DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

LANGUAGE & LITERATURE

Handout for the Course

Basic Writing Skills

[EnLa1012]

August, 2020

Werabe, Ethiopia
 Basic Writing Skills [EnLa1012] 2012 E.C.

Unit One
Writing Effective Sentences
1.1. Sentence definition
We tend to think of a sentence as a group of words with a period at the end and capital letter at the beginning, but there is more to it than
that. The standard definition of a sentence is that it is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete
thought. A sentence is effective when it is:
o Clear - It expresses our ideas carefully in a way that the reader can understand.
o Concise - It uses sufficient words to impart the message but not so many as to obscure the meaning.
o Exact - It uses vocabulary correctly and follows the conventions for spelling, punctuation, and grammar.
o Appropriate - It uses the correct tone for the situation and the reader.
It is also important to note that a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop or a question mark or an exclamation
mark. Look at these examples:
o She is from Addis.
o What is your name?
o Stop chattering!
1.2. Identifying sentence parts
Every sentence, short or long, is made of one or more units containing two main parts: Subject and predicate.
A. Subject - The subject is a noun or pronoun with any of its modifiers and names who or what the sentence is about. Often the
subject is the performer of the action in the sentence. The underlined words in the examples below (Jasmine, My elder sister &
He) are subjects of the sentences.
Examples: Jasmine kicked the beach ball.
My elder sister is living in Alaska.
He swam in the lake.
B. Predicate - Predicate is a part of the sentence which says something about the subject. It is a verb or verb phrase with any
modifiers or words used to complete its meaning. It is a part of the sentence excluding subject: It is a word or combination of
words, including the verb, objects, or phrases governed by the verb. Have a look at the underlined parts in the example below.
Examples: Jasmine kicked the beach ball.
My elder sister is living in Alaska.
He swam in the lake.
Note that the predicate always contains a verb. Sometimes, in fact, the predicate is only a verb as in
―Smoke rises‖. So we can say that a sentence must contain at least a subject and verb. There is, however,
one apparent exception to this – the imperative. When someone gives a command (the imperative), She/he
usually does not use a subject. They don't say the subject because it is obvious - the subject is YOU! Look
at these examples of the imperative without a subject:
o Stop!
o Wait a minute!
o Look at the examples.

Activity: Identify the subject and the predicate in each sentence. Underline the subject once and the predicate twice.
1. Bereket likes to draw pictures of dolphins.
2. The children played in the mud.
3. Jasmine's dad is painting the garage door.
4. I built a sandcastle at the beach.
5. The bicycle needs new tires.
6. Choose the best answer.
7. My favorite color is orange.
8. Mohammed and Kaleb went bowling.
9. The boys and I bought a new pair of sneakers.
10. Two cats chased each other across the street.
1.3. Writing complete sentences
A complete sentence is a group of words that meets all three of the following criteria:
A. It has a subject (someone or something that performs the action or serves as the main focus of the sentence). As with verbs, many
sentences have more than one subject. The subjects are in bold to make them easier to identify.

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Examples:
o Tarik drafted a memo and sent it to the sales department. – Simple subject
o Zeberga and Zeyneb both want a promotion. – Compound Subject
o The boys in the class are the chief operators in this department. – Complete Subject
B. It has a verb (a word or phrase that explains an action such as want, run, take, give, or a state of being, such as am, is, are, was, were,
be). Many sentences have more than one verb. The verbs in the following sentences are written in bold for you.
Examples:
o The patient died. (Simple predicate)
o Yihunsew drafted a memo and sent it to the sales department. (Compound predicate)
o Mamo and Kasim are the chief operators in this department. (Complete predicate)
C. It expresses a complete thought. In other words, the group of words has a completed meaning. Sometimes, a group of words has both
a subject and a verb but still does not express a complete thought. Look at the following examples: He jumped.
This is a grammatically complete sentence, though perhaps not an interesting one. It has a subject (he) and a predicate (jumped). It
expresses a complete thought—you know what happened. You might want to know more about the person—who he is or why he
jumped, for example. You might want to know more about the jump itself—when it occurred, how high it was, and so on. But the basic
action is complete: He jumped. The next example is an incomplete sentence. It still has a subject (he) and a predicate (jumped), but the
presence of when keeps this group of words from being a complete thought: What happened when he jumped?
o When he jumped.
The following sentence is still an incomplete sentence. Now, you know something about where he jumped, but the thought is still
incomplete: What happened when he jumped high into the air?
o When he jumped high into the air.
The next example is a complete sentence again. The question ―What happened when he jumped?‖ has been answered: he looked as if he
were flying. Even if the phrase high into the air were to be deleted, the thought would be complete.
o When he jumped high into the air, he looked as if he were flying.
In your academic writing, you are expected to write a sentence having a subject (what or whom the sentence is about) and a predicate.
The predicate tells what the subject does or is or what is done to the Subject. In addition to having a subject and predicate, a sentence
must be able to stand on its own. It can‘t depend on something else to express a complete thought.
Activity: Identify the following group of words as complete or incomplete sentence.
1. Looking forward to a prosperous and fulfilling career.
2. Increasingly educators use computers for instrumental purposes.
3. Sixty miles from the nearest town.
4. Do not be late.
5. Travel enlightens.
1.4. Sentence types
Your ability to vary sentence types in your writing will allow you to control the pacing and clarity of your paragraphs. Using a variety of
sentence types also makes for more interesting reading. This section is, therefore, devoted to sentence classification based on three
criteria: function, structure & order.
1.4.1. Functional classification of sentences
When you write sentences, you write them for four different reasons. You may want to ask a question, express a strong emotion,
express a command, or simply make a statement. From this we can understand that functionally sentences are divided into four different
groups.
[Link]. Declarative sentences
A sentence that makes a statement or states a fact is called a declarative sentence. Most written and spoken sentences are declarative.
The majority of sentences in most stories and essays are declarative. A declarative sentence always ends with a period (.).
Example:
o Mariamawit's children are living in Arbaminch.
o Lamirot would rather not cook tonight.
o As the train pulled away, Jemal knew he wouldn‘t see him again.
[Link]. Interrogative sentences
An interrogative sentence asks a question. Such sentences always end with a question mark (?).
o Are you going to the game tomorrow night?
o What time does the movie begin?
o You‘re buying some new clothes, aren‘t you?

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[Link]. Imperative sentences

An imperative sentence is used to give an order or a command. A period (.) usually ends an imperative sentence. If you are writing a
sentence giving a strong command, the imperative sentence ends with an exclamation mark (!).
o Fasten your seat belt please.
o Don't drop those glasses!
o Tell me all about your new job.
o Do your own ironing!
At first glance, an imperative sentence looks like it doesn‘t have a subject. Because the person speaking is
obviously talking to someone who is present, the subject is assumed to be ―you‖. When referring to the
subject of an imperative sentence, the correct term [you] is understood.
[Link]. Exclamatory sentences
When you need to express a strong emotion, an exclamatory sentence is used. An exclamatory sentence usually ends with an
exclamation mark (!).
o What a party we had last night!
o I can't believe you're late again!
o You should see the other car!

Activity: Indicate the kind of sentence (by function). Rewrite the sentence and add the appropriate end punctuation (e.g. “!”, “.”
or “?”)
Example: Do you plan to go to the concert tonight
Answer: Interrogative: Do you plan to go to the concert tonight?
1. How lucky they were to have won the lottery
2. Please return your books to the library on time
3. Remember to put gas in the car before you bring it back, please
4. Pick a card, any card
5. Are you taking the train or the plane

1.4.2. Structural classification of sentences

The other way to describe sentence classification depends on the number and types of clauses it contains. Before discussing the
structural sentence classifications, let‘s have a quick look at what clauses in English are.
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb regardless of its meaning. There are two
types of clauses:
A. Dependent (subordinate) Clause: contain both a subject and a verb, but cannot stand alone as a
sentence. Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as because, what, if, etc.
Example: Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag.
B: Independent (main) Clause: contain both a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.
Example: Jet lag affects most long distance travelers.
Coming back to the topic we already started, English sentences, based on the type and number of clauses they contain, can be classified
as follows:
[Link]. Simple sentences
Most of the examples you have seen so far in this module have been simple sentences. Simple sentences contain one independent
clause, that is, a group of words with one subject and predicate combination that can stand alone. The subject and the predicate may be
simple or compound. The following are all examples of simple sentences.
o The snow swirled around her feet. (simple subject & predicate)
o The calf was born in the field behind the barn. (simple subject & simple predicate)
o Will you or Helen give me the address? (compound subject & simple predicate)
o A man took the phone and called the police.(simple subject & compound predicate)
o Jack and his brother played music and watched TV. (Compound subject & compound predicate)
o Sit down now. (The subject is ―[You] understood‖) (Simple subject & simple predicate)

