
This accomplished, the reader can use his natural (and presumably well-developed) oral
language comprehension ability to obtain meaning. In such a model, reading is the same as
listening, but with the obvious additional step of translating print into speech. The reader
assumes a relatively passive role in the translation process; that is, the only knowledge he
brings to bear is knowledge of symbol-sound correspondences. Perhaps the clearest example
of such a model of reading has been espoused by Gough (1972).
2.2. Top-downModel
Contrary to bottom-up models, in top-down models the reader is expected to bring his/her
background knowledge to the text. Grabe and Stoller (2002) stress that top-down models
assume that reading is primarily directed by reader goals and expectations, that is why top-
down models characterize the reader as someone who has a set of expectations about the text
information and samples enough information from the text to confirm or reject these
expectations.
Before reading has started (and while it is occurring), expectations can processes be activated
by background discussions, the reader's own general knowledge about the topic to be read, or
even knowledge about what kinds of information are usually presented in particular classes,
settings, or types of books. The sources for such hypotheses (quite irrespective of their
accuracy or usefulness) are limited only by a person's store of knowledge. The function of
these hypotheses about meaning is to narrow the range of possible translations from print to
meaning. Hence the readers decode only as much of the printed text as is necessary to con-
firm or disconfirm their hypotheses. In the event of a disconfirmation, the readers generate
new hypotheses, revise old hypotheses, or remain neutral, and continue to decode until new
hypotheses become apparent. In top-down models, it is conjectured that readers assume a
very active role in the translation process; that is, they use general knowledge and specific
contextual information provided by the text as much as they can and their symbol-sound
knowledge as little as they need to. While we are not aware of any completely top-down
models, those of Goodman (1968) and Frank Smith(1971) come as close as any.
2.3. Interactive Models
The criticism against bottom-up and top-down models led the theorists to develop a new
approach: the interactive model. Interactive models combine elements of both bottom-up and
top-down models Anderson (1999). In interactive models, the reader needs to be fast in order
to recognize the letters. This is similar to what the readers do in top-down models in order to
skim a text for the main idea. Not only should the word recognition be fast, but also efficient.
In this model, the top-down and bottom-up components are assumed to be mutually
facilitative. The reader assumes either an active or passive role depending upon the strength
and accuracy of the hypotheses generated by the top-down component. Rumel hart (1977) has
developed a comprehensive interactive model.
2.4. The Three Phases of Reading
A. What do you know about phases of Reading?
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 B. Can you list them?
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The three phases are pre-reading, while-reading, and after-reading phases. Each of them has
its own important role. They are all necessary parts of a reading activity.
2.4.1. Pre - Reading Phase
The objective of this stage is to arouse the interest of the readers and to activate their prior
knowledge on the topic. In this stage, students will be made to think and discuss the topic to
be read so that their background knowledge of the message in the text can be recalled.
According to Thompson (2001), the possible activities of this stage could be predicting the
story by simply looking at the title or the pictures if a picture is offered within the text.
The major objectives of this phase according to Williams (1984) are the following:
 To introduce and arouse interest in the topic
 To motivate learners by giving a reason for reading
 To provide some language preparation for the text.
The pre-reading phase helps students define the selection criteria for the central theme of a
story or the major argument of an essay. Pre-reading activities include discussing author or
text type, brainstorming, reviewing familiar stories (students review Cinderella before
reading Cendrillon), considering illustrations and titles, skimming and scanning (for
structure, main points, and future directions).
2.4.2. While-Reading Phase
The while- reading stage is a stage in which students are made to read silently in order to
answer questions already set. It is an intensive reading practice where they try to grasp main
points and answer questions. While reading (during, through reading) exercises help students
develop reading strategies, improve their control of the foreign language, and decode
problematic text passages.
The teacher can identify valuable strategies, explain which strategies individuals most need to
practice, and offer concrete exercises in the form of "guided reading" activity sheets. Such
practice exercises might include guessing word meanings by using context clues, word
formation clues, or cognate practice; considering syntax and sentence structure by noting the
grammatical functions of unknown words, analyzing reference words, and predicting text
content; reading for specific pieces of information; and learning to use the dictionary
effectively.
2.4.3. Post - Reading Phase
In the post reading stage questions for extract or inferred meanings and questions related to
students own experience can be asked. This stage can be carried out by arranging small group
discussion that could be followed by whole class discussion (Williams 1984). It can also
serve as a stage in which the teacher checks whether children have understood the text or not.
Levels of questions for this stage of reading for comprehension include
 Questions for exact meanings: These are the easiest, since answers could be guessed
from the passage.
 Questions for inferred meaning: This is an activity that entails thinking about the
text and understanding the relations between ideas.
 Questions related to the students’ own experience: Post reading activities should
always involve this kind of questions where children relate what they read with their
own experience or environment.
More importantly in primary grades the following activities are worth carrying out:
 A word puzzle based on the passage;
 A writing assignment based on the passage
 A discussion about the main topic of the passage; and
 A dramatization of the story Thompson (2001)
Post-reading (after, follow-up, beyond reading) exercises first check students'.
Comprehension and then lead students to a deeper analysis of the text, when warranted (Ibid:
16). Because the goals of most real world reading are not to memorize an author's point of
view or to summarize text content, but rather to see into another mind, or to engage new
information into what one already knows, foreign language reading must go beyond detail
eliciting comprehension drills to help students recognize that different strategies are
appropriate with different text types.
In general, throughout the three phases during reading practices, two major areas of
knowledge play a decisive role. These are what are called schematic knowledge and language
knowledge. Schematic knowledge refers to the prior knowledge of the children. It could be
what they have already known about their environment locally or the knowledge they have
about the world as a whole. Prior knowledge can be gained from both informal sources such
as family and the environment as well as from previous reading and education.
“Comprehension is the use of prior knowledge to create new knowledge” Adams and Bruce
(1982:25).Thus, readers should bring their prior knowledge to the text they read and writers
of texts should consider students’ prior knowledge in preparing reading texts.

Generally, phases of reading can be concluded in the following way.

In Pre-reading, Readers:
 use prior knowledge to think about the topic.
 make predictionsabout the probable meaning of the text.
 preview the text by skimming and scanning to get a sense of the overall meaning.
 to stimulate interest in the topic
 to identify the purposes and goals for the reading
 to provide language preparation for the text
In whilereading, Readers:
 monitor understanding by questioning, thinking about, and reflecting on the ideas and
information in the text.
 build knowledge within the context for reading
 make material more memorable for recall and application
In after reading, Readers:
 reflect upon the ideas and information in the text.
 relate what they have read to their own experiences and knowledge.
 clarify their understanding of the text.
 extend their understanding in critical and creative ways.
 to increase vocabulary
 to “fill in the blanks” by checking knowledge, finding answers, and taking additional
notes

Assessment
1. What is the difference between bottom – up, top – down and interactive approach?
2. Can you list limitation of bottom – up and top down approach?
3. What kind of activities is better in each approach?
4. What are the processes of reading?
5. What is the basic difference among the reading phases?
6. What kinds of activities are suitable to each phases of reading? Why?
Unit Three: Reading Techniques and Strategies
Unit objective: At the end of this unit student will be able to: recognize reading techniques,
explain literal and critical comprehension, define reading strategies and identify the elements of
reading strategies.

3.1. SQ3R: A Reading Technique

• SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. It is a proven technique
to sharpen textbook reading skills.
• In college, you'll frequently be assigned multiple chapters for several different courses
in books that can be quite complicated. SQ3R helps make reading purposeful and
meaningful, so that you use your time most effectively.
• Here's how this strategy works…
Survey
• Get an idea of what the chapter is about by reviewing the highlights:
• Read the title, headings, and subheadings.
• Take note of words that are italicized or bold.
• Look at charts, graphs, pictures, maps, and other visual material.
• Read caption; Read the very beginning and end of the chapter.
Question
• As you survey the text, ask a question for each section. Ask what, why, how, when,
who and where questions as they relate to the content. Here's how you can create
questions:
• Turn the title, headings, or subheadings into questions.
• Rewrite the questions at the end of the chapter or after each subheading in your own
words.
• Write down your questions. Questions help you pay attention, understand the text
better, and recall the information more easily later on.
Read
• Read one section of a chapter at a time, actively looking for an answer to your
question for that section.
• Pay attention to bold and italicized text that authors use to make important points.
• Be sure to review everything in the section, including tables, graphs, and illustrations,
as these features can communicate an idea more powerfully than written text.
Recite
 • At the end of each section, look up from the text and in your own words recite an
answer to your question for that section. Then write down your answer. Be sure to
provide examples that support it.
• Now repeat the Question, Read, and Recite steps for each section of the chapter or
assigned reading. First ask a question for the next section. Then read to find the
answer. Finally, recite the answer in your own words and jot it down. The written
questions and answers will help you study in the future.
Review
• After completing each chapter or reading assignment, review your notes. Identify the
main points of the reading by looking for the most important idea in each section.
Recite, or write, a brief summary of the chapter or assignment.
• Review your study notes every week to help you remember the information.
That’s the SQ3R Reading Technique
3.2. Reading strategies
I. What dose reading strategy mean?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
II. What are the elements of reading strategies we should consider during reading?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Reading is a systematic process engaging different skills that can be used differently
in accordance with the kind of information and amount of information needed.
 Reading strategies may be defined as an action or series of actions employed in order
to construct meaning.
 The term reading strategy to refer to the mental operations involved when readers
purposefully approach a text to make sense of what they read.
 Reading comprehension is an essential component of academic areas, professional
success and lifelong learning. Importance of reading skills in academic contexts has
led to undertaking.
To read effectively, you may need some strategies to help you deal with the texts. The
following seven strategies are useful when you read:
1. Scanning 4. Understanding references
2. Skimming 5. Making inferences
3. Locating the main idea 6. Thinking logically
7. Guessing meaning from contexts

1. Scanning: Scanning is reading quickly to search for specific information. Scanning is very
high-speed reading that you do when you are looking for a specific piece of information.
When you scan, you have a question in mind. You do not read every word, only key words
that will answer your question. Practice in scanning will help you learn to skip over
unimportant words so that you can read faster. Scanning may allow you to ‘read’ up to 1,500
words a minute.
2. Skimming: Skimming is another high-speed reading technique that can save you time and
help you get through a text quickly. Skimming is reading quickly to gain a general idea.
Skimming may allow you to ‘read’ up to 1000 words a minute. You skim to get the general
sense of a passage, not specific details. When you skim, you should not read the whole text.
Your eyes should move very quickly over the lines and you should read only the parts of the
text that will help you answer the questions. Skimming may allow you to ‘read’ up to 1000
words a minute.
Skimming helps you identify whether or not to continue reading, what to read carefully, and
where the best place is to begin. Skimming an academic text immediately before you read it
carefully can help you consider what you already know and can help you develop a purpose
for reading. An initial skim can also help maximize your interest in the text and you
understanding and reflection on the material. As with scanning, skimming does not involve
reading every word. Instead, you may skim by reading: titles, subheadings, words in that are
in bold, in italics or underlined, diagrams, a report’s abstract, introduction or conclusion,
the first sentence of every paragraph, chapter questions, chapter objectives, and chapter
summaries.
 Look at the following activities
Skimming: Some examples of such skimming questions are the following:
_ What methods of plant propagation are dealt within this article?
_ Which of these topics are dealt with in the text? (list of topics are given)
_ Which of these pictures (diagram), etc illustrate the text? (several pictures diagrams are
supplied)
_ What is the text generally about?
_ Which of these texts deals with methods of plant propagation? (several texts supplied: one
or more deals with the given text)
Scanning: The easiest are those requiring the students to scan for single word or specific fact,
for example:
_ Look at page 100 and find out when Shakespeare died.
_ How many times does the word ‘this’ occur on this page?
_ (Using a page from a telephone directory) what is the telephone number of Mr. X?
_ (Using a page from an index) on what page is the topic of evaluation mentioned?
Exercise Scanning
Read the following passage very quickly and answer the questions your teacher will ask you.
Exercise Scanning questions about Hun Sen the Prime Minister of Cambodia, and find the
answers to as many questions below as possible in 2 minutes.
1) How many years has Hun Sen been in office?
2) How old was Hun Sen when he became Prime Minister?
3) What does CPP stand for?
4) How long did it take Hun Sen to move from communist leadership to premiership?
5) Who is the longest serving head of government in Southeast Asia? How long has he been
in office?
6) How many leaders have held office longer than Hun Sen?
7) Which continent has the highest number of long-serving leaders?
8) How many Cambodians were killed by the Khmer Rouge?
9) When is the next election in Cambodia scheduled?
10) How many government leaders were younger than Hun Sen when they first came to
power?
11) When was Cambodia set up as a communist state by Vietnam?
12) Who is the president of the CPP?
13) Where did Hun Sen make a speech on January 12?
14) How old was Hun Sen when he started a political career in the cabinet?
15) How long had Hun Sen been the Deputy Prime Minister when he was nominated for
premiership?
PHNOM PENH -- Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen recently marked his 25th anniversary
as the Southeast Asian nation's leader. First appointed by the Cambodian National Assembly
on January 14, 1985, he became at 33 years old the youngest Prime Minister in the world.
Hun Sen's journey from a communist leader to an elected head of government spans a quarter
of a century of civil war, domestic and international upheaval, a negotiated peace and
transition to democracy through which he and his Cambodia's People's Party (CPP) have
imposed themselves as the country's deliverers of stability and order.

By retaining the helm in Cambodia's fractious politics for 25 years, he now stands among a
unique category of leaders, ranking as the 11th longest ruling leader in the world. In
Southeast Asia, only the Sultan of Brunei, the number one longest serving government leader
since assuming office in 1967, has been in power longer than Hun Sen. Of the other nine
longer serving leaders, five are heads of governments in Africa and four are from the Middle
East.

Hun Sen reflected on his long political career and humble beginnings in a speech at the
National Institute for Education in Phnom Penh on January 12. "I became [foreign] minister
when I was 27 years old, Deputy Prime Minister when I was 29 years old and Prime Minister
at 33 years old," Hun Sen said of his appointments in the People's Republic of Kampuchea –
the communist state set up by Vietnam in 1979 after it toppled the Khmer Rouge, whose
bloody regime caused the death of about 1.7 million Cambodians.

The prime minister went on to talk about his political future, confirming his intention to run
in the next election in 2013. "The party conference announced my candidacy for the future
prime minister and ... last week CheaSim [president of the CPP] also reconfirmed my
nomination for the premiership," Hun Sen said before taking aim at opposition parties.
"Please do not try to limit the mandate of the premiership. You want the mandate limited
because you are worrying you will lose to me," he said, while also reminding the audience he
still had another three and a half years in office under the mandate of the last election, which
his party, the CPP, won with a two-thirds legislative majority.
Skimming Questions
1) What is this passage about?
2) Does this passage give a positive or a negative impression of PHNOM PENH? How can
you tell?
3) What can you tell about PHNOM PENH as a person?
3. Locating the Main Idea
One useful way to understand the main idea of a paragraph is to start by identifying the
paragraph’s topic. A paragraph’s topic is the subject under discussion. When identifying
the topic of a paragraph, remember that it should be general enough to cover the material in
the paragraph, but not so general that the label could apply to many paragraphs.
Example
Food sits at the very center of Vietnamese culture: for every significant holiday on the
Vietnamese cultural calendar, all the important milestones in a Vietnamese person's life, and
indeed, most of the important day-to-day social events and interactions - food plays a central
role. Special dishes are prepared and served with great care for every birth, marriage and
death, and the anniversaries of ancestors' deaths. More business deals are struck over dinner
tables than over boardroom tables, and when friends get together, they eat together. Preparing
food and eating together remains the focus of family life.
Main idea = _________________________________________________________________
4. Understanding Reference:A. Pronoun
What is Reference?
1. is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object or
abstraction it represents.
2. is the relationship of one linguistic expression to another, in which one provides the
information necessary to interpret the other
Reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or
reader, to identify something. These linguistic forms are calledreferring expressions.
They can be:
(a) proper nouns: ‘Ethiopia’, ‘Bill Clinton’
(b) noun phrases (definite): ‘The city’,‘The ex-president’
(c) noun phrases (indefinite):‘A place’ , ‘A man’
(d) pronouns:‘It’,‘He, him’

 Writers use pronouns instead of repeating the same word or name many times.
Pronouns can be singular or plural. This means they can replace a single name/idea or
a group of names/ideas.
Exercise Instructions: Write down what each underlined pronoun refers to.
The Problem of Old Computers
Approximately 10 million computers are thrown away each year! Because most unwanted
computers are sent to a dump, (1) they have caused a problem. The computer industry and
the government are working on ways to solve (2) it. (3) They have concluded that there must
be changes in the way computers are built. (4) They must be made in ways that will allow
their parts to be recycled. (5) These include the electronic parts, the glass screen of the
monitor, and pieces of the printer.
(1) they = ____________________________ (4) They = ____________________________
(2) it = ______________________________ (5) These = ___________________________
(3) They = __________
Substitution (Synonyms)
 Writers make their writing interesting and enjoyable to read by using a variety of
words. They may use different words or phrases to name the same thing. It is
important to remember that even though two different words are used, they refer to
the same thing.
Example:
Many Estonians have country homes on the nearby island of Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea.
They visit their simple cottages often and plant large gardens there.
 The word ‘cottages’ refers to homes.
A pedicabis a small cab that is pulled by a bicycle. This human-powered transportation
has been popular in Asian countries for many years.
 The phrase ‘human-powered transportation’ refers to pedicab.
Exercise :Each item below includes a word or phrase that is a synonym of the underlined
word. Identify the synonym of the underlined word in each case.
1. With temperatures so cold this winter, the supply of natural gas for heating could be
depleted, or used up, by spring.
2. After the heavy rains, the lake water become murky; in fact , the water was so cloudy
you couldn't see to the bottom
3. Men's contributions to reproductive work, which we may call house work and child
care, is negligible.
4. What criteria should we use to judge the work of college professors? What standards
should we use to decide how effective they are?
5. The medicine Almaz takes is very potent, so powerful, in fact, that she must not take
it more than a week.
 Antonyms (contrast) - words and phrases that mean the opposite of a word - are also
context clues. Antonyms are often signaled by words and phrases such as however, but,
on the other hand, in contrast, etc.

5. Making Inferences
What is Inference?
The term "inference" refers to
 the process of using observation and background knowledge as well as other known
premises to determine a conclusion that makes sense
 Inferring is connecting prior knowledge to text based information to create meaning
beyond what is directly stated.
 A decision reached on the basis of evidence in the reading and your own background
knowledge

Examples-1
What do you infer from the following passage? Read the passage and answer the question
following it
Our teacher had wonderful personality. He was very polite, sympathetic, helpful and
competitive in all his social and academic life. He always came to class with adequate
preparation and full confidence. He used to start his class with smile face and in a warmly
welcoming approach. While he was teaching in the class, he taught his class in a dramatic and
entertaining fashion. Along with this, his trouser and shirts were always perfectly ironed. His
hair was nicely combed. His face was clearly shaved. His shoes were shiny polished. In
short, he used to dress smartly and neatly. However these days, he became different. He
seems, he drops all his good qualities. He keeps himself away from any body contact. He
looked to be tired of everything around. I question myself, what happened to my teacher? He
doesn’t come to class with preparation and happiness as he used to be. He is not found to be
respectful, concerned, caring to his students and his friends. Most frequently he starts his
class with harassing and criticizing his students. He comes to class with foggy face. He wears
unclearly washed and poorly ironed shirts and trouser, with shoes which are fully piled of
dusts. Above all, he doesn’t want to communicate and be communicated with anybody else
smoothly and peacefully.
1. What do you think happened to our teacher?
2. How do you know?
 3. What has to be done to let him back to his former personality?
Example-2

For years Bob had worked at the horse stable near his farm. He loved grooming, feeding, and
exercising the horses. He had dreamed of owning his own horse some day. His favorite
horse was a brown roan named “Jewel”. Jewel was going to foal any day now. Bob was
saving every penny he could to try to buy Jewel’s foal. His birthday was two days away and
he hoped he would get money for a gift from his parents and grandparents.
On Wednesday after school Bob rushed to the stable. Standing on wobbly legs was a
newborn pony. It was beautiful! The pony had brown and white spots and huge brown eyes.
Bob hated to leave the pony but he had to rush home for his birthday celebration. After
supper, Bob’s mother brought in his cake. He quickly blew out his candles and made a wish.
Then Bob opened his gift from his parents. It was money and a bridle!
Name at least two things you can infer: What were the clues in the text?
Inferences are evidence-based guesses. They are the conclusions a reader draws about the
unsaid based on what is actually said. Inferences drawn while reading are much like
inferences drawn in everyday life. Making an inference is the same thing as drawing a
conclusion or making a generalization.
• An inference is an educated guess about the text.
• An inference is “reading between the lines.”
• An inference is NOT directly stated in the text you’re reading.

What + What = What

I already know I learned from reading I infer

The role of inference in communication is to allow the listener to identify correctly which
particular entity the speaker is referring to. We can even use vague expressions relying on the
listener’s ability to infer what is the referent that we have in mind.

Guidelines (Tips) for Drawing Inferences

  Make sure your inferences rely mainly on the author's words rather than your own
feelings or experience. Your goal is to read the author's mind, not invent your own
message.
 Check to see if your inference is proven wrong by any statements in the paragraph. If
it is, it is not a useful inference.
 If the passage is a difficult one, check to see if you can actually identify the
statements that led you to your conclusion. This will help you test your understanding
of the text. You can also remember the material better.
Examples of Inference
1) If your mom tells you to put your rain coat on before leaving the house, you can infer
(or make an educated guess) that it is raining outside.
2) He is known as the prime minster with the smile face and young gentle man who leads
us through the sense of peace, equality and brotherhood.
**You can infer that the prime minster being spoken of in the sentence is prime
minster Dr. Abiy Ahmed.
Inferences Worksheet
Exercise 1: Read the following conversations and answers the questions.
Abidisa: Look at the long line! Do you think we’ll get in?
Bekele: I think so. Some of these people already have tickets.
Abidisa: How much are the tickets?
Bekele: Only nine dollars for the first show. I’ll pay.
Abidisa: Thanks. I’ll buy the popcorn.
1. Where are these people?
2. What are they talking about?
3. Who are these people?
ANSWERS:
1. Outside a movie theater
2. Getting tickets to see a movie.
3. Two people who know each other ie. Friends, boyfriend and girlfriend, etc.

Exercise 2
Ali: This is one of the reasons I hate working in a big city.
Belay: I know. Every day, it’s the same thing.
Ali: This is terrible! We may be here all night! I hope we don’t run out of gas.
 Belay: No, I think there’s enough.
Ali: Let’s turn on the radio. Maybe there’s some good music.
Belay: Sorry, the radio’s not working.
Ali: I think I’ll take the train tomorrow!