Activity: Write a simple sentence having:

i. Simple subject & predicate: ____________________________________________
ii. Simple subject & compound predicate: ___________________________________
iii. Compound subject & simple predicate: ___________________________________

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iv. Compound subject & compound predicate: ________________________________

[Link]. Compound sentences
Contain two or more independent clauses, joined by coordinating conjunctions, and no subordinate or dependent clauses. Read the
following simple sentences.
o Jackie is eating her lunch at her desk today. (independent clause)
o Kim is going to the cafeteria. (independent clause)
These two simple sentences can be combined into one longer sentence by using one of the co-ordinate conjunctions, and, but, or, nor,
for, yet, so to connect the two independent clauses.
o Jackie is eating her lunch at her desk today, but Kim is going to the cafeteria.
This longer sentence still contains two independent clauses. The two original simple sentences are now joined by a co-coordinating
conjunction and have become a compound sentence. When two, or more, independent clauses are joined by a coordinate conjunction,
they remain independent clauses, but become one compound sentence.
Notice that when a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, the conjunction is always
preceded by a comma.
o Example: Hayat was sick, so she went to the clinic.
Correlative conjunctions, used in pairs, such as not only/but also, neither (not)/nor, and either/or
can also be used to connect two independent clauses and create a compound sentence. Notice that the
word order may change a little to accommodate the correlative conjunction.
o Not only have I lost my wallet, but also I cannot find my car keys.
o Either Lisa will get a job, or she will move to Washington DC.
o Not many people liked the plan, nor did they remain silent about it.
A third kind of conjunction, called a conjunctive adverb, can be used to join two simple sentences and
create a compound sentence consisting of two independent clauses.
o The road was covered with black ice; therefore, he hit the ditch.
o Olani prepared her speech; meanwhile, Liyan set up the chairs.
o The CDs were blaring; moreover, the TV was at top volume.
Whenever a conjunctive adverb is used to join two independent clauses, it is always preceded by a
semi-colon and followed by a comma.
Without compound sentences, anyone‘s writing is boring and monotonous. It does not flow because it is full of short, choppy sentences.
Read the following paragraph which was written by a learner who used only simple sentences.
It snowed. Classes were cancelled. There was a huge snow drift blocking my front door. I could not open
it. I tried the back door. It was also blocked. I called my father. He owns a snow blower. He lives three
houses away. He cleared the snow. I then could open my doors.
The message is understandable, but it sounds boring and choppy. The next example is the same paragraph, rewritten using compound
sentences.
It snowed, and classes were cancelled. There was a huge snow drift blocking my front door, so I could not
open it. I tried the back door, but it was also blocked. I called my father. He lives three houses away, and
he owns a snow blower. He cleared the snow, and I then could open my doors.
As you can see, the sentences flow better; the writing is smoother, and the story seems more interesting. Not all the sentences were
combined. They could have been, but as you will learn in later modules on paragraphs and essays, writing is more interesting with a
variety of sentence types - simple sentences, compound sentences and complex sentences.

Activity: Write 5 pairs of simple sentences that are closely related in meaning and combine the pairs to make compound sentences. Use
a variety of conjunctions. Also be sure to use the correct punctuation.
[Link]. Complex sentences
A Complex Sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause joined by subordinating conjunction (because,
although, since, when, unless etc) or relative pronoun (that, who, which etc).
o I met the boy who had helped me.
o She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
o You cann‘t pass the test unless you study for it.
o Although you may question Abel‘s conclusion, you must admit that his research is thorough.
If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not used between clauses in a complex
sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is use after dependent clause in a
complex sentence. See the following example.

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o He is playing well although he is ill.

o Although he is ill, he is playing well.
o You cann‘t pass the test unless you study for it.
o Unless you study, you cann‘t pass the test.

Activity: Write 5 complex sentences of your own on the spaces provided below.
[Link]. Compound-complex sentences
These sentences are a combination of a compound sentence and a complex sentence. They require a minimum of three clauses: two
independent and one dependent. Examine these examples for a fuller understanding.
o The black cat stared at me. The dog barked at me. They didn‘t like me
Join the first two simple sentences with a co-ordinate conjunction. How many clauses are there now? What kind of clauses are they?
What conjunction joins them? What kind of sentence have you created?
o The black cat stared at me, and the dog barked at me.
The sentence above is compound. Now attach the third sentence to the compound sentence as a dependent clause by adding the
subordinate conjunction ―because”.
o The black cat stared at me, and the dog barked at me because they didn’t like me.
The new sentence is a compound-complex sentence. Compound-complex sentences can also be formed using relative pronouns.
Examine this sample sentences.
o He chopped the wood, and Al piled it while they waited for supper.
o Jason realized that he was driving too fast, yet he didn‘t slow down.
o He peeled the apples which he had bought and he ate them.
o Our landlady, who lives downstairs, gave us some packing boxes, so we thanked her.

Activity
A. Write 5 compound-complex sentences of your own.
B. Read the following sentences and identify whether each of them is simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.
1. Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets nasty sunburn.
2. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant contact on the internet.
3. A gentle man of wealth and position has been found guilty of theft.
4. If you really want me to help you wash your floors, please give me a week‘s notice, for I am busy this month.
5. Some people are throwing garbage anywhere in the city; consequently, the air is polluted.
6. My brother, who used to give me money, has been fired out of his work, and I am in a financial problem now.
7. Call me whenever you need me.
8. Alemu printed pictures and sold them after school.
9. Until you learn to say ―no‖ to your children, they will continue to manipulate you.
1.5. Joining ideas
Sentence combination is needed since short pattern sentences bore both the writer and the reader for two reasons:
A. Repetition of a single, simple sentence pattern draws attention to itself, not to the ideas in the paper.
B. Simple, short sentences cannot show the reader the many relationships that exist among ideas of different importance.
We can solve these problems using one of the following ways of combining sentences:
o Joining sentences by omitting a repeated subject.
Original: Radio advertisements are broadcast daily or weekly. Radio advertisements reach a wide audience.
Revised: Radio advertisements are broadcast daily or weekly and reach a wide audience.
o Joining sentences by omitting repeated nouns and by using adjectives.
Original: The city council conducted a study of public transportation. The study was lengthy. The study was detailed.
Revised: the city council conducted a lengthy, detailed study of public transportation.
o Joining sentences by omitting repeated subjects and repeated verbs by using adverbs.
Original: The negotiators worked to gain approval for the contact. The negotiators worked at a steady pace. However, they
worked slowly.
Revised: The negotiators worked steadily but slowly to gain approval for the contact.
In writing, you are required to keep the interest of your readers. One of the mechanisms to do this is that you have to vary the length of
your sentences. To do so, you should combine two or more short sentences in to one in two ways: coordination and subordination.

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1.5.1. Coordination
Coordination is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In coordination, the status of the sentences is not
reduced when they are combined. In other words, when they are combined, they still remain independent clauses. The coordinators we
use in coordination are:
[Link]. Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases and clauses that are similar in grammatical form - subject with subject, verb phrase with
verb phrase, clause with clause, etc.
o Examples on words coordinated:
 I drank tea and water.
 You can give me a pen or a pencil.
o Examples on phrases coordinated:
 I will go home or stay at here.
 Last week I didn’t attend class but visited my parents.
o Examples on clauses coordinated:
 Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
 The driver couldn‘t control the speed of the car, for he was totally drunk.
 The patient didn‘t eat his lunch, nor did he eat his dinner.
Coordinating conjunctions in English are for, and, but, or, nor, yet, and so.
o For- shows logical consequence; it has the same meaning as because, the reason why.
o And- shows equality between two ideas. It shows addition; it has the same meaning as in addition, along with.
o Nor- shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition of a negative point.
o But- shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as however, except, on the other hand.
o Or- shows alternative or choice
o Yet- shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a strong but)
o So -shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result.

Activity
A. Write an appropriate coordinating conjunction in the space provided.
1. You read a news paper every day, _____________you do not know what is going on in the world.
2. Members of the churches met for dinner, ____________ they held an inter faith service.
3. The runner admitted taking steroids, ____________ he was forced to give up his medals.
4. Employers do not want the theft, ____________ do they want the expense and had publicity of having an employee arrested.
5. You should return the paper on time, ___________ you will lose grade for lateness.
B. Combine the following pairs of simple sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1. A: The dog ate the food very fast.
B: It was very hungry.
2. A: The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian idols.
B: The Judge didn‘t allow him to pass the next stage.
3. A: She didn‘t bring her exercise book.
B: She didn‘t bring her pen.
4. A: The farmer worked all day and night.
B: He harvested a lot of crops.
[Link]. Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are like coordinating conjunctions except that they come in matched pairs: either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not
only/but also and whether/or.
Correlative conjunction Meaning Example
Both …… and Both Both Tariku and his son are artists.
―To accomplish great things, we must not only act but also
Not only ……. But also Both
dream; not only plan, but also believe.‖
Either ……or One of the two Either you or Susan must stay with me.
Neither …… nor None of the two He helps neither his parents nor his brothers.