1. Where are these people?

2. What are they talking about?
3. What do you think will happen next?
ANSWER:1. In a car,[Link] bad traffic, 3. Not sure

The process of putting pieces of information together so that they make sense is called
making an inference. In other words, when you “infer” something, you are drawing an
unstated conclusion from the information that you already have.
6. Thinking Logically
When you are reading, understanding the words is not enough to understand the whole text.
You need to be able to make logical connections between the ideas and information in your
reading. This means using the information you already know to reach a conclusion. In other
words, you need to think logically.
7. Guessing Meanings from Contexts
 A better way to read is to guess what most of the new words mean. This is a
natural way to learn language. You may not guess the exact meaning the first time
you see a new word, but you can get a general meaning. When you see the word
again in other situations (contexts), you can improve your understanding of the
word. When you guess the meaning of the word, you think actively. This helps
you to remember the word.
 When you want to guess a word’s meaning, it helps if you know what part of speech it is.
Is it a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb? You need to know the word’s function in
the sentence
 This handout gives you some strategies for guessing the meaning of words from
their contexts. When you guess the meanings of words, you are like a detective.
You need clues to help you solve the mystery. This handout shows you how to use
the following kinds of clues:
A. Your knowledge of the world
 B. Punctuation clues
C. Definition clues
D. Example clues
E. Comparison clues
F. Contrast clues
G. Referent clues

As you work through the exercises in this handout, do not use a dictionary. Guess the
meanings from the contexts.
A. Using Your Knowledge of the World
Often you can guess the meaning of a word just by using your own knowledge of the world
and how things work. For example, look at this sentence:

I didn’t sleep well because my neighbor’s dog was yapping all night.

You can guess the meaning of yapping by thinking about your knowledge of dogs and your
knowledge of sleep. How can dogs wake you up? They can jump on you or make a noise.
Because this is the neighbor’s dog, not yours, it must make a noise. So, you can guess that
yapping is some kind of noise, probably like barking. In most situations, this is enough
information for you to continue reading. It doesn’t matter if you know exactly what kind of
noise it is.
Exercise 1: Using your Knowledge of the World
Use your knowledge of the world to guess the meanings of the underlined words. When
you’ve finished, discuss your answers with your tutor.

1. Some vegetarians believe that killing animals is wrong. Others are vegetarian because
they think meat is bad for people.
 A vegetarian is probably ____________________________________
2. The driver swerved to miss the little boy who stepped out into the road.
 To swerve is probably ______________________________________
B. Punctuation Clues
Punctuation clues are one of the easiest kinds of context clues. With punctuation clues, the
meaning of a word is explained immediately after the word between brackets, commas or
dashes. This type of clue is very common, especially in college textbooks.

Look at the following examples:

Brackets: A tornado (a violent storm of twisting wind) struck Edmonton and caused a
lot of damage.
Commas: A tornado, a violent storm of twisting wind, struck Edmonton and caused a
lot of damage.
Dashes: A tornado – a violent storm of twisting wind – struck Edmonton and caused
a lot of damage.
Notice that the punctuation is around an explanation of the word.

Exercise 2: Punctuation Clues

Use the punctuation clues to find the meaning of the underlined words. When you’ve finished,
discuss your answers with your tutor.

1. The deluge, a flood of rain, threatened to drown the little town.

 A deluge is ___________________________________________
2. Sleet (half rain and half snow) can be very difficult to drive in due to poor visibility.
 Sleet is ______________________________________________

C. DEFINITION CLUES
A word’s meaning is often given by including its definition in the sentence. The definition is
linked to the word with a linking word, usually a verb. Here are some examples of linking
words: is, was, are, means, i.e. (that is), involves, is called, that is and resembles. This type of
clue is also very common in college textbooks.

Look at the following examples:

A cane resembles a walking stick.
Giggling involves laughing in a silly way.

Exercise 3: Definition Clues

Use definition clues to guess the meanings of the underlined words. When you’ve finished,
discuss your answers with your tutor.

1. Breaking even involves making enough money to pay for business costs but no more.
 Breaking even is ___________________________________________
2. Many new businesses go bankrupt, which means they lose everything.
 To go bankrupt is __________________________________________
D. EXAMPLE CLUES
Example clues give you examples of the unknown word. You must figure out what the
examples have in common in order to figure out the meaning of the word. Examples are
usually introduced by expressions like these: such as, for instance, including, for example,
and like. Look at this one:
Large corporations like General Foods, Shell Oil, Nortel and Canadian Pacific are
often less innovative than smaller ones.
This sentence gives you 4 examples of large corporations. Think about the examples. What
do they have in common? They are all large companies. So, a corporation must be a
company.
Exercise 4: Example Clues
Use example clues to guess the meanings of the underlined words. When you’ve finished,
discuss your answers with your tutor.

1. A great part of Canada’s economy is based on its natural resources, for instance coal,
oil and wood.
 A natural resource is _______________________________________
2. Despite the risks, new businesses are expanding everywhere, from natural resources,
manufacturing, construction, real estate, retail trade and – especially – service
industries such as consulting and tourism.
 A service industry is ________________________________________
E. COMPARISON CLUES
Comparison clues show that two or more things are alike. Words like similar, as well as, both
and likewise show that comparison is possible.

Look at this example:

Washing windows is a tedious job. Similarly, cleaning the oven is very boring.
The word similarlyshows that there is something the same in the two sentences. Washing
windows and cleaning the oven are different, so the similarity must be in the description. We
can guess that tedious and boring must have similar meanings.
Exercise 5: Comparison Clues
Use comparison clues to guess the meaning of the underlined words. When you’ve finished,
discuss your answers with your tutor.
1. A soft cloth will soak up a lot of water. Likewise, a sponge is very absorbent.
 Absorbent means _____________________________________________
2. Spot cleaners as well as other bleach products are good at getting out stains.
 A spot cleaner is ______________________________________________
F. CONTRAST CLUES
With contrast clues, you use the opposite of known information to figure out the meaning of
an unknown word. Connecting words like however, yet, on the other hand, instead of, but,
while and although are used to show that meanings are opposite.
Look at this example:
Although some old people abhorchange, most of them enjoy new things and
experiences.
In this sentence the word although shows that there is some opposite meaning in the two parts
of the sentence. Both parts are about old people and their attitudes to change. The opposite
meaning must be between abhor and enjoy. Abhor probably means the opposite of enjoy. So,
abhor probably means dislike.
Exercise 6: Contrast Clues
Use contrast clues to guess the meanings of the underlined words. When you’ve finished,
discuss your answers with your tutor.
1. Many of the elderly who go to programs at Centennial House are highly stimulated.
On the other hand, old people who stay home all the time are usually bored.
 To be stimulated means _______________________________________
2. Alzheimer’s disease is a common problem in old age, but many old people continue
to have healthy minds.
 Alzheimer ’s disease is ________________________________________
G. REFERENT CLUES
A referent clue is when an unknown word is referred (mentioned) to again using a synonym
or explanation of the word. Synonyms often follow words like this, that, these, those, or the.
Sometimes, however, there is no obvious clue word. The reader just sees that the meanings
are probably similar from the ideas in the sentence.

Look at this example:

She yelled out the window at her neighbor’s dog. Then she said to her husband, “That
hound is always waking me up at night with its barking. Tomorrow I’m going to
complain.”
In this example, that comes before the unknown word. This suggests that a hound has already
been mentioned. We can guess that that hound refers to the dog. So, a hound is probably a
dog.
Exercise 7: Referent Clues
Use referent clues to guess the meanings of the underlined words. When you’ve finished,
discuss your answers with your tutor.
1. Yesterday some shysters came to my door. Those dishonest men pretended they were
doing a survey and then tried to convince me to buy a magazine.
 A shyster is _______________________________________________
2. My neighbors have a beautifully landscaped yard. It is well arranged with beautiful
shrubs, lush looking trees and bright flowers.
 Landscaped means _________________________________________
Exercise : Review
In this exercise, use all 7 types of context clues (knowledge of the world, punctuation,
definition, example, comparison, contrast and referent) to guess the meanings of the
underlined words. When you’ve finished, discuss your answers with your tutor.
1. Anne of Green Gables is a famous Canadian children’s story.
 Anne of Green Gables is ____________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _______________________________
2. It is the story of a young orphan (both her parents are dead).
 An orphan is ______________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? ________________________________
3. She gets sent to live with an elderly couple (Matthew and Martha) who live on a farm
on Prince Edward Island. They want to adopt a boy, but Anne is sent to become part
of their family instead.
 To adopt is ________________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _________________________________
4. They want a boy to help with the farm chores such as planting crops, chopping wood
and picking apples.
 A chore is __________________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _________________________________
5. However, Anne is a very engaging child. She interests Matthew and he won’t send
her back.
 Engaging means ____________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _________________________________
6. Martha and Matthew live in a small town called Addis Ababa.
 Avonlea is _________________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _________________________________
7. The people of Addis Ababa expect their children to be very obedient. Likewise,
Martha expects Almaz to always do what she is told.
 Obedient means ____________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _________________________________
8. Although Anne tries to be obedient, she gets into lots of scrapes. These difficult
situations often lead to some very funny results.
 A scrape is ________________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? ________________________________
9. Anne has very red hair and she’s very self-conscious about it. Similarly, she’s very
embarrassed by her freckles – small brown spots on her nose and cheeks.
 Self-conscious means ________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _________________________________
 A freckle is _________________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _________________________________
10. One time Anne tries to dye her hair black. Unfortunately, she changes the color to
green instead.
 To dye is ___________________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? __________________________________
11. Martha shears off Almaz’s once beautiful hair, and Anne has to wear a bonnet (hat) to
cover up her bald head.
 To shear off is _______________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? __________________________________
 A bonnet is __________________________________________________
  What type of clue did you use? __________________________________
12. By the end of the book, Martha adores Almaz instead of disliking her as she did at the
beginning.
 To adore is _____________________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _____________________________________
13. Anne has become an exemplary young lady. For instance, she wins a university
scholarship, she saves a young child’s life, and she has become truly beautiful.
 Exemplary means _______________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use? _____________________________________
14. Unlike many of her friends who lose their imaginations as they grow up, Almaz
retains her vivid imagination into adulthood.
 To retain means _________________________________________________
 What type of clue did you use?
______________________________________
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1: Using your Knowledge of the World
1. Some vegetarians believe that killing animals is wrong. Others are vegetarian because
they think meat is bad for people.
 A vegetarian is probably a person that does not eat meat.
2. The driver swerved to miss the little boy who stepped out into the road.
 To swerve is probably moved out of the way.
Exercise 2: Punctuation Clues
1. The deluge, a flood of rain, threatened to drown the little town.
 A deluge is a flood of rain.
2. Sleet (half rain and half snow) can be very difficult to drive in due to poor visibility.
 Sleet is half rain and half snow.
Exercise 3: Definition Clues
1. Breaking even involves making enough money to pay for business costs but no more.
 Breaking even is making enough money to pay for business costs but not more.
2. Many new businesses go bankrupt, which means they lose everything.
 To go bankrupt is to lose everything.
Exercise 4: Example Clues
1. A great part of Canada’s economy is based on its natural resources, for instance coal,
oil and wood.
  A natural resource is a substance that comes from nature.
2. Despite the risks, new businesses are expanding everywhere, from natural resources,
manufacturing, construction, real estate, retail trade and – especially – service
industries such as consulting and tourism.
 A service industry is business that provides a service.
Exercise 5: Comparison Clues
1. A soft cloth will soak up a lot of water. Likewise, a sponge is very absorbent.
 Absorbent means soaks up water.
2. Spot cleaners as well as other bleach products are good at getting out stains.
 A spot cleaner is something that cleans stains.
Exercise 6: Contrast Clues
1. Many of the elderly who go to programs at Centennial House are highly stimulated.
On the other hand, old people who stay home all the time are usually bored.
 To be stimulated means entertained.
2. Alzheimer’s disease is a common problem in old age, but many old people continue
to have healthy minds.

Exercise 7: Referent Clues

1. Yesterday some shysters came to my door. Those dishonest men pretended they were
doing a survey and then tried to convince me to buy a magazine.
 A shyster is a dishonest person.
2. My neighbors have a beautifully landscaped yard. It is well arranged with beautiful
shrubs, lush looking trees and bright flowers.
 Landscaped means well-arranged land and plants.
Exercise 9: Review I
1. Anne of Green Gables is a famous Canadian children’s story.
 Anne of Green Gables is a famous Canadian children’s story.
 What type of clue did you use? Definition.
2. It is the story of a young orphan (both her parents are dead).
 An orphan is a person whose parents are dead.
 What type of clue did you use? Punctuation.
3. She gets sent to live with an elderly couple (Matthew and Marilla) who live on a farm
on Prince Edward Island. They want to adopt a boy, but Anne is sent to become part
of their family instead.
  To adopt is to make someone else’s child part of your family.
 What type of clue did you use? Comparison.
4. They want a boy to help with the farm chores such as planting crops, chopping wood
and picking apples.
 A chore is a job that needs to be done.
 What type of clue did you use? Example.
5. However, Anne is a very engaging child. She interests Matthew and he won’t send
her back.
 Engaging means interesting.
 What type of clue did you use? Referent.
6. Marilla and Matthew live in a small town called Avonlea.
 Avonlea is a small town.
 What type of clue did you use? Definition.
7. The people of Avonlea expect their children to be very obedient. Likewise, Marilla
expects Anne to always do what she is told.
 Obedient means to do what you’re told.
 What type of clue did you use? Comparison.
8. Although Anne tries to be obedient, she gets into lots of scrapes. These difficult
situations often lead to some very funny results.

 A scrape is a difficult situation that can lead to funny results.

 What type of clue did you use? Referent.
9. Anne has very red hair and she’s very self-conscious about it. Similarly, she’s very
embarrassed by her freckles – small brown spots on her nose and cheeks.
 Self-conscious means embarrassed.
 What type of clue did you use? Comparison.
 A freckle is a small brown spot.
 What type of clue did you use? Punctuation.
10. One time Anne tries to dye her hair black. Unfortunately, she changes the colour to
green instead.
 To dye is to change the color of your hair.
 What type of clue did you use? Contrast.
11. Marilla shears off Anne’s once beautiful hair, and Anne has to wear a bonnet (hat) to
cover up her bald head.
  To shear off is to cut off.
 What type of clue did you use? Referant.
 A bonnet is a hat.
 What type of clue did you use? Punctuation.
12. By the end of the book, Marilla adores Anne instead of disliking her as she did at the
beginning.
 To adore is to like.
 What type of clue did you use? Contrast.
13. Anne has become an exemplary young lady. For instance, she wins a university
scholarship, she saves a young child’s life, and she has become truly beautiful.
 Exemplary means a good role model.
 What type of clue did you use? Example.
14. Unlike many of her friends who lose their imaginations as they grow up, Anne retains
her vivid imagination into adulthood.
 To retain means to keep.
 What type of clue did you use? Contrast.

4. Ignoring new difficult words

Disadvantages of frequently referring to dictionary:
 it retards reading speed
 it affects (interrupt) comprehension
 it develops dependency on the dictionary
 the dictionary may not always accessible(used)
Understanding the meaning means it does not mean understanding the text. If we do not
understand we cannot guess the gist of the topic.

Strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include

 Previewing: reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a sense of
the structure and content of a reading selection
 Predicting: using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about content
and vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and
purpose to make predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge about the
author to make predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content
  Skimming and scanning: using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea,
identify text structure, confirm or question predictions
 Guessing from context: using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text
as clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look them up
 Paraphrasing: stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating
the information and ideas in the text.
Note Taking: Discussion parts
 When you attend lectures do you usually take notes?
 If your answer is “yes”, how do you go about it?
 Can you mention some of the signs of good or bad note taking habits?
 Why do students have to take notes?

General Information
The ability to take good notes is an important skill that students will need in all aspects of
their studies, lectures, tutorials, projects or the study of textbooks. Taking good notes is an
essential part of studying because it requires students to concentrate better and actively
involves them in the learning process; it also provides them with an invaluable written record
of the main ideas and important details of previous studies that may be used for revision and
preparation for examination.
How to Write Notes
One of the purposes of taking notes is to help students recall at a letter time the main ideas
and important details they have encountered in their reading and lectures. In writing good
notes students must consider what form. For the purpose of easy recall, the outlining of
lectures and texts is probably better than summarizing them, because an outline presents
essential ideas in graphic form, thereby, giving vivid picture of these major ideas and details
as well as their relationships.
When language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the reading
experience, and they gain confidence in their ability to read the language. Moreover,
aneffective readers use strategies to understand what they read before, during, and after
reading.

Assessment
1. What is reading strategy means?
 2. Can you define the difference reading stagey?
3. What kind of reading strategy do you use? Why?

Unit Four: Reading purposes

Unit objective
At the end of the unit students will be able to define reading purpose, reading ability, and
identify different types of reading purpose.
4.1. Purpose of reading
 I. Why do we read?
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

1. According to Grellet (1981) people read for two reasons.

 For pleasure
 For information (in order to point out something or in order to do something
with the information you get).
2. According to Wallace (1992) on the other hand sees the purposes of reading in three
categories.
 Reading for survival
 Reading for learning
 Reading for pleasure
3. Rivers (1987) also mentions the following purposes (reasons) of reading. According
to him, we read normally:
 Because we want information for the purposes or because curious about some
topics
 Because we need instructions in order to perform some tasks for our daily life
(we want to know how appliance works …. We have forms to fill in.)
 Because we want to know what is happening or has happened
 Because we seek enjoyment and excitement (read novel, short stories poems
or words of songs.)

 The purpose of reading is to connect the ideas on the page to what you already
know. If you don't know anything about a subject, then pouring words of text
into your mind is like pouring water into your hand. You don't retain much.
For example, try reading these numbers:
 7516324 this is hard to read and remember.
 751-6324 this is easier because of chunking.
 123-4567 this is easy to read because of prior knowledge and structure.

Similarly, if you like sports’, then reading the sports page is easy. You have a framework in
your mind for reading, understanding and storing information. Therefore, if a reader reads
any written material the reader might have one of the following purposes for reading that
material.
4.1.1. Reading for main idea
What to do and what to watch for: The main idea tells what the whole passage is about. The
main idea is the main or most important point the writer wants to make.
Read the title of the passage. The title is written in BOLD at the top of the passage. Find the
title before you read the passage. Read it and think about it by asking:
What is this reading all about? What’s the main point? Why did the writer write this? What
information will I get from this reading? What is the BIG picture here? Why would someone
want to read this?
Read the introduction. The introduction is right under the title. It is one or two sentences
written in ITALICS. Just like the title, the introduction gives important information about
what you are going to read. Sometimes, the introduction tells you the main idea before you
read. After you read the introduction, think about it by asking yourself the same questions
you asked about the title.
4.1.2. Reading for detail

Detailed reading: for extracting information accurately

This is where you read text more closely, and work to learn from the text. You will do careful
reading after you have scanned the text to see if it is relevant and skimmed the text to get a
general idea of the topic. When reading in detail:
 Ask yourself questions and search for the answers in order to focus your reading
 Read the article critically and analyse and evaluate the findings
 Avoid backtracking when reading. Backtracking is when you read a few words and
then go back over them because you have not understood the point properly or were
not concentrating. By doing this you are interrupting the flow of reading. It is far
better to get to the end of a section by reading it straight through and then re-reading
it if necessary.
 Avoid ‘sounding out’ words in your head as you read. This slows you down.
N:B: reading improves with practice, and the more you are familiar with advanced reading
techniques the more quickly you will be able to get access to the information.
4.1.3. Recognizing author’s purpose and tone

[Link]. Author’s Purpose, Point of View and Tone

 i. What to do and what to watch for: Every writer has a purpose and point of view.
Every writing has sets a tone or attitude for the reader. Recognizing the author’s
purpose, point of view and the tone of the passage will help you to understand and
analyze it.
ii. Author’s purpose. Why did the author write this? The author’s purpose in writing can
be one or many. A passage may simply inform the reader. An author may inform you
and entertain you at the same time. The author may try to persuade you and inform you
or persuade you and entertain you. Usually the author’s purpose is to entertain, inform or
persuade a reader.
Certain types of writing generally serve certain purposes:
Entertain. Fiction, drama, narratives, first-person stories
Inform. News stories, informational articles, textbooks.
Persuade Advertisements, editorials
iii. Author’s point of view. Point of view refers to the author’s opinion. The author’s point
of view is his or her particular opinion or position on the [Link] of view includes
beliefs, biases and assumptions. This is the writer’s own personal way of looking at the
subject. Sometimes the writer makes personal judgments that are evident in the reading.
Examples:
A writer may have an opinion about how responsible young people are. From this point of
view, the author assumes the best of young people. The same writer may have a strong
opinion or bias against adults who do not help young people who deserve it. These
beliefs, opinions, positions and biases will influence the writing.
A writer may take the point of view that violence in schools is caused by violence in
society. Writing from this point of view will show a bias against social institutions like
television and movies and their influence on youth. As you read, you may have your own
opinion. Pay attention to your reaction to the reading. It may help you to figure out the
author’s point of view.
iv. Author’s tone. The tone is the author’s attitude. The tone of a reading is the attitude
the writer takes toward the subject. Tone can be seen in the way an author treats or
writes about a character. The author’s tone may be sad and serious or humorous and
light-hearted. The tone may be sarcastic or making fun of something or some
v. The author’s choice of words sets the tone. The choice of words sets a certain
climate or atmosphere that you can sense. Your reaction to the reading can help you
 identify the author’s attitude or tone. Identify specific words that make you react this
way. These words have been chosen by the writer to set the tone.
Examples:
The long lonely night was obscured in sombre clouds of doubt and darkness that hovered
over my head like a heavy weight.
The flower petals danced on the refreshing breezes of the day, filling my head with the rich
colors of joy, peace, love, and living.
Every politician in the room covered his sweating grimace with the artificial smile and good
intentions that had gotten him elected.