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Dilemma Yohannes is trying to decide whether to go to medical

Whether …….. or
/confusion/ school or to go to law school.
Correlative conjunctions always join grammatically equal elements in a language (e.g. noun & noun, phrase & phrase, clause & clause,
verbs & verbs etc.)
Example:
o Both my sister and my brother work with computers. (The correlative conjunction joins the nouns my sister and my brother.)
o Put your gold either in a bank or in a treasury account. (The Correlative conjunction joins the prepositional phrases)
o Either help us in our struggle for equality or step aside and let us pass. (The Correlative conjunction joins two independent
clauses.)
o Betty became angry both with our singing and with our shouting. (This Correlative conjunction links two prepositional
phrases.)
o She wanted neither cake nor ice cream. (The Correlative conjunction links two nouns.)
o The teachers are not only intelligent but also friend. (This is not correct because intelligent is an adjective and friend is a noun.)
o The athletes did not know whether to run or walking in order to warm up. (This is not correct because to run is the infinitive
form, and walking is the present participle form.)

Activity
A. Choose the appropriate correlative conjunction for the following statements.
1. _______bananas _______oranges are cheap in this town; both are expensive.
A. Neither/nor B. Either/or C. Both/and D. Whether/or
2. I am _______ proud to be here ______ happy to meet you. It is good opportunity to me.
A. Neither/nor B. Not only/but also C. Both/and D. Whether/or
3. ______ go to bed early this evening ______ stop complaining about being tired in class.
A. Neither/nor B. Either/or C. Both/and D. Not only/but also
4. When they found the man who had been lost for four days, he was _____ tired _____ hungry.
A. neither/nor B. either/or C. both/and D. Whether/or
5. ______ the life of an individual _____ the history of a society can be understood without understanding both.‖
A. Neither/nor B. Either/or C. Both/and D. Whether/or
B. Combine the following pairs of sentences using correlative conjunctions.
1. You can see her now. You can see her tomorrow.
2. He couldn‘t meet his mother. He couldn‘t meet his sister.
3. Belaynesh is a secretary. Her daughter is a secretary.
4. To go to Gondar, you can use a bus. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.
5. Azeb is beautiful. She is honest.
[Link]. Adverb Conjunction
Adverb conjunction is an adverb used to relate and connect main /independent/ clauses in a sentence. Common conjunctive adverbs are:
Also still consequently however indeed
Hence then furthermore moreover likewise
Thus instead nevertheless therefore otherwise
Besides on the other hand on the contrary
The following table presents the meaning of different adverb conjunctions.
Meaning Adverb conjunction
Addition Furthermore, moreover, in addition, also, besides …
Contrast However, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary…
Alternative Instead, otherwise ….
Result Therefore, consequently, thus …
Comparison similarly, likewise
Emphasis namely, certainly, indeed
Example:
o I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn‘t have to stand in line.
o Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.

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o The band struck up a familiar tune; indeed, they were playing our song.
o Meron is clever, besides, she is polite and kind.
o The new model car is small; moreover, it consumes little benzene.
o She recognized me; still she didn‘t talk to me.
o Run away; otherwise, they will kill you.
o We entirely agree with you on this issue. However, there is one objection.

Activity
A. Choose the appropriate conjunctive adverbs for the following.
1. Sunshine Construction Company is building a plant in Nazareth; ________, it is planning to build another in Bahir Dar within
three years.
A. however B. therefore C. moreover D. instead
2. Everyone liked the hotel; _________, no one was able to pay the required price.
A. however B. therefore C. moreover D. instead
3. She made coffee; __________, she cooked breakfast.
A. however B. therefore C. besides D. instead
4. He teaches in private school; __________, he runs his own restaurant.
A. however B. in a addition C. therefore D. instead
5. It‘s dark and you can‘t go out; __________, it is raining.
A. however B. therefore C. moreover D. instead
B. Combine the following pairs of sentences by using the appropriate conjunctive adverb.
1. He won the lottery. His father gave him a lot of money.
2. He worked hard. He became rich.
3. Abebe‘s parents are wealthy. They are not happy.
4. Bahir Dar is growing fast. Debre Markos is growing slowly.
5. He works in the supermarket. He learns in the evening.
1.5.2. Subordination
Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same sentence by using subordinators. Subordination
uses a subordinating conjunction and relative pronouns to make one clause dependent on another. The dependent clause is subordinated
to the independent clause. The linking devices we use in subordination are:
[Link]. Subordinating Conjunction
It is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate clauses with independent clauses. Here the subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they
must be joined to an independent clause to be grammatically correct. They tell when, where, why, how, and to what extent. More often
we use a subordinating conjunction to show a difference in importance and strength of ideas.
Examples:
o Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.
o Even though polar bears look like land animals, they are extremely skilled in the water.
o Rahel was reading fiction while her brother was listening to music.
o I never knew what love meant until I met you.
o Wherever you can find an empty spot, just drop your luggage there.
o Although I have called repeatedly, the credit card company has not corrected my account.
o He won‘t listen to you unless you make him turn off the radio.
o My uncle always calls after he watches film.
o She saves money so that she could build her own house.
o We ate our lunch as soon as we arrived home.
Some of the common subordinating conjunctions are given below:
Meaning Subordinating Conjunction
Reason Because, since, as,
Purpose so that, in order that
Contrast Although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while,
Condition Unless, if, as long as, provided that,
Result so………. that, such a(an)----that
Time After, until, as soon as, before, since, when, while, once, whenever

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Place Where, wherever

Comparison than as … as
Activity
A. In the space provided, use appropriate subordinating conjunction from the box below.
As until although because after if whenever as soon as where
1. ______________ it was easy for me, I would help Aster write the letter.
2. Please come to my home ___________ you can.
3. ______________ I had hurt my legs, I did not stop playing.
4. ___________ he ate his lunch, he went out for work.
5. He cannot study his lesson ___________ he is busy helping his parents.
6. ___________he is thin, he won the race easily.
7. I will stay here________________ my colleagues return from their meeting.
8. I found my book ___________ I had left them.
B. Join the following sentences using the most appropriate subordinating conjunction
1. Meron reaches home quickly. She will tell her father about the accident.
2. He works hard. He doesn‘t succeed.
3. The day was very cold. They continued their work.
4. She is a decent girl. Everyone likes to marry her.
5. He is poor. He is honest.
[Link]. Relative pronoun
Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used to join subordinate /dependent/ clauses with the independent
sentences. They also introduce relative clauses.
Examples:
o The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the seaport.
o The book which I bought yesterday cost me 4.50 Birr.
o The girl whose pen you borrowed, has come to ask for it.
o The clerk who took my order made a mistake in the bill.
o Samrawit, whom you met yesterday, is my aunt.
o The thief that the police were looking for has been caught.
The bold parts are subordinate clauses. What makes the subordinate clause in relative clauses different
from the other type of subordinate clause is that the subordinate clause in a relative clause is an
adjective clause.
In relative clauses, the adjective clauses which are dependent clauses that modify a noun or a pronoun
in the main clause, usually begin with relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, which, or that.
o Who, whose, and whom - are used to refer only to people.
o Which - is used to refer only to things and animals.
o That - is used to refer to anything-people, things, or animals.
o The relative pronoun ―that‖ can be used in place of who, which, or whom, but not in place of
whose.
o In relative clauses the adjective clauses answer the question which one? Or what kind of?
o Adjective clauses are always placed after the noun or the pronoun they modify.
o The relative pronoun that introduces an adjective clause can function as a subject, as an
object, or as a possessive marker.
Adjective (relative) clauses may be restrictive (also called defining or essential) or non-restrictive
(non-defining or non-essential). A restrictive adjective clause is necessary to make the meaning of the
sentence complete.
Example 1: The film that I saw yesterday won a Grammy Award. The information is the
adjective clause ―that I saw yesterday” is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Without
it, it is difficult to the reader to identify which special film the writer is discussing about.
Example 2: The girl whom you wanted to marry has married someone else. If you leave
out the restrictive or defining clause ―whom you wanted to marry” the meaning is not clear.
The girl _ which girl? The relative clause answers this question.
Restrictive or defining relative clauses are never preceded by a comma.