4.1.4. Reading Academic Texts

Reading is a process shaped partly by the text, partly by the reader'sbackground, and partly
by the situation the reading occurs in (Hunt, 2004, p.137). Reading an academic text does not
simply involve finding informationon the text itself. Rather, it is a process of working with
the text. Whenreading an academic text, the reader recreates the meaning of the text,together
with the author. In other words, readers negotiate the meaning withthe author by applying
their prior knowledge to it (Maleki&Heerman, 1992).But this process is only possible if the
reader uses a series of categories ofanalysis, some of which are specific to each academic
discipline. Thus,working with a text and recreating its meaning entail both non
disciplinespecificand specific strategies. The expert reader has incorporated thesecategories
and applies them almost intuitively. But, first-year studentsignore these categories of
analysis. So, professors in each discipline need toteach both the general analytical tools and
the discipline- specific values andstrategies that facilitate disciplinary reading and learning
(Bean, 1996, p.133).
4.1.5. Reading for pleasure
Readers are active participants in the world around them and that engagement is critical to
individual and social well-being. Research from the USA has indicated that people who read
for pleasure are three times more likely than those who don’t to visit museums and attend
concerts and twice as likely to perform volunteer and charity work. They were also found to
exercise more and play more sport, no matter what their educational level. These statistics
confirm something that most teachers know but have been reluctant to declare as fact –
reading changes lives for the better. Just because someone is able to read does not mean that
he or she will choose to do so. This is especially true with students who are thought to be at
risk of reading failure. Children who read very little do not have the benefits that come with
reading and studies show that, when struggling readers are not motivated to read, their
opportunities to learn decrease significantly. This can lead to strong negative feelings about
reading and create a vicious circle in which poor readers remain poor readers.
Assessment Activities
I. Give a short answer for the following questions.
1. Why do you read?
2. Can you list different purpose of reading?
3. Explain the basic difference among different purposes of reading?
Activities: The following sentences are jumbled. Re-order them so that they will make a
coherent paragraph.
a. Fifty years ago, smoking was not seen as a major health risk; it just caused coughs.
b. For example, 700 people died in Britain of lung cancer last month.
c. Thus, we can say that the battle against smoking is not yet over.
d. Therefore, no studies were made on the effects of tobacco on health.
e. Because of this, some people especially doctors stopped smoking.
f. In spite of this, other people started to smoke and many continued to die.
g. Eventually, some link between smoking, cancer and heart disease was discovered.
The order is:…………………………
To help readers understand their main ideas, authors try to present supporting details in a clearly
organized way. They might use any of several common patterns to arrange their details. By
recognizing the patterns, you will be better able to make sense of what you read. There are five
basic patterns of organization:

1. Time order
2. List of items
3. Comparison & Contrast
4. Cause & Effect
5. Definition
6. Example
Unit Five: Reading Speed and Comprehension
Unit objective: At the end of this unit students will be able to define reading speed, identify
causes which speed up and slow down reading speed, explain reading comprehension, and
describe strategies of reading comprehension.
5.1 Reading Speed

I. What do we mean by reading speed?

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Reading speed is a measure of how quickly one can read. It is calculated by dividing the
number of words read by the number of minutes it takes to read the words. Reading rate most
commonly is expressed in units of words per minute (WPM).

It takes conscious effort to improve reading rate fluency. One must become cognizant of the
habits that reduce the rate of reading and then take steps to eliminate those habits. Lip
reading, sub vocalization, and regression are three such habits. Lip reading, a common habit,
involves moving one's lips while reading without making any noise. Sub vocalization occurs
when one partially activates one's vocal cords. Lack of concentration results in regression, or
forgetting previously read information.

Be cautioned that reading quickly is not effective if one does not understand or remember
what one has read. Therefore, it is important to develop flexibility in one's reading skills.
Adjust reading rates according to the type of material being read and the level of difficulty.
Obviously, one should read a technical description of genetics more slowly than a magazine
article on U.S.-Soviet relations. In addition, don't skip over illustrations and tables for the
sake of saving time. Critical information is often tucked away in these ancillary formats.

Another cautionary note is related to the practice of sub vocalization. While it is true that this
habit reduces reading rate, it may be a necessary strategy for auditory learners to use while
reading
5.2. Speed and Comprehension
What is a reading ability? Reading ability consists of two components: speed and
comprehension. We cannot talk about reading ability without speed and comprehension.
Speed without comprehension or comprehension without speed doesn't make up reading
ability.
There is no doubt that reading speed and comprehension are closely linked. A very slow
reader is likely to read with poor understanding, if only because his memory is taxed: the
beginning of a paragraph - or even a sentence - may have been forgotten by the time he has
struggled to the end of it. But it is not clear which is because and which effect: do people read
quickly because they understand easily, or do they understand easily because of the speed
with which they read?
5.3. Measuring Reading Speed

To measure one's reading rate, locate appropriate reading materials and select a section of
text. Mark the beginning of the selection. Read for a certain length of time (use a timer or
watch) or for a certain amount of text. Mark the end of the selection, and note the total
number of minutes spent reading.

Document the level of comprehension by recalling main ideas from the selection. If one reads
for three minutes, one should remember three main points. If one reads for five minutes, one
should remember five main ideas. Jot down these main points.

Count the number of words between the two marks, and divide that number by the number of
minutes spent reading. This is the rate of reading, expressed in words per minute (WPM).
Whatever method you use to indicate the time, when the student finishes the reading task, he
immediately looks up and makes a note of the time you are indicating. He can then calculate
his reading speed in words per minute (w.p.m.) by means of a simple equation:

xx 6 = z
y
Here, x is the number of words in the text;
y is the number of ten-second intervals required to read the text;
6 is the number of ten-second intervals in a minute;
z is the reading speed in words per minute ( w.p.m.).
For example, if the text contains 250 words and the time taken to read it is 80 seconds (i.e.
eight ten-second interval), the equation will read:
250 X 6 = 187
80
The reading speed is thus 187 w.p.m.
Generally, according to Nuttal (1982), secondary school pupils in countries where English is
a second language may read at 120 - 150 words a minute before training. University students
in similar areas may read at about 200 w.p.m. but it is useful to know that for an L1 speaker
of English of about average education and intelligence (e.g. a student at a technical college),
the reading rate is about 300 w.p.m. The range among L1 speakers is very great; rates of up
to 800 w.p.m. and down to 140 w.p.m. are not uncommon.
Reading speed is worthless unless the reader has understood what he has read; so
comprehension must also be measured. It is usual to do this as objectively as possible, using
multiple choice or true / false questions. But what score is to be considered adequate? The
general view seems to be that about 70 per cent is enough (Larson, J. 1971).
Exercise: Answer the following question and compare your answer with a partner.
Abebe and Halu were given the same text to read and complete the exercise given below it.
Abebe has finished reading the text with a speed of 140 w.p.m. and has answered all the
questions correctly. Hailu has read the same text with 200 w.p.m. speed and scored 70 out of
100. Which is a better reader? Why?
For most purposes, the interpretations of these scores need not concern us: we can accept the
rough and ready guide that 70 per cent is about right, and it is necessary to realize that for
many reasons 100 per cent accuracy is not necessary. If in one’s opinion 100 per cent is
necessary for the sort of reading your students have to do, then he/she has to set that as
his/her target instead. What matters is that speed should not be emphasized so much that
comprehension is forgotten.
To calculate the comprehension level, divide the number of correct responses to the total
number of questions and multiply by 100 to put it in percentage.
The number of correct responses x 100 = comprehension level
the number of questions
Activity 3.3: Measuring your reading ability (speed and comprehension)
Do you want to know your reading speed and comprehension level?
Procedure: Record your time when you start and finish reading each of the following texts.
Immediately, go through the comprehension questions. Don't go back to the text to complete
the questions. The answers are given on page 43. Check your answers. To know your speed,
calculate it using the equation xx 6 = z (refer page 30-31).
y
To know your comprehension level, use the following procedure:
the number of correct responses x 100%
the number of questions

5.3.1. Increasing Reading Speed (know what speed up)

Set a target reading rate at a level slightly higher than the initial reading rate. Use reading
materials that are easy and interesting. Practice at least 15 minutes each day at the "pushed"
rate. Increase the target rate by small increments as reading improves. Progress may be
charted on a daily grid that plots rate (WPM) and time on the axes. Document progress for at
least two weeks.

Move your eyes faster over the text. Instead of taking in three words per fixation, take in six
words. Follow the lines with your finger, pen, pencil, or a 3 x 5 index card as you read.

Reduce regressions by raising awareness of them and by improving concentration. To raise

awareness, use a 3 x 5 index card to cover words and lines as they are read. When you
regress, you will have to move the card to remember what you have read. You will soon
notice how often you must stop and move the card. To improve concentration, personalize the
subject and create questions related to the material before reading the assignment.
Activity
1. Mention the possible factors those may affect reading speed.
a. _________________________________
b. ________________________________
c. ________________________________
d. ________________________________

5.3.2. Factors contributing to reduced reading rates?(know what slow

down)
Some of the factors which contribute to a reduced reading rate are:
(a) Faulty eye movements, inaccuracy in placement of the eye while reading.
(b) Regression, or the re-reading of material already read.
(c) Limited perception span leading to word-by-word reading.
(d) Vocalization, the process of putting sounds to words you read.
(e) The false belief that slow reading leads to better comprehension.
(f) Poor evaluation regarding the relevant parts of the reading material.
 (g) Lack of concentration.
5.3.3 Adjusting reading
I. Can you mention how can readers adjust their reading rate?
________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Good readers are flexible in their reading attack. Unlike the plodder, who reads consistently
at 200 words per minute, or the superficial reader, who may read everything rapidly, well-
trained readers have the capacity to adjust their speed to the material.
Rate adjustment may be overall adjustment to the article as a whole, or it may be internal
adjustment within the article.
Overall adjustment is the basic rate at which the total article is read.
Internal adjustment is concerned with the necessary variations in rate that take place as each
part of the material is read.
Base your rate adjustment on:
1. Your purpose. What do you want to get from the material?
2. The nature and difficulty of the material.
3. The amount of previous experience you have had with this subject.
Your reading purpose: Circumstances will determine why you are reading and how much
you have to get out of your reading. For example, a chapter may have been assigned in class,
or you may be gathering material for a speech, or you may be trying to impress your friends
by your knowledge of Shakespeare. You need to be eminently clear not only on such general
purposes but also on specific purpose.
To "get the gist," read very rapidly.
• To understand general ideas, read fairly rapidly.
• To get and retain detailed facts, read at a moderate rate.
• To locate specific information, skim or scan at a rapid rate.
• To determine value of material, skim at a very rapid rate.
• To pre-read or post-read, scan at a fairly rapid rate.
• To read for enjoyment, read rapidly or slowly, depending on what you want.
• To build general background, read rapidly.
Nature and difficulty of material: First of all, this involves an overall adjustment in rate to
match you thinking ability. Obviously, overall level of difficulty depends on who's doing the
reading. While General reading which is difficult for you will require a slower rate; simpler
material will permit a faster rate.
Calculate your Reading Rate
Find a passage of the book that you haven’t read and time yourself as you read it for a fixed
period of time, somewhere between three and ten minutes. Be sure to mark your starting and
ending time.
To find your reading rate, divide the number of pages read by the number of minutes
# of pages read_____________
------------------------------------------- = ____________ Pages per minute (reading rate)
# of minutes read ___________

5.4. Reading comprehension

I. Define the term comprehension _____________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
II. What do we mean by Reading Comprehension?
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Reading comprehension refers to the ability to understand information presented in written
form. While this process usually entails understanding textbook assignments, reading
comprehension skills also may affect one's interpretation of directions on exams, labs, and
homework assignments and completion of job applications or questionnaires. In addition to
this, reading comprehension defines as the process of simultaneously extracting and
constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with writtenlanguage. We use the
words extracting and constructing to emphasize both theimportance and the insufficiency of
the text as a determinant of reading [Link] entails three elements
• The reader who is doing the comprehending
• The text that is to be comprehended
• The activity in which comprehension is a part.
In considering the reader, we include all the capacities, abilities, knowledge,and experiences
that a person brings to the act of reading. Text is broadly construedto include any printed text
or electronic text. In considering activity, weinclude the purposes, processes, and
consequences associated with the act ofreading.
What factors affect reading comprehension?
While word identification is a process that results in a fairly exact outcome (i.e., a student
either reads the word "automobile" or not) the process of comprehending text is not so exact.
Different readers will interpret an author's message in different ways.
Comprehension is affected by
 the reader's knowledge of the topic,
 knowledge of language structures,
 structures and genres,
 knowledge of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, their reasoning abilities, their
motivation, and their level of engagement.
 knowledge of text Reading comprehension is also affected by the quality of the
reading material. Some writers are better writers than others, and some writers
produce more complex reading material than others. Text that is well organized and
clear is called "considerate text," and text that is poorly organized and difficult to
understand can be called "inconsiderate text." The more inconsiderate the text, the
more work will be required of a reader to comprehend the text. Readers who do not
have the background, abilities, or motivation to overcome the barriers presented in
inconsiderate text will have more difficulty comprehending these types of texts.
5.4.1 Literal comprehension skill
I. what does literal comprehension mean?
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Reading comprehension is grasping and interpreting text meaning. While reading entails a
hierarchy of skills, comprehension is the ultimate objective. Readers do not understand text if
they cannot read words fluently. The cognitive capacity of humans is limited, so if students
must allocate excessive thought to word analysis, little is left for comprehension. Thus, the
first step toward developing comprehension skills is to teach students to decode well.
At the most elemental level, reading involves a literal interpretation of an author’s words.
Since readers construct meaning using their prior knowledge, even literal comprehension
varies from one reader to another. Still, students must have a strong foundation in these
fundamental comprehension skills before they can shift focus to critical reading. For this
reason, it is valuable to incorporate materials into instructional programs that build the
following skills while affording students with reading opportunities.
 CONTEXT:Readers use context to predict word meaning or select missing words. The
context may actually define words, relate words to prior knowledge, or provide
information to build concepts.
 FACTS:As people read, they must attend to factual details. Exercises that check whether
students acquire the key information from a selection are worthwhile. Text discussions,
however, are often too focused on facts. Questions should also target inference and
analysis, which are higher-level comprehension skills.
 MAIN IDEA:It is important for readers to be able to identify the main idea of each
paragraph since this enables them to find supporting details. These abilities then lead to
summary and synthesis of what has been read.
 SEQUENCE:If students grasp the entirety of what they are reading, they can sequence
the events. Manipulative are an ideal format for developing this skill.
5.4.2. Critical comprehension
III. What is critical reading?
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Critical comprehension involves understanding the content of a text as well as how the
subject matter is developed. Critical comprehension takes in the facts, but goes further. Does
the text offer examples, ask for our sympathy, argue the point oruse a contrast to clarify the
point? Is the text successful in achieving its purpose?
You can read a text in at least three different ways.
Comprehension
1. Read to find out what the text says. Ask yourself: What are the main ideas of the text?
Analysis
2. Read to see what the text does. Ask yourself: how is the information presented?
Interpretation
3. Read to find out what the text means in a broader context. Ask yourself: What is the text
saying?
Example activity – one
McKenzie (2004) states that thediscovery of antibiotics was contributed to by two scientists:
Alexander Fleming and Howard Florey. Prior to 1942 patients in hospitals were dying from
sepsis after amputations or from other invasive procedures. Women died in large numbers
from infections caused by childbirth, there was no great effort being made to find some form
of antibacterial agent. In 1930, the microbiologist Fleming, who was studying micro-
organisms and their growth patterns, wrote up his observations of the effect of bacteria on an
organism for a small medical journal in Londoncommenting that this might be worth further
investigation; however, it wasn't followed up for 10 years. During the Second World War,
men injured in battle were dying from sepsis in wounds. An Australian, Florey, who was
working at Oxford University, was given the job as part of a PhD to try and find some
bacterial agent. He came across the article written by Fleming and decided to follow it up. He
managed to isolate enough penicillin from the penicillium fungus to treat one patient.
Americaput money into this research and Florey and his assistant started to produce penicillin
on a mass scale. There was enough produced in 1942 and 1943 to treat most of the allied
soldiers, sailors and airmen that were being injured. (This text was devised for teaching
purposes only. The content is regarded as general knowledge.)

If you were asked to summarize this text, you might write one of the following:
1. Florey managed to isolate penicillin during the Second World War (This discusses the same
topicas the original. It restates the original information.)
2. The passage compares the contributions made by two scientists, to the development of a
lifesaving anti-bacterial agent. (This describes the way the material is presented, showing how
ideas were developed.)
3. The high numbers of soldiers dying of wound infection in the Second World War was the
possibleCatalyst for the invention of penicillin. This attempts to find a deeper meaning,
interpreting the overall meaning of the passage.)
Critical evaluation
Read to examine the logic behind the writer’s argument. Ask yourself: howsuccessful is this
text?Steps for making a critical evaluation of what you have read:
1. What is the writer’s argument?
2. What are the main points/ideas that support that argument?
3. Does the writer attempt to address their stated point of view? What point ofview? Is it
successful?
4. Are the main points directly and logically linked to the argument and therefore, the
question? If so, give examples and explain how they are linked. If not, give examples
and explain why they are not linked.
5. What kinds of evidence does the author present to support these points? (Quality and
 quantity) Consider—is the evidence provided relevant, reliable and believable? Where
does it come from?
6. Are there hidden assumptions that lie behind the evidence presented? What are they?
Are the assumptions believable? Explain why/why not.
5.4.3. Inferential comprehension
I. What does inferential comprehension mean?
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Inferential comprehension is often described simply as the ability to read between the lines. It
requires a reader to blend the literal content of a selection with prior knowledge, intuition,
and imagination for conjecture or to make hypotheses. Barrett’s Taxonomy of Reading
Comprehension (1974) identifies the following eight subtasks that enable students to make
inferences with facility.
 Inferring supporting details – guessing about additional facts the author could have
included in the selection that would have made it more informative, interesting, or
appealing
 Inferring the main idea – providing the main idea, general significance, theme, or moral
that is not explicitly stated in the selection
 Inferring sequence – guessing what action or incident might have taken place between
two explicitly stated actions or incidents or making hypotheses about what could happen
next
 Inferring comparisons – inferring likenesses and differences in characters, times, or
places
 Inferring cause-and-effect relationships – hypothesizing about the motives of characters
and their interactions with others and with time and place
 Inferring character traits – hypothesizing about the nature of characters on the basis of
explicit clues presented in the selection
 Predicting outcomes – guessing the outcome of a selection after reading an initial portion
of it
 Inferring about figurative language – inferring literal meanings from the author’s
figurative use of language.

5.4. Purposes of Reading Comprehension Strategies

Reading is one of the most important academic tasks faced by students. Strategies designed to
improve reading comprehension may have a number of purposes.

 To enhance understanding of the content information presented in a text

 To improve understanding of the organization of information in a text
 To improve attention and concentration while reading
 To make reading a more active process
 To increase personal involvement in the reading material
 To promote critical thinking and evaluation of reading material
 To enhance registration and recall of text information in memory

5.6. Reading comprehension strategies

The following tips are intended to help students and teachers identify reasons for lack of
reading comprehension. Learners may find that the reasons for lack of understanding are
situational, depending on the type of reading matter, the subject of the material, and one's
mental or physical state. Not all failures in all contexts will be attributable to the same factor.
Therefore, it is helpful for students to be familiar with a number of reading comprehension
strategies in order to deal effectively with different situations.
 Read a variety of materials. Do not limit yourself to text books.
 Read a fairly long portion of the material. It would be difficult to assess reading
comprehension based on one or two paragraphs. Try to read an entire section or
chapter instead.
 Circle unknown or unfamiliar words as you read.
 After reading, recall as much of the information as possible. Then check the accuracy
and completeness of your recollections. If the main ideas are presented in a particular
order, see if you can recall that organization.
 Consider how interesting the subject matter is and how much you already know about
the subject.
 Answer questions about the material after reading it. The questions may come from
the book itself, from instructors or tutors, or may be made up by the student.
Moreover, Comprehension strategies are conscious plans sets of steps that good readers use
to make sense of text. Comprehension strategy instruction helps students become purposeful,
active readers who are in control of their own reading comprehension. These seven strategies
have research-based evidence for improving text comprehension.

1. Monitoring comprehension
Students who are good at monitoring their comprehensions know when they understand what
they read and when they do not. They have strategies to "fix" problems in their understanding
as the problems arise. Research shows that instruction, even in the early grades, can help
students become better at monitoring their comprehension.
Comprehension monitoring instruction teaches students to:
 Be aware of what they do understand
 Identify what they do not understand
 Use appropriate strategies to resolve problems in comprehension
2. Metacognition
Metacognition can be defined as "thinking about thinking." Good readers use metacognitive
strategies to think about and have control over their reading. Before reading, they might
clarify their purpose for reading and preview the text. During reading, they might monitor
their understanding, adjusting their reading speed to fit the difficulty of the text and "fixing"
any comprehension problems they have. After reading, they check their understanding of
what they read.
Students may use several comprehension monitoring strategies:
 Identify where the difficulty occurs
"I don't understand the second paragraph on page 76."
 Identify what the difficulty is
"I don't get what the author means when she says, 'Arriving in America was a milestone in
my grandmother's life.'"
 Restate the difficult sentence or passage in their own words
"Oh, so the author means that coming to America was a very important event in her
grandmother's life."
 Look back through the text
"The author talked about Mr. McBride in Chapter 2, but I don't remember much about him.
Maybe if I reread that chapter, I can figure out why he's acting this way now."
 Look forward in the text for information that might help them to resolve the
difficulty
"The text says, 'The groundwater may form a stream or pond or create a wetland. People can
also bring groundwater to the surface.' Hmm, I don't understand how people can do that…
Oh, the next section is called 'Wells.' I'll read this section to see if it tells how they do it."
3. Graphic and semantic organizers
Graphic organizers illustrate concepts and relationships between concepts in a text or using
diagrams. Graphic organizers are known by different names, such as maps, webs, graphs,
charts, frames, or clusters.
Regardless of the label, graphic organizers can help readers focus on concepts and how they
are related to other concepts. Graphic organizers help students read and understand textbooks
and picture books.
Graphic organizers can:
 Help students focus on text structure "differences between fiction and nonfiction"
as they read
 Provide students with tools they can use to examine and show relationships in a text
 Help students write well-organized summaries of a text.
4. Answering questions
Questions can be effective because they:
 Give students a purpose for reading
 Focus students' attention on what they are to learn
 Help students to think actively as they read
 Encourage students to monitor their comprehension
 Help students to review content and relate what they have learned to what they
already know
The Question-Answer Relationship strategy (QAR) encourages students to learn how to
answer questions better. Students are asked to indicate whether the information they used to
answer questions about the text was textually explicit information (information that was
directly stated in the text), textually implicit information (information that was implied in the
text), or information entirely from the student's own background knowledge.
There are four different types of questions:
 "Right There"
Questions found right in the text that ask students to find the one right answer located in one
place as a word or a sentence in the passage.
Example: Who is Frog's friend? Answer: Toad
  "Think and Search"
Questions based on the recall of facts that can be found directly in the text. Answers are
typically found in more than one place, thus requiring students to "think" and "search"
through the passage to find the answer.
Example: Why was Frog sad? Answer: His friend was leaving.
 "Author and You"
Questions require students to use what they already know, with what they have learned from
reading the text. Student's must understand the text and relate it to their prior knowledge
before answering the question.
Example: How do think Frog felt when he found Toad? Answer: I think that Frog felt happy
because he had not seen Toad in a long time. I feel happy when I get to see my friend who
lives far away.
 "On Your Own"
Questions are answered based on a student’s prior knowledge and experiences. Reading the
text may not be helpful to them when answering this type of [Link]: How would
you feel if your best friend moved away? Answer: I would feel very sad if my best friend
moved away because I would miss her.
5. Generating questions
By generating questions, students become aware of whether they can answer the questions
and if they understand what they are reading. Students learn to ask themselves questions that
require them to combine information from different segments of text. For example, students
can be taught to ask main idea questions that relate to important information in a text.
6. Recognizing story structure
In story structure instruction, students learn to identify the categories of content (characters,
setting, events, problem, and resolution). Often, students learn to recognize story structure
through the use of story maps. Instruction in story structure improves students'
comprehension.
7. Summarizing
Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in what they are reading and to
put it into their own words. Instruction in summarizing helps students:
 Identify or generate main ideas
 Connect the main or central ideas
 Eliminate unnecessary information
  Remember what they read
5.7Skimming, scanning glance and skip
There are two styles of reading, which we use in different situations: scanning and skimming.