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Example: The man who is the tallest in the class is very funny.
A non-restrictive adjective clause provides additional information to a sentence and if left out it does
not affect the essential meaning of the sentence.
Example 1: New York, which is America’s populous city, is one of the world‘s leading
commercial, finical, and cultural centers.
Example 2: Shakespeare, who had a bald head, was a great poet and dramatist.
Example 3: My sister Sindu, whom you met last week, wants to speak to you.
You can see in these examples the nouns ‗New York‘, ‗Shakespeare‘, ‗My sister Sindu‘ are defined by
themselves. So, the relative clauses do not define them. In other words, they are non-defining or non-
restrictive.
A non-defining or non-restrictive relative clause is always marked off from the rest of the sentence by
commas before and after it.
Activity
A. Join the following sentences using the most appropriate relative pronoun: who, whom, which or whose.
Example: Her father has just come back. He went to London.
Her father, who went to London, has just come back.
1. The women had been arrested. Her child was accused of theft.
2. The medicine is very expensive. Helen needs the medicine.
3. Rahel went abroad. Daniel wanted to marry Rahel.
4. The man called a police. His car was stolen.
5. Roberto is sure to win an art scholarship. Roberto is talented portrait artist.
6. Professor Wong came in 1960 to study chemistry at Yale University. He was born in San Francisco‘s Chinatown in 1943.
B. Complete the following sentences with the correct relative pronoun: who, whom, which, or whose.
1. This is the bank ___________ was robbed yesterday.
2. The boy ___________ sister is in my class was in the bank at that time.
3. The man ___________ robbed the bank had two pistols.
4. He wore a mask ___________made him look like Mouse.
5. The people ___________ were in the bank were very frightened.
1.6. Identifying and correcting faulty sentences
When any writing contains the major sentence faults, readers are often confused about what you are trying to say. As well, major
sentence faults make the reader think that the writer‘s facts may be as faulty as his/her sentence structure. Every piece of writing must,
therefore, be proofread to eliminate major sentence faults before it reaches a reader. Discussed below are the major sentence faults
writers usually commit in writing:
1.6.1. Run-on sentences
Run-on sentences are two or more sentences improperly combined. A run-on sentence does not necessarily mean an extra long sentence
that goes on and on. Even fairly short sentences may "run-on". Look at the example sentence below:
o It was hot we went to the beach.
This is a run-on sentence. Notice that there are two complete ideas (2 subject/verb combinations), enough to make two independent
clauses, but there is no ―joiner‖ between them. The ―run-on‖ can be corrected in one of three ways. The first is to divide the group of
words into two separate simple sentences.
o It was hot. We went to the beach.
The second way to correct a ―run-on‖ is to create a compound sentence by adding a comma and a conjunction or joining word.
o It was hot, and we went to the beach.
or by separating the two independent clauses with a semicolon.
o It was hot; we went to the beach.
or by adding a semi-colon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma.
o It was hot; therefore, we went to the beach.
or by using a phrase to make a longer simple sentence.
o Because of the heat, we went to the beach.
The third way to correct a run-on sentence is to use a subordinate conjunction (if, although, since, because, etc.) to form a complex
sentence.
o Since it was hot, we went to the beach.

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Activity
A. Correct the following run-on sentences to form simple, compound, or complex sentences as required.

Example: Compound: Sue joined the band she learned a lot of new music.
Sue joined the band, and she learned a lot of new music.
1. Simple: The young recruits lined up they lined up on the parade ground.
2. Compound: I like to ride my bicycle I don't seem to have enough spare time.
3. Complex: The boat sank we painted the boat last year.
4. Simple: The car is red the car has a vinyl roof the roof is white.
5. Compound: I do not like Chinese food I do not like Mexican food.
6. Complex: We went swimming then we went for a walk.
7. Compound: After dinner, we went sailing then we went to a movie.
8. Compound: The library was closed on Monday it will be open.
9. Complex: Merle likes his new Ford because it is four wheel drive he can drive on back roads all the time.
10. Complex: The kitten is cute I bought it yesterday.
B. Combine the following sentences as indicated.
Example: He asked me to go for a walk. It was more like a run! (semi-colon)
He asked me to go for a walk; it was more like a run!
1. Do you have a radio? Should I bring one? (co-ordinate conjunction)
2. The principal spoke first. Then the valedictorian gave her address. (subordinate conjunction)
3. Heavy rains halted repairs on our roof. The ceiling is leaking. (co-ordinate conjunction)
4. Lynn saw the movie based on that book. I read the book. (semi-colon)
5. There is a bank close to our house. It is the Friendly Savings Credit Union. (no conj)
1.6.2. Comma splices
Comma splices are really just a form of run-on sentence. They probably occur when the writer has a sense that a pause is required and
inserts a comma. A comma is not, however, strong enough to join two independent clauses. Comma splices can be corrected using any
of the methods described to fix run-ons.
Example: The bus was sliding on the ice, it finally ended up in the ditch. (Comma splice)
Revised: The bus was sliding on the ice, and it finally ended up in the ditch.
The bus was sliding on the ice; it finally ended up in the ditch.
The bus was sliding on the ice; therefore, it finally ended up in the ditch.
The bus finally ended up in the ditch because it was sliding on the ice.
Before it finally ended up in the ditch, the bus was sliding on the ice.
Before the bus ended up in the ditch, it was sliding on the ice.
1.6.3. Sentence fragments
Another major sentence fault is called a sentence fragment. Some beginning writers think that simply putting a capital at the beginning
and period at the end makes a complete sentence. From your work on clauses, you know that a complete sentence (independent clause)
requires at least one verb and one subject and must also express a complete thought. The way to correct sentence faults is to add more
information to the sentence, including a subject and verb.
o Before the bus arrived.
o The fishpond in the backyard.
o The train which usually arrives late.
o After finishing his homework.
These examples are all sentence fragments. As you read them, you probably felt that some part of the writer‘s meaning had been left
out. The way to correct these is to add the missing information in the form of an independent clause.
o Before the bus arrived, they were able to mow the lawn.
o The landscape gardener designed the fishpond in the backyard.
o The train which usually arrives late was on time today.
o After finishing his homework, he went for a walk.
Another way to correct a sentence fragment is to use a conjunction to join the fragment to the sentence which comes before or after it.
Can you find the sentence fragment in this short composition? How would you correct it?
The family enjoyed the wonderful summer weather and often had picnics on the beach. They ate hot dogs and roasted
marshmallows. After swimming for hours. They usually fell asleep in the car.
Notice how the sentence fragment after swimming for hours can be corrected by joining it to the sentence which follows.

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…They ate hot dogs and roasted marshmallows. After swimming for hours, they usually fell asleep in the car.

Activity: Turn each of the following word groups into a complete sentence. 
1. Jumped over the fence.
2. Titanic movie has two stars. Leonardo Decaprio and Kate Winslet.
3. She sending an e-mail to her brother in California.
4. He a job last year.
5. Wanted to get married.
1.6.4. Dangling modifiers
Dangling modifiers are similar to misplaced modifiers except that the modifier isn‘t just separated from the word it modifies; it is
missing the word it modifies. The writer has the term being modified in mind—but not on paper.
o Having eaten dinner, the idea of a cheeseburger was unappealing. (Dangling modifier)
The dangling participle is the most notorious of the dangling modifiers. In this example, the participial phrase having eaten dinner has
nothing to modify; it certainly is not modifying idea or cheeseburger. One way to correct the problem is simply to add the missing word.
o Having eaten dinner, I found the idea of a cheeseburger unappealing.
In the following example, the participial phrase Studying the lecture notes dangles. It doesn‘t modify ecosystem. Rewrite the sentence.
o Studying the lecture notes, the ecosystem became clear. (Dangling modifier)
o The ecosystem became clear when I studied the lecture notes. (Revised)
In the next sentence, the infinitive phrase ‗To win the election’ is lacking a word to modify; it cannot modify money.
o To win the election, money is essential. (Dangling modifier)
Rewrite the sentence to add an appropriate subject.
o To win the election, a candidate needs money.
Eliminate a dangling construction by (1) Attach modifiers clearly to the right word or (2) expanding phrase into a subordinate clause.

Activity: Correct the dangling modifiers in the following sentences.

1. Following a regimen of proper diet and exercise, Alan‘s weight can be controlled.
2. Speeding down the hill, several poles were knocked down by the skier.
3. After searching around the attic, a Halloween mask was discovered.
4. To enter the house, the lock on the back door was picked.
5. After completing my house chores, the dog was fed.
6. While still sleepy and tired, the counselor lectured me on breaking rules.
1.6.5. Misplaced modifiers
If it isn‘t clear in a sentence exactly which term a modifier applies to, it is a misplaced modifier. So we should keep related parts of a
sentence together to avoid the common mistake of a misplaced modifier.
Any kind of modifier can be misplaced: an adjective, an adverb, a phrase or clause acting as an adjective or adverb. If you put a modifier
in a place it doesn‘t belong, you risk confusion, misreading awkwardness, and even unintentional humor.
o He saw a truck in the driveway that was red and black. (misplaced modifier)
If red and black are the colors of the truck rather than the driveway, write the sentence so that this is clear.
o He saw a red and black truck in the driveway. (Revised)
In the following sentence, the placement of the modifier by Friday leaves us with a question: Did we know by Friday, or would we call
for a strike by Friday?
o We knew by Friday we would call for a strike. (unclear modifier)
To avoid any possible confusion, add that.
o We knew that by Friday we would call for a strike. (Revised)
OR We knew by Friday that we would call for a strike. (Revised)
In these examples, the suggested rewritten versions are not the only possible ways to correct the problem. Play around with your own
sentences when you find confusing modifiers; you may not only correct the problem but also improve the sentence by making it more
concise or changing its emphasis.