5.7.1 Scanning: for a specific focus

Scanning is most useful when you are searching for something specific in the text – like a
word or phrase. An example of scanning is when you look in the index of a book to see which
page contains the information you want.
You can use the same skill in academic reading to find the material that is relevant to you.
Move your eye quickly over the page to find particular words or phrases that are of
significance to the task you are doing. This will provide you with an overview of the reading
matter so you can decide if it is relevant to your research and worth reading in more detail.
Always ask yourself if the material will be helpful for your assignment.
It is useful to scan key parts of texts to see if the material will be useful to you:
• The introduction or preface of a book
• The first line of each new paragraph in a chapter or article
• The concluding chapter of a book or paragraph of an article
• The abstract of a journal, which contains a summary of the article and the rationale for the
study
5.7.2 Skimming: for getting the gist of something
Skimming is a particular style of reading. It is a way of gathering as much information as
possible from a text in the shortest time possible. Skimming is a visual activity and is used for
getting the gist or impression of a chapter or section of text. You are not reading the whole
page and your eyes do not move from left to right along the line, as they do when reading a
whole text. Aim to read quickly to get the main points, and skip over the detail.
It is useful to skim:
• To preview a passage before you read it in detail
• To refresh your understand of a passage after you have read it in detail
• To decide if a book in the library or bookshop is right for you
5.8. Stages of Reading Development: Characteristics of Readers
An Emergent Reader: An Early Reader: An Early Fluency Reader:
 Anticipate the  Is rapidly developing  Copes with less
storyline by using the sight vocabulary; predictable texts;
 Uses letter-sound  Uses a variety of
 picture; relationships to gain strategies to solve
 Establishes one-to- meaning; and problems; and
one matching,  Reads on and rereads  Integrates sources of
directionality, and as needed to confirm information
return sweep; and or search for meaning efficiently.
 Identifies some
letters, letter sounds,
and high frequency
words

Assessment questions
Activity
1. What are the possible factors those may affect reading speed?
a. _________________________________
b. ________________________________
c. ________________________________
2. Find out reasons why each could be factors or bad habit of speed reading.

Sample Reading Texts

Read the following two passages and answer the questions that follow.

Passage I :College Lectures: Is Anybody Listening?

A former teacher of mine, Robert A. Fowkes of New York University, likes to tell the story
of a class he took in Old Welsh while studying in Germany during the 1930s. On the first day
the professor strode up to the podium, shuffled his notes, coughed, and began, "Guten Tag,
MeineDamen und Herren" (" Good day, ladies and gentlemen" ).Fowkes glanced around
uneasily. He was the only student in the course.
Toward the middle of the semester, Fowkes fell ill and missed a class. When he returned, the
professor nodded vaguely and, to Fowkes astonishment, began to deliver not the next lecture
in the sequence but the one after. Had he. in fact, lectured to an empty hall in the absence of
his solitary student? Fowkes thought it perfectly possible.
Today, American colleges and universities (originally modeled on German ones) are under
strong attack from many upstairs. Teachers, it is charged, are not doing a good job of
teaching, and students are not doing a good job of learning. American businesses and
industries suffer from unenterprising , uncreative executives educated not to think for
themselves but to mouth outdated truisms the rest of the world has long discarded . College
graduates lack both basic skills and general culture. Studies are conducted and reports are
issued on the status of higher education, but any changes that result either are largely
cosmetic or make a bad situation worse.
One aspect of American education too seldom challenged is the lecture system. Professors
continue to lecture and students to take notes much as they did in the thirteenth century, when
books were so scarce and expensive that few students could own them. The time is long
overdue for us to abandon the lecture system and to turn to methods that really work.
To understand the inadequacy of the present system, it is enough to follow a single imaginary
first-year student-- let's call her Mary--through a term of lectures on, say, introductory
psychology (although any other subject would do as well). She arrives on the first day and
looks around the huge lecture hall, taken a little aback to see how large the class is. Once the
hundred or more students enrolled in the course discover that the professor never takes
attendance (how can he?--calling the role would take far too much time), the class shrinks to
a less imposing size.
Some days Mary sits in the front row, from where she can watch the professor read from a
stack of yellowed notes that seem nearly as old as he is. She is bored by the lectures, and so
are most of the other students, to judge by the way they are nodding off or doodling in their
notebooks. Gradually she realizes the professor is as bored as his audience. At the end of
each lecture he asks, "Are there any questions?" in a tone of voice that makes it plain he
would much rather there weren't. He needn't worry--the students are as relieved as he is that
the class is over.
Mary knows very well she should read an assignment before every lecture. However, as the
professor gives no quizzes and asks no questions, she soon realizes she needn't prepare. At
the end of the term she catches up by skimming her notes and memorizing a list of facts and
dates. After the final exam, she promptly forgets much of what she has memorized. Some of
her fellow students, disappointed at the impersonality of it all, drop out of college
[Link] Mary , stick it out , grow resigned to the system and await better days
when , they , as juniors and seniors, they will attend smaller classes and at last get the kind of
personal attention real learning requires.
I admit this picture is overdrawn-- most universities supplement lecture courses with
discussion groups , usually led by graduate students, and some classes , such as first-year
English, are always relatively small. Nevertheless, far too many courses rely principally or
entirely on lectures; an arrangement much loved by faculty and administrators but scarcely
designed to benefit the students.
One problem with lectures is that listening intelligently is hard work.. Reading the same
material in a textbook is a more efficient way to learn because students can proceed as slowly
as they need to until the subject matter becomes clear to them. Even simply paying attention
is very difficult: people can listen at a rate of four hundred to six hundred words a minute,
while the most impassioned professor talks at scarcely a third of that speed. This time lag
between speech and comprehension leads to daydreaming. Many students believe years of
watching television have sabotaged their attention span, but their real problem is that
listening attentively is much harder than they think.
Worse still, attending lectures is passive learning, at least for inexperienced listeners. Active
learning , in which students write essays or perform experiments and then have their work
evaluated by an instructor, is far more beneficial for those who have not yet fully learned
how to learn. While it's true that techniques of active listening, such as trying to anticipate the
speaker's next point or taking notes selectively, can enhance the value of a lecture, few
students try to write everything down and even bring tape recorders to class in a clumsy effort
to capture every word.
Students need to question their professors and to have their ideas taken seriously. Only then
will they develop the analytical skills required to think intelligently and creatively. Most
students learn best by engaging in frequent and even heated debate, not by scribbling down a
professor's often unsatisfactory summary of complicated issues. They need small discussion
classes that demand the common labors of teacher and students rather than classes in which
one person, however learned, propounds his or her own ideas.
The lecture system ultimately harms professors as well. It reduces feedback to a minimum,
so that the lecturer can neither judge how well students understand the material nor benefit
from their questions or comments. Questions that require the speaker to clarify obscure
points and comments that challenge sloppily constructed arguments are indispensable to
scholarship. Without them, the liveliest mind can atrophy. Undergraduates may not be able
to make telling contributions very often, but lecturing insulates a professor even the
beginner's naive question that could have triggered a fruitful line of thought.
If lectures make so little sense, why have they been allowed to continue? Administrators love
them, of course. They can cram far more students into a lecture hall than into a discussion
class, and for many administrators that is almost the end of the story. But the truth is that
faculty members, and even students, conspire with them to keep the lecture system alive and
well. Lectures are easier on everyone than debates. Professors can pretend to teach by
lecturing just as students can pretend to learn by attending lectures, with no one the wiser,
including the participants. Moreover, if lectures afford some students an opportunity to sit
back and let the professor run the show, they offer some professors an irresistible forum for
showing off. In a classroom where everyone contributes, students are less able to hide and
professors less tempted to engage in intellectual exhibitionism.
Smaller classes in which students are required to involve themselves in discussion put an end
to students' passivity. Students become actively involved when forced to question their own
ideas as well as their instructor's. Their listening skills improve dramatically in the
excitement of intellectual give and take with their instructors and fellow students. Such
interchanges help professors do their job better because they allow them to discover who
knows what-- before final exams, not after. When exam s are given in this type of course,
they can require analysis and synthesis from the students, not empty memorization. Classes
like this require energy, imagination and commitment from professors, all of which can be
exhausting. But they compel students to share responsibility for their own intellectual
growth.
Lectures will never entirely disappear from the university scene both because they seem to be
economically necessary and because they spring from a long tradition in a setting that rightly
values tradition for its own sake. But the lectures too frequently come at the wrong end of
the student s' educational careers ---during the first two years, when they most need close,
even individual, instruction. If lecture classes were restricted to junior and senior
undergraduates and to graduate students, who are less in need of scholarly nurturing and
more able to prepare work on their own, they would be far less destructive of students'
interests and enthusiasm than the present system. After all, students must learn to listen
before they can listen to learn.

Reading Comprehension Questions

1. The word enhance in "techniques of active listening .....can enhance the value of
lecture " ( paragraph 10) means
 a. ruin b. ignore c. increase d. claim
[Link] word atrophy in "Without [questions and comments], the liveliest mind can
atrophy " (paragraph 12) means
a. waste away b. be unchanged c. compete d. strengthen
[Link] of the following would be a good alternative title for this selection ?
a. How to Benefit From Lecture Classes
b. Passive Learning
c. Problems with Lecture Classes
d. Lectures: An Academic Tradition
4. Which sentence best expresses the main idea of the selection?
a. American colleges and universities are being attacked from many sides.
b. Colleges and universities should offer interactive, not lecture, classes to first-
year and second-year students.
c. College graduates lack basic skills and general culture.
d. American colleges and universities are modeled on German ones.
[Link] to the author , the lecture system
a. encourages efficient reading
b. encourages students to ask questions
c. helps professors teach better
d. discourages students' attendance and preparation
6. An example of passive learning is
a. attending lectures c. doing experiment
b. writing essays d. debating a point
7. To develop their thinking skills, students do not need to
a. bring tape recorders
b. question professors
c. debate
d. attend small discussion classes
8. The author implies that large lecture classes
a. require students to have well developed listening skills
b. encourage participation
c. are more harmful for juniors and seniors than for first-year students.
d. are a modern invention.
9. True or False-------------Daniels suggests that small classes demand greater
effort from both faculty and students.
10. The author implies that administrators love lectures because
a. students learn better in lectures
b. professors teach better through lecturing
c. schools make more money on lecture classes
d. professors can show off in lectures
11. In which early paragraph does the thesis of this selection appear? Write its
number.
12. The author supports his main point with
a. research and statistics
b. expert opinions
c. students' opinions
d. personal observations

Passage II: The Gentle Giant and the Reluctant Robber

(1)Very often when a homeowner interrupts a robber in the course of his work, injury or
death is the result. A different ending occurred recently at a home in a small New Jersey
town. The figures in this true drama were a small , slightly built thief who shall be called the
Reluctant Robber, and a largely built , tall homeowner who shall be known as the Gentle
Giant.
(2)The Giant awoke at 4 a.m. to the unnerving sound of glass shattering . He and his
wife, Dorothea, thought at first their mischievous cat , Smokey , had done the deed. But just
to be certain , since the couple’s three children were fast asleep – and very vulnerable – in the
bedrooms upstairs, the Gaint draped bathrobe over his pajamas and crept silently downstairs
to investigate.
(3)”I was standing a short distance from the kitchen when I realized there was someone
there , walking around in the darkness,” he recalled. “I looked around for one of the
children’s baseball bats to use as a weapon.” However, the Giant never found one- it was too
dark. It was probably just as well , however, because the Giant , although an imposing
physical figure, is by his own admission essentially a mild-mannered man with a marked
aversion toward violence.
(4)Instead of finding a bat, the Giant suddenly found himself staring down directly into
another man’s eyeballs. His first impulse was simply to keep the guy calm. He saw that the
intruder was unarmed and bleeding from cuts he sustained while breaking in the back door
of the family’s home. The Giant said, “Let’s kill ourselves over nothing. There’s nothing in
the house worth stealing and I know because I live here. Look, you’re no threat to me and I’m
no threat to you, so there’s no use fighting. Besides, I can see you’re bleeding pretty badly
from the glass. Do you want to sit down?”
(5)The robber replied, “You know, I think you’ve got a point. I am hurt. Would you
mind if I lay down on your sofa for a bit?”
(6) “No, go right ahead,” the Giant answered. “ I’ll go tell wife what’s going on.” The
logic by both men during what could have been a dangerous confrontation was heartening
and beautiful. “ I’d have to live with it if I overreacted and blew him to kingdom come,” the
Giant said afterwards, during a police interview. “He stood there quietly and listened to
everything I had to say. He was so polite, and I actually think the guy was only half-hearted
about robbing the place anyway.”
(7)So , while the polite , bleeding , half-hearted Reluctant Robber rested on his couch-
which was later badly stained with blood- the Giant tip-toed upstairs and asked Dorothea to
phone the cops. Police from several towns responded to the call. The first patrol car whizzed
right by the home while the Gentle Giant waved frantically for it to turn around. Then another
police cruiser pulled up front. In the meantime, the other car had turned around and found
the right address. A whole swarm of blue uniforms filed through the front door. At the same
time the Giant greeted them, he pleaded with them to show some restraint .”I told them not
go in there with their guns drawn like gang-busters,” he remarked. “I told them I’d talked to
the man and he’d seemed cooperative and willing to give up. As soon as they walked in, the
guy jumped up from the couch and looked startled.”
(8)The Reluctant Robber , whose mind was obviously fuzzy, told the cops he was just
dropping by for a visit. “Oh, really,’ the cops asked . “And just who is the man you are
visiting at 4 a.m.? Tell us his name. “Of course the Reluctant Robber had no idea who the
giant was. That made the cops laugh. Even the Giant laughed, and the robber himself
managed a weak smile.
(9)They took the Robber to a hospital where his wounds were stitched. He is now being
held on $5,000 bail for a charge of breaking and entering. The Giant, scratching his head,
ambled back upstairs to go back to sleep.
(10)A television police story?Never. The beauty of this encounter is that it was real, not
some hokey make –believe cops-“n”-robbers script. Let’s raise our glasses and toast both of
these men. America needs level-headed folks like the Gentle Giant and the Reluctant Robber.
Vocabulary questions
A. Use context clues to help you decide on the best definition for each italicized word. Then
circle the letter of each choice.
13. The word imposingin “the Giant, although an imposing physical figure , is by his own
admission essentially a mild-mannered man”(paragraph 3) means
a. impressive (b) modest (c) amusing (d) unhealthy
[Link] words aversion toward in “The Giant…is…a mild –mannered man with a
marked aversion toward violence.
(a) preference for (b) indifference to (c) dislike of (d) plan for
[Link] word frantically in “The first patrol car whizzed right by the home while the Gentle
Giant waved frantically for it to turn around” (paragraph 7) means
(a)not at all (b) once (c) uncaringly (d) excitedly
[Link] word swarm in “Police from several towns responded to the call ……..A whole
swarm of blue uniforms filed through the front door” (paragraph 7) means
(a) crowd (b) pair (c) absence (d)reminder
B. Below are words taken from the passage and write in the one that best completes each
sentence.

Reluctant marked unnerving

Vulnerable heartened

17. Finding the kitchen flooded with water was a(n)…………………….experience.

18. The teacher was ------ by the class’s high scores on the first test of the
semester.
19. I was -------- to start reading the novel just before finals because I might be
tempted to read it instead of studying.
[Link] grown up in Mexico, Hector had a ------- accident.
21. With all the recent neighborhood robberies, Ellie felt very ----------, so she
bought a burglar alarm.

Comprehension questions
22..Which sentence best expresses the central point of the selection?
(a)Robberies often end in injury or death.
 (b) America needs more people to remain as calm and sensible as the
homeowner and robber did.
(c ) A homeowner can catch a thief who is trying to rob his home.
(d) Everyone is better off when robbers are unarmed.
[Link] sentence best expresses the main idea of paragraph 6?
(a) The homeowner went to tell his wife what happened.
(b) Both men handled the possibly dangerous situation very well
(c ) The homeowner never wanted to hurt the robber
(d) The robber was polite and may have been half-hearted about robbing in the
first place.
24. The homeowner
(a) never even thought of using a weapon.
(b) looked for a weapon
( c) used a weapon
(d) was hurt by a weapon
[Link] seeing the robber, the homeowner’s first impulse was to
(a) hit him (b) yell (c). keep him calm (d) wake his wife
[Link] robber received his injuries
(a) from the homeowner
(b)from the police
( c) from being hit with the baseball bat
(d) while breaking into the house
[Link] sentence below begins with
(a) an addition transition
(b) a time transition
( c) an illustration transition
(d) a contrast transition
[Link] main pattern of organization of this selection is
(a) time order (b) list of items
(c)comparison/contrast (d)definition/example
[Link] paragraph 7 , the author implies that
(a) the robber knew the homeowner would have his wife call the police.
(b) the homeowner was considering letting the robber go
(c) the homeowner didn’t want the robber to know someone was calling the
police.
(d) the homeowner should not have called the police
30. The author implies that he admires the robber because he was
(a), intelligent (b) level-headed (c)honest (d) quiet

Write the number of the topic sentenceof each of the following paragraphs.
a) (1) For one study, twenty-six retarded one-year-olds were divided between two types of
care. (2) Half were cared for by retarded women. (3) The rest were given routine care in an
institution. (4) After three years, the IQ of those mothered by retarded women went up 29
points. (5) The babies in institutions lost about 26 points. (6) This study suggests that home-
like care is much better than institutional care.
Topic sentence:

b) (1) Several products are available to help people stop smoking. (2) Audio and video
tapes use suggestion to encourage people to quit. (3) Gum containing nicotine allows quitters
to gradually cut down on the nicotine they got from cigarettes. (4) There are also special
cigarette filters that reduce the amount of smoke and nicotine that get to the smoker's mouth.
Topic sentence:

c) (1) One problem busy people face is getting their laundry done. (2) Another equally
frustrating problem for many is setting aside time to exercise. (3) Now a California company
called "clean and Lean" offers a solution to both problems: it lets people work out while their
clothes get clean. (4) This combination Laundromat and fitness center has exercise bikes,
space for jogging, and a dozen weight machines. (5) Of course, it also has washers and
dryers.
Topic sentence:

d) (1) Today we view childhood as a long and gradual road to adulthood. (2) However, after
the west became industrialized, children were cruelly forced into adulthood at an early age.
(3) Many worked full-time in mines and factories. (4) Some worked up to fourteen hours a
day for low pay under terrible working conditions. (5) There were even cases of children
being chained to their beds at night, so that they would be there for work the next day. (6)
Then, to be sure they kept working; some were chained to their machines during the day.
Topic sentence:

Each of the following paragraphs contains one sentence that is not clearly related to the
topic for that paragraph. Identify the unrelated sentence so that the paragraph is unified.

a) (1) In addition to routine jobs like doing taxes, computers can do some work usually
associated with human thought. (2) Humans, however, are still more creative than computers.
(3) But computers can now be programmed to understand languages, a job once believed to
need human thought. (4) In addition, if computers are given all the factors involved in a
situation, they can save problems.

b) (1) There are four main objectives of the Basic Math Skills course. (2) One is for students
to gain an understanding of the basic math operations. (3) Second, students should learn the
process for figuring percents. (4) Third, students must learn how to use problem- solving
techniques in math. (5) The ability to solve business problems is also useful. (6) Finally,
students should learn to read and construct graphs.

Arrange each group of the three sentences into an order that makes sense.
Pattern 1: Time order
a) In 1912, Holmes retired to a farm, where he took up bee-keeping.
b) According to one Holme's student, Holmes died thirty-nine years later, from a bee
string.
c) According to most of his biographers, Sherlock Holmes was probably born in 1853.
Pattern 2 : List of items
a) Nora kept the shells she had collected in odd places around the house.
b) Another spot where Nora kept her shells was in the bathtub soap dish.
c) One place she looked to keep them was on the window sill in her
kitchen.
Pattern 3: Comparison and contrast
a) Men tend not to reveal intimate information about themselves.
b) Men and women communicate about themselves differently.
c) On the other hand, women frequently express their inner feelings.
Pattern 4: Cause and effect
 a) The earthquakes that follow can cause great loss of life and millions of dollars of
damage.
b) Earthquakes are caused by sudden slips of rock along breaks in the earth's crust
c) Such breaks result when the pressure on rock layers becomes too great.
Pattern 5: Definition and example
a) When acupuncture is used to kill pain, needles are inserted far from the area of pain.
b) Acupuncture is a Chinese therapy technique that involves inserting a special needles
in certain places in the body.
c) In one stomach operation, for instance, four needles in the patient's outer ears
eliminated pain.

References
Christine Nuttall (1982). Teaching Reading Skills: Practical Language Teaching. London:
Heinman Educational Books
Dorothy U. Seyler (1994). Understanding Argument: A Text with Reading. New York:
Macmillan Press Ltd.
Francoise Grellet (1986). Developing Reading Skills: Practical Guide to Reading
Comprehension [Link]: Cambridge University Press.
Greenall, Simon.& Michael Swan (1986)Effective Reading: Reading Skills for Advanced
Students. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Richard Danson Brown & David Johnson (edrs) (2000).Understanding Argument. Open
University: Macmillan Press ltd.
Richard D. Altick (1960). Preface to critical Reading. New York: Rinehart & Winston, Inc.
Santi V. Buscemi& Charlotte Smith. (2001). 75 Reading: An Anthology: York: McGraw-
Hill.