Activity: Revise the misplaced modifiers for the following sentences.

1. Even on a meager sheriff‘s salary, a family may have some comforts.
2. He admitted that he was the anonymous donor in the letter.
3. Mr. Yassir Arafat was born in Jerusalem who was the first president of
Palestine.

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4. The sweater was torn which I bought from Tana Supermarket.

5. The bank robber pointed his gun at the teller in the ski mask.
1.6.6. Faulty parallelism
Faulty parallelism in sentences refers to matching grammatical structures. Elements in a sentence that have the same function or express
similar ideas should be grammatically parallel, or grammatically matched. A failure to create grammatically parallel structures when
they are appropriate is referred to as faulty parallelism. Notice the difference between correct parallel structure and faulty parallelism.
In your writing, nouns should be parallel with nouns, participles with participles, gerunds with gerunds, infinitives with infinitives,
clauses with clauses, and so on. For example:
o What counts isn‘t how you look but your behavior. (NOT PARALLEL)
What counts isn‘t how you look but how you behave. (PARALLEL)
o The president promises to reform health care, preserve social security, and a balanced budget.(NOT PARALLEL)
The president promises to reform health care, preserve social security, and balance the budget. (PARALLEL)
When your sentence includes a series, make sure you have not used different grammatical structures for the items.
o He described skiing in the Alps, swimming in the Adriatic, and the drive across the Sahara Desert. (Faulty parallelism)
He described skiing in the Alps, swimming in the Adriatic, and driving across the Sahara Desert. (Parallel)
In the parallel version, all the elements in the series begin with gerunds: skiing, swimming & driving. In the nonparallel version, the final
element is a noun but not a gerund. The elements would remain parallel in the correct version even if the phrases following the gerunds
were changed or omitted. The length of the items in the series does not affect the parallel structure.
To avoid faulty parallelism, use the following grammatical forms:
1. Use parallel constructions with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, etc.).
 Not Parallel: Sailing ships were stately (adj.) and made (verb) little noise.
Parallel: Sailing ships were stately (adj.) and quiet (adj.).
 Not Parallel: The man of Literature read widely for understanding (n.), knowledge (n.), and he (pronoun) just liked books.
Parallel: The man of Literature read widely for understanding (n.), knowledge (n.), and pleasure (n.).
2. Repeat an article (the, a, an) a preposition (by, in, on, etc.), the sign of the infinities (to), and other function words to clarify
parallelism.
 Unclear: The artist was a painter and sculptor of marbles.
Clear: The artist was a painter and a sculptor of marbles.
 Unclear: They passed the evening by eating and observing the crowds.
Clear: They passed the evening by eating and by observing the crowds.
3. Use parallel constructions with correlatives (not only …. But also, either ….or, etc.)
 Not Parallel: Petroleum is used not only to make (infinitive) fuels but also in (preposition) plastics.
Parallel: Not only is (verb) petroleum used in fuels but also in (prepo) plastics.
Parallel: Petroleum is used not only in (prepo.) fuels but also in (prepo) plastics.
 Not Parallel: The speeches were either too long (adverb), or they (pronoun) were not long enough.
Parallel: Either the speeches were too (adverb long) or too (adverb short.
4. Use parallel constructions with and who and with and which etc
Avoid and who, and which, or and that unless they are preceded by a matching who, which, or that
 Not Parallel: The position calls for a person with an open mind and who is cool headed.
Parallel: The position calls for a person who is open minded and who is cool headed.
Parallel: The position calls for a person with an open mind and a cool headed.
 Not Parallel: A new dam was built to control floods and that would furnish recreation.
Parallel: A new dam was built to control floods and to furnish recreation.
Parallel: A new dam was built that would control floods and that would furnish recreation.

Activity: Revise sentences with faulty parallelism

1. Abraham Deboch was a soldier, an adventurer, and he wrote a book.
2. Floppy disks are coated with magnetic material, covered by a protective jacket, and are for use in microcomputers.
3. Children generally like bubble gum because it is appealingly packed, sweet, and it lasts a long time.
4. The performance was long, boring, and made everyone in the audience restless.
5. The common cold brings on the following symptoms: a scratchy through, a running nose, and you are generally fatigued.
1.6.7. Subject verb agreement errors
When the agreement between the subject and a verb, a pronoun and its antecedent and a number of the subject and a verb is not
maintained it results is faulty agreement. Look the examples below:

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o Every scrap of soil and photo scan were analyzed for signs of past life on Mars. (Faulty)
Every scrap of soil and photo scan was analyzed for signs of past life on Mars. (Correct)
o Almaz and her cousin has been studying mechanical engineering. (Faulty)
Almaz and her cousin have been studying mechanical engineering. (Correct)
In order to write correct and effective sentences, you are therefore expected to make your subjects agree with the verbs. This section may
help you to write sentences free from agreement errors.
A. Singular and plural nouns and pronouns
If a noun or personal pronoun in your sentence refers to one person, place, thing or idea, it is singular in number and takes a singular
verb. If a noun or personal pronoun refers to more than one person, place or thing, or idea, it is plural in number and takes plural verb.
Examples:
o He teaches technical report writing. (The singular pronoun ‗He‘ and the singular verb ‗teaches‘ agree in number)
o Children need frequent changes of activity. They need activities which are exciting and stimulating their curiosity. (The plural
noun ‗children‘ or the plural pronoun ‗They‘ and the plural verb ‗need‘ agree in number)
B. Words of amount and time as Subjects
If the plural subject denotes a definite amount or quality taken as a whole, the verb is usually singular.
Examples:
o Ten dollars is too much to pay for dues.
o Three months is needed to complete the assignment.
o One hundred thousand light years is an extremely long time.
Note that when such subjects refer to a number of individual units, they are plural.
o Ten dollars were tucked in the mattress. (In this sentence, ten dollars is considered to be ten
individual dollars and not a single unit)
o Three months have passed since the assignment. (In this example, three months is considered to
be three individual months and not one period of time)
If we want to write fraction or percent we need to make the verb agree with the preceding noun – use
singular verbs with non-count nouns & plural verbs with count nouns.
o Examples: One-third of this article is taken up with statistical analysis.
One-third of the students have graduate degrees.
Fifty percent of the job is routine.
Fifty percent of those children have psychological problems. .
C. Titles and names as subjects
The title of a book, story, play, movie, television program, musical composition, or magazine refers to one work. Even if a noun within
the title is plural, a title is always singular and takes a singular verb. Examples:
o The three Musketeers is an exciting novel by Alexandre Dumas.
o Arsenic and Old Lace was performed last year by both the local community theater and the high school‘s drama club.
o Problematical Recreations is a collection of mathematical puzzles.
D. Many a, every, and each with compound subjects
When many a, every, and each precedes a compound subject, the subject is considered singular.
o Many a writer, painter and musician knows disappointment.
o Every child and adult enjoys the performances of the entertainers.
o Each dolphin and its trainer is in the pool.
E. Indefinite pronouns as subjects
In English, some indefinite pronouns are singular, some are plural, and some can be either singular or plural, depending upon the noun
they refer to. In order to make your sentences effective and meaningful, you are therefore required to determine whether the indefinite
pronoun is singular or plural, and make the verb agree.
Indefinite pronouns
Always singular Always plural Singular or plural
each everyone nobody several Some most
anything either everybody a few More plenty
nothing someone neither few All
everything anyone somebody many none
one no one anybody Enough
something

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a. Examples:
o Everyone in the class wants to read Romeo and Juliet. No one wants to read King Lear.
o Either is an appropriate answer.
o Everybody was hoping for a victory.
b. Examples:
o Few are expected for refreshment.
o Both were good choices.
c. Examples:
o Some of the meat was overcooked.
Some of the students were absent from the class.
o All of her relatives are coming from California.
All of the sugar has been used.
F. Compound subjects joined by „or‟ or „nor‟
when ―or‖ or ―nor‖ ( either…or or neither…nor) connects a compound subject made up of a singular subject and a plural subject, use a
verb form that agrees in number with the subject that is closer to the verb in the sentence.
o A calculator or an adding machine is needed for this job.
o Neither the students nor their college dean was represented at the assembly. (The singular noun dean is closer to the verb and
it agrees with it)
o Either my sister or her classmates are making public speaking. (The plural subject classmates is closer to the verb and it agrees
with it)
Although these sentences are grammatically correct, they sound awkward and may make the readers have trouble in understanding the
meaning clearly. Thus, you are advised to rewrite such sentences to eliminate the awkwardness as follows:
o The students were not represented at the assembly, nor was their college dean.
o Either my sister is making public speaking, or her classmates are.
G. Intervening expressions
The number of a subject is not affected by phrases or expressions such as together with, as well as, accompanied by, in addition to, plus,
with and along with. Although expressions such as these have a meaning that is similar to that of the conjunction ‗and‘ they do not create
a compound subject. However, if one of the two subjects happens to be plural, the verb agrees with the former of the two.
Examples:
o The department head, with his children, has been attending the graduation ceremony.
o The children, with their father, have been attending the graduation ceremony.
o Hanna‘s job, in addition to her school work, takes her spare time.
o The processing unit, together with all of its types of memory, forms the heart of the machine.
H. Intervening prepositional phrases
When the prepositional phrase that modifies the subject usually comes between the subject and the predicate, make sure that the verb
agrees with the actual subject of the sentence and not with the object of the preposition. That means you should not mistake a word in a
prepositional phrase for the subject of the sentence.
Examples:
o The bowl of raw vegetables looks appetizing. (The singular noun, bowl, is the subject. The plural noun, vegetables, is the object
of the preposition, of. The verb, looks, agrees with the subject of the sentence, not with the object of the preposition.)
o The books on that shelf are biographies. (The plural noun, books, is the subject. The singular noun, shelf, is the object of the
preposition, on. The verb, are, agrees with the subject of the sentence, not with the object of the preposition.)

Activity: Circle the verb in parenthesis that agrees in number with the subject of each of the following sentences.
1. Beams of colored light (has, have) passed through the prism without creating a rainbow pattern.
2. A term paper with many mistakes (does, do) not make a good impression.
3. Neither the directions on the package nor the brochure (explain, explains) how to play.
4. Most people know when a computer system or program (work, works) properly, and they can usually do minor repairs
themselves.
5. Two hundred miles (is, are) a long ways to go on a bicycle
I. Pronoun reference errors
A pronoun should refer clearly to one, clear, unmistakable noun coming before the pronoun. When a pronoun lacks a clear and explicit
antecedent, it results in pronoun reference error.

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1) Vague Pronoun Reference

You are advised never to use the pronouns this, that, which and it without a clearly stated antecedent. When you use them, be sure that
you have clearly expressed the object or the idea that you mean these words to stand for.
Example:
o Our school football team won, which was its reward for much hard work. (Vague because the pronoun ‗which‘ has no clear
antecedent)
Our school football team won the championship trophy, which was its reward for much hard work. (Effective because a clear
antecedent is add for the pronoun)
o Many people enjoy the talent of Whoopi Goldberg, and this is obvious from the great number of people who go to see her films.
(Vague because the pronoun ‗this‘ has no clear antecedent)
Many people enjoy the talent of Whoopi Goldberg, and her popularity is obvious from the great number of people who go to
see her films. (Effective because a clear antecedent is add for the pronoun)
2) Ambiguous pronoun reference
When a pronoun seems to refer to more than one antecedent, reword the sentence to make the antecedent clear, or eliminate the pronoun.
Example:
o Carlos told Jefferson that he had been elected the chairperson of the school. (Vague: Who had been elected – Carlos or
Jefferson?)
Carlos told Jefferson that Jefferson had been elected the chairperson of the school. (Effective)
Carlos said to Jefferson, ―you had been elected the chairperson of the school.‖(Effective)
Carlos said, ―Jefferson, you had been elected the chairperson of the school.‖(Effective)
o If you leave the book in your backpack, you will forget it. (Vague: what is the antecedent of ‗it‘- the book or the backpack?)
You will forget the book if you leave it in your backpack. (Effective because there is clear antecedent)
If you leave the book in your backpack, you will forget the book. (Effective: the pronoun ‗it‘ is eliminated)
Left in your backpack, the book will be forgotten. (Effective: the pronoun ‗it‘ is eliminated)
3) Indefinite use of pronouns
Do not use ‗you’ or ‗they’ as indefinite pronouns. Instead, name the person or group to which you are referring. You may also be able to
reword the sentence in such a way that you do not name the person or group and you do not use a pronoun. Usually you would use the
passive voice to accomplish this kind of revision.
Example:
o To increase fitness, you have to exercise regularly. (Indefinite)
To increase fitness, an individual has to exercise regularly. (Effective because the sentence is rewritten by substituting the
noun for pronoun)
o As part of basketball team, they must learn to work together. (Indefinite)
As part of basketball team, the players must learn to work together. (Effective because the sentence is rewritten by substituting
the noun for pronoun)
o They said at the bank that my account was overdrawn. (Indefinite)
The teller at the bank said that my account was overdrawn. (Effective because a noun is substituted for the pronoun)

Activity: Rewrite the following sentences by making sure that all the pronouns are clearly stated.
1. After interviewing several nurses, I realized that it was not the career for me.
2. In the army you must follow orders.
3. Bereket and Ayana are good friends, which began when they were in elementary class.
4. Although the motorcycle hit the house, it was not damaged.
5. By watching the birds, Wilbur realized that in order to fly successfully, you must operate an airplane on three separate axes.
1.7. Using punctuations & capitalization
1.7.1. Basic punctuation rules
Punctuation can make an enormous difference in the meaning of whatever it is you‘re writing. Consider the following classic example of
the change in meaning that punctuation can communicate:
 Woman, without her man, is nothing. / Woman! Without her, man is nothing.
 eats shoots and leaves / eats, shoots, and leaves
 Let‘s eat Grandma! /Let‘s eat, Grandma!
Proper punctuation can make or break the impact of an otherwise well-constructed sentence. These basic rules can strengthen your
sentences with the punctuation they deserve, so that the quality of your ideas is communicated with precision and clarity.

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[Link]. Comma (,)

o use in a series of three or more entities
Example: Jim swims, golfs, and fishes in the summer.
o use to separate two main clauses joined by and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so
Example: Harold took the day off, and he is planning on resting.
o use between city and state and after state if in the middle of a sentence
Example: Before moving to Denver, Colorado, the Chapmans lived in Buffalo, NY.
o use with dates between day and year and after year in the middle of a sentence
Example: We will graduate on June 6, 1990.
It wasn't until March 15, 1987, that Harvey got his license.
o use after introductory expressions beginning with because, since, while, until, if, despite, in spite of, etc.
Example: If it does not rain this weekend, we can go to the beach.
Because of the traffic jam, we arrived an hour late.
o use before not and but to show contrast
Example: I have come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
o use before or after a direct address (calling someone by name)
Example: Nejib, are you ready yet?
Have you finished your project, Sam?
o use with appositives [words or phrases that mean the same as the word(s) that come before them]
Example: George Washington, our first president, was unanimously elected in 1789.
o use to set off titles such as M.A., Ph.D., Sr., Jr., Inc.
Example: Colin B. Thornton, Jr., not his father, is president of the bank.
Joyce Byrd, Ph.D., is Director of the English language Institute
o use to set off participial phrases
Example: Hurrying as fast as he could, Marcel caught the bus before it pulled away.
o use to set off direct quotations (using someone's exact words)
Pam said, "My cousin is studying engineering at MIT."
o use with addresses written in sentence form
Example: Send all inquiries to National Business Computers, 1576 Magnolia Dr., East Lansing, Michigan 12450.
o use to set off yes and no in answering a question
Example: No, we are not planning on going to the mountains this spring.
Yes, I received your request for the merchandise.
[Link]. Quotation marks (" ")
o use when quoting someone's exact words. Periods and commas always come inside the quote marks.
Example: Phil said, "The American Revolution began in April, 1775."
"All of us will attend the banquet," said the chairperson.
Be careful where you place question marks and exclamation points in quotations. If the punctuation is part
of the quotation, it goes inside the quote marks.
Example: The coach asked, "Has anyone seen the quarterback?"
Tim yelled, "The building is on fire! Get out!"
Whereas, if the quote is not a question nor an exclamation, then the punctuation goes outside the quotation
marks.
Example: Are you surprised that the director said, "Take the day off'‖?
Stop playing "The Flight of the Bumble Bee"!
o use with names of short poems and magazine articles, essays
Example: John Keats wrote "Ode on a Grecian Urn."
o use with foreign words as yet not accepted as regular usage words in English
Example: Not all bullfighters perform on the ground. The "rejoneadores" fight on horseback.
Do not use quotation marks around titles of your own essays. Do not use quotation marks around indirect
speech (paraphrasing what someone has said) that is introduced by the word that.
Example: Helen said that she would arrive at noon. (These are not Helen's exact words.)
When you use a quote within a quote, you need single quotes (') for the inside quotation and double quotes
(") for the outside quotation.

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 Basic Writing Skills [EnLa1012] 2012 E.C.

Example: Mr. Markham said in his lecture, "Robert Burns was a great Scottish poet who wrote,
'Never a lender nor a borrower be.'"
Use to indicate plurals with letters and certain expressions
Example: Sal received 4 A‘s and 2 B‘s on his report card.
Always dot your i's and cross your t's
Think of the do's and don'ts before you begin any project.
[Link]. Period (.)
o use at the end of a declarative statement
Example: We have only one class tomorrow.

o use after abbreviations: Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., Mon., oz., a.m., st. (first), St. (street), etc.
Example: The cook needs one oz. of honey for the recipe.

Acronyms (abbreviations pronounced as words) are not punctuated. WHO, NATO, UNESCO, AIDS, etc.
o use to separate dollars and cents in prices
Example: This coat costs $59.95.
o use with certain abbreviations such as B.C., A.D., D.C.
Example: The Congress meets in Washington. D.C.
o use with decimals and percents
Example: Judy earned a 3.75 GPA last semester.
The interest rate on our mortgage is 7.825%.
Do not add a second period if you end a sentence with a title or abbreviation that requires a period
Example: My brother's new title is Dr. Joseph Laws, Ph.D.
Do not use a period with ordinal numbers or shortened forms such as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and words like
math, photo, lab
Example: We will be attending the wedding on May 1st in Ohio.
[Link]. Question mark (?)
o use at the end of an interrogative statement
Example: Do you know where the Metropolitan Art Museum is?
o use with dates when the exact year is not known
Example: Attila (406? -453), King of the Huns, was called "the Scourge of God" because of his cruelty.
[Link]. Exclamation point (!)
o use after a statement of surprise
Example: Harry won the million-dollar lottery!
[Link]. Colon (:)
o use between hours and minutes of time expressions
Example: The train is due at 6:45.
o use after the salutation in a formal letter
Example: Dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mrs. Greene:
o use before mentioning a list of items or people if the word preceding the colon is not a verb or preposition
Example: Only five people attended the meeting: John, Paul, Sean, Nick, and Toby.
[Link]. Semicolon (;)
o use when joining two complete, related sentences not connected by and, but, or, nor, for, yet or so.
Example: Phyllis received the highest grades; she got a scholarship to study at Harvard.
o use with the conjunctive adverbs consequently, however, otherwise, nevertheless, and therefore when they connect two main
clauses. The adverb is preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.
Example: Sida could not pay the light bill; therefore, the company shut off his electricity.
o use with parenthetical expressions (those which serve to qualify) in fact, on the other hand, for example, etc.
Example: Mario never eats spinach; in fact, he hates it. .
o use to separate unlike entities in a list (combination of cities and their states)
Example: The language schools can be found in the following locations: Kalamazoo, Michigan; Austin, Texas; and Honolulu,
Hawaii.

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1.7.2. Basic capitalization rules

Capitalize all of the following:
o Proper nouns (names of people, places, and things)
Example: Don Hudson, Hunan Restaurant, Eiffel Tower
o Names of cities, states, provinces, and countries
Example: Addis Ababa, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
o Names of specific oceans, rivers, mountains, lakes, etc.
Example: Pacific Ocean, Awash River, Bale Mountains, Lake Tana
o Brand names
Example: Ford, Kleenex tissues, Sunbeam toaster
o the pronoun I
Example: He and I are friends.
o Days of the week, months, specific courses in school
Example: Friday, March, Anthropology 2022
o All important words of a title (books, plays, songs, magazines, and newspapers)
Capitalize a, an, the only if they are first word of title, and prepositions of five or more letters; don't
underline the in newspaper titles
Example: Call of the Wild, The Glass Menagerie, "You Are My Sunshine," the Washington Post
o The first word of a quotation and the first word of a sentence
Example: James said, "Nobody will ever believe you."
o Names of nationalities, languages, and races
Example: Many Eskimos live in Alaska. Anita is Greek, but she also speaks Russian.
o North, south, east, west ONLY if it indicates a geographical region (usually preceded by ‗the‘) and NOT a direction;
Example: Nancy loves the climate of the Northwest. The Civic Center lies south of town.
o Names of holidays
Example: Easter, Memorial Day, Halloween, Thanksgiving
o With abbreviations, titles, streets
Example: I have an appointment with Dr. Lindsay today.
Manuel lives at 5120 Clover Rd.
o Specific historical documents, political organizations
Example: The Constitution is the basis of our legal system.
Do not capitalize the following:
o seasons unless they are part of a title
Example: I like summer best of all.
The Long Hot Summer was a great movie.
o general areas of study except languages
Example: mathematics, history, geography
o when personal titles are NOT followed by a name
Example: aunt, uncle, doctor, professor
o school, college, or university unless it is accompanied by a proper name
Example: She is a university student.

Activity: Supply all the punctuation and capitalization for each of the sentences below.
1. Until you correct all those spelling and punctuation errors i will not give you a passing grade
2. juan valdez thinks that colombian coffee is the best in the world
3. havent you seen the latest science fiction movie
4. Our english literature class is reading shakespeares the tempest
5. after wed closed the door we sat down to read the newspaper
6. do you know how many people will be attending the banquet
7. Get out of here and shut the door
8. When we get to Greece we plan to visit the following places the acropolis the parthenon the erechtheum and mount lycabettus
9. Mistletoe for example is a parasite
10. easter island is located in the pacific ocean

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Unit Two
Writing Effective Paragraphs
2.1. Paragraph definition
According to Edwin and Lewis (1984), a paragraph is a group of sentences that deal with the same subject or topic. One of the sentences
tells the reader the main idea the topic. This statement is called the topic sentence. The other sentences in the paragraph give additional
information about the idea stated in the topic sentence. These other sentences are called supporting sentences. Once a writer can
recognize both types of sentences, it will be easier for him/her to use them to build paragraphs.
2.2. Nature of a paragraph
A paragraph is a group of sentences about one topic. It contains a topic sentence, supporting details and sometimes a concluding remark.
The sentences follow one another from the beginning to the end of the paragraph. A paragraph is usually part of a longer piece of
writing, such as a letter or essay. Dear students, understanding the nature of a paragraph helps you a lot to write good academic texts, so
it is discussed below using a short sample paragraph.
Terry Fox was a Canadian who suffered
A. The topic sentence - The topic sentence is usually from bone cancer and raised awareness
the first sentence of the paragraph. It states the main
for cancer research by trying to run
idea of the paragraph. A good topic sentence tells the
reader exactly what the rest of the paragraph will be across Canada. He attracted a lot of
about. attention by running the distance of a
marathon daily on one prosthetic leg.
B. The supporting details - The supporting details He also challenged each Canadian
are the specific sentences of the paragraph. They
citizen to contribute one dollar for
provide details such as explanations or examples that
expand on or support the topic sentence. Supporting cancer research. Unfortunately, Fox was
sentences are sometimes connected by transition forced to end his run near Thunder Bay
words or phrases. because of health complications. The
CTV network organized a nation-wide
run to continue Fox’s fundraising
C. The concluding sentence - A concluding efforts. Clearly, Terry Fox had an impact
sentence is sometimes used in longer paragraphs to on both cancer research and the
sum up the ideas presented. It expresses the same millions of Canadians who participate
idea as the topic sentence but in different words. It in the Terry Fox Run every year.
can start with a transition such as clearly or in
conclusion.
Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is very short.
However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence. A concluding
sentence may do any of the following:
o Restate the main idea.
Example: Childhood obesity is a growing problem in the United States.
o Summarize the key points in the paragraph.
Example: A lack of healthy choices, poor parenting, and an addictionto video games are among
the many factors contributing to childhood obesity.
o Draw a conclusion based on the information in the paragraph.
Example: These statistics indicate that unless we take action, childhood obesity rates will
continue to rise.
o Make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about the information in the paragraph.
Example: Based on this research, more than 60 percent of children in the United States will be
morbidly obese by the year 2030 unless we take evasive action.
o Offer an additional observation about the controlling idea.
Example: Childhood obesity is an entirely preventable tragedy.

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Activity
A. Number the sentences below (from 1 to 5) to form a paragraph. On each line, write topic sentence, supporting detail or concluding
sentence to indicate the sentence‘s purpose. Then write the paragraph in order, adding appropriate transitions.
- Hydroelectric power is a valuable source of renewable energy.
- Nickel is another natural resource used in the making of stainless steel as well as coins.
- These are just a few of the resources Canada offers.
- Canada offers a variety of natural resources that are used for different purposes.
- Timber is used for building materials and furniture.
B. Write a paragraph of your own and identify the topic sentence, the supporting details and the concluding remark.
2.3. Identifying topic sentence and supporting details
A topic sentence, usually the first sentence of a paragraph, is the most important sentence that states the main idea. A good topic
sentence makes a point that will be developed in the rest of the paragraph. It also provides an accurate indication of what will follow in
the rest of the paragraph. Supporting details, however, provide details such as explanations or examples that expand on or support the
topic sentence. They are the building blocks of a good paragraph. They make up the body of the paragraph by explaining, proving, or
enhancing the controlling idea in the topic sentence. Most paragraphs contain three to six supporting sentences depending on the
audience and purpose for writing. Supporting sentence usually offer explanations, reasons, facts, statistics, quotations or examples.
There can be both major and minor supporting details. Major details support the topic sentence. Minor details expand on, or provide
reasons and examples of, the major details. Look at the following topic sentence with supporting details.
Topic sentence Mother gorillas do a lot for their babies.
Supporting sent 1 They nurse their babies.
Supporting sent 2 They protect them from danger.
Supporting sent 3 And they teach the tiny gorillas how to get along with other gorillas.
Have a look at the example paragraph below:
My favorite drink is tea and I drink a lot of it (1)
. I always have tea in the morning for breakfast (2)
. I make a pot
of tea and then I drink it all myself . Sometimes I have another pot before lunch
(3)
. At four o’clock, I make a
(4)

cup of mint tea .

(5)

The underlined sentence (1) in the above paragraph is the topic sentence. It states the general idea of the paragraph. The writer tells us
that he/she likes tea and as a result he/she drinks a lot of tea it. But the rest sentences (2-5) are the supporting details. They are all
different from the topic in that they are specific sentences used to explain what is stated in the topic. These sentences give clear
evidences as to what extent the writer drinks tea in a day.

Activity
A. Read the paragraphs and identify the topic sentences.
1. All my brothers have jobs. My oldest brother, Edward, is a doctor at the hospital in the centre of the city, and the second oldest,
Daniel, is an accountant in an office near our home. My youngest brother is a policeman. I am the only brother who is still at
school.
2. I like most types of books. However, the books I enjoy the most are travel books. I like reading about different countries and
the famous places there. When I go on holiday, I always buy lots of books about the place I am visiting. Travel books help you
to understand a place.
3. I love football! I loved football when I was a small boy, and I love it now. My favorite team is Manchester United. I go to see
our local club team every weekend, and now I play for the college three times a week.
B. For each of the paragraphs, choose the sentence from the list below that would make the best topic sentence.
1) ______________________________________________. When Ken wanted to enter a good university, he had to study hard to pass
the examination. The first time he took the exam, he did not do well, and he felt very discouraged. But he knew he wanted to study at
that university, so he studied more. The next year, he tried to take the exam again. The second time, he did very well, and now he is
studying engineering. I believe Ken is a good role model for me, and he has taught me that never giving up is the best way to succeed.
a) One of my closest friends, named Ken, is a person I can trust.
b) My friend Ken is a very successful student.
c) I admire my friend Ken because he doesn‘t give up.
2) _____________________________________________. Many children begin learning to play football when they are very young.
You often can see them playing at school or in the streets around their houses. In high school, students may play football for a team and
compete in tournaments. If a player is very good, he might go on to play for a professional team. People in my country love to watch
football on T.V. and also go to games whenever they can. Many people have a favorite team or player, and everyone loves to talk about
matches and competitions. Football is really like a national sport in my country.

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 Basic Writing Skills [EnLa1012] 2012 E.C.

a) I love to play football, and I hope I can become a professional player one day.
b) There are many popular sports in my country, but the most popular sport is football.
c) Football is a difficult sport to learn to play well.
C. Read the two topic sentences and write the supporting details given hereunder in their appropriate order below the correct
topic sentences.

- I am going to give my old computer to my younger sister.

- You can do your homework on them.
- You can use them in different ways.
- You can also use online dictionaries and play games in English.
- I need a faster one for my college work.
- My computer is very slow.
1. Computers are very useful for learning English. 1. I need to buy a new computer.
2. ___________________________________ 2. ________________________________
3. ___________________________________ 3. ________________________________
4. ___________________________________ 4. ________________________________
D. Write the appropriate supporting sentences based on the following topics.
Topic Sentence: I like studying English for three reasons.
Supporting sentences:
Reason 1: ...........................................................................................................................................
Reason 2: .......................................................................................................... .................................
Reason 3: ................................................................................................................... ........................
2.4. Writing topic sentences
A topic sentence has a topic (the subject you will write about) and a controlling idea (how you will approach your subject, your
perspective of the subject). Look the example below:
o Werabe University (topic) offers a well-balanced academic program (controlling idea).
The topic does not necessarily come first. It may come at the end, the middle, or even interrupt the controlling idea. Example:
o Four factors (controlling idea) establish Elvis Presley (topic) as the greatest entertainer of the twentieth century: appearance, singing
ability, style, and influence (controlling idea).
Suppose you want to write a paragraph about Police Work. The introductory part (topic sentence) of your paragraph might look like:
Police officers perform many important services.
Notice that this sentence is rather general as it stands. When we say general, the sentence by itself does not tell enough about: What are
these services? But it introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later in the paragraph.

Activity
A. Circle the topic of the sentence and underline the controlling idea.
Example: Indonesia is a very interesting country to visit.

1. Dogs make excellent pets.

2. A really good place to study is the library at my school.
3. Learning a second language creates job opportunities.
4. Football is my favorite sport because it is exciting to watch.
5. One of the most valuable tools for students is the computer.
B. Write a topic sentence for each of the following topics. Remember to include both a topic and controlling idea.
a) Topic: The effect of hand phone on students
Topic sentence: ............................................................................................
b) Topic: Living in big city
Topic sentence: ……………………………………………………………
c) Topic: The effect of smoking on a person‘s health
Topic sentence: ……………………………………………………………
d) Topic: Registering for college classes
Topic sentence: ……………………………………………………………

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2.5. Nature and position of topic sentences in a paragraph

Topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come, for example, after a transition sentence; it
may even come at the end of a paragraph. In other words, topic sentences can appear at several points in a paragraph.
A. Topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph
Concluding remarks of a paragraph do not always restate the topic sentence and, in fact, in some paragraphs may be missing altogether.
However, a topic sentence is still needed. A second and also common placement for the topic sentence is in the lead position with no
repetition in the last sentence. A paragraph of this nature starts with a strong, general topic statement with subsequent supporting details
narrowing from this broad beginning. Such a structure provides the reader with immediate knowledge of the topic and scope of the
paragraph and thus serves as a map for the details that follow. This type of structure is most frequently found in newspaper articles,
where the headline may also assume the role of topic sentence. A diagram of this paragraph type would be an inverted triangle.

The following sample paragraph begins with a topic sentence. The details which follow it repeat the controlling idea of the paragraph
and are arranged in chronological order, that is, from first to last:
Constructing a wedding cake is a complicated process. Before any baking takes place, the size of the cake and
the decorative design to be used must be determined. Then the layers are baked. On a large cake the bottom
layers may be as much as sixteen inches in diameter. Because of their size, these layers must be baked one at a
time, a process which may actually take an entire day. Once the layers are cooled, same-size pairs are matched
and frosted. Since large wedding cakes are surprisingly heavy, half-inch dowel rods must be measured, cut, and
carefully driven into the bottom layers. These wooden posts provide hidden support for the weighty upper layers.
When all the layers are set in place, flowers, garlands and leaves of frosting are added. These delicate touches
individualize the wedding cake and transform it from merely a cake into a culinary work of art.
In the paragraph above, the topic sentence is ―Constructing a wedding cake is a complicated process.‖ The steps involved in
constructing this type of cake are told in time order, beginning with baking and ending with decorating. Note that, although the
paragraph draws to a logical conclusion, the topic sentence is not repeated in the end position.
B. Topic sentence at the end of the paragraph
While it is most common for topic sentences to begin the paragraph, they do not always do so. Consider the following sign, seen in the
window of a beauty salon:
Please,
No exceptions.
Unless they are booked for service,
No Children
In this situation, No exceptions is clearly not the topic of the sign, and No Children clearly is. Yet the subject, No Children, is placed in
the end rather than the head position. When this idea is extended to the paragraph, the topic sentence, placed last, serves to summarize
the previous details. Paragraphs written in this way can be diagrammed as an upright triangle, with the broad base representing the topic
sentence:

Paragraphs are written in this form primarily for one of two reasons: (1) to create suspense or (2) to bring up a controversial topic only
after sufficient groundwork has been laid. In the case of the sign in the beauty salon, the message is made gentler by stating the only
situation in which children are allowed before stating the more controversial behest, No Children, in the final position.
The act of providing convincing data or groundwork leads the reader to the topic sentence, which then also serves as the conclusion. The
following sample paragraph is an example of one in which the topic sentence and controlling idea appear in the final position:
People do it every day. They log on to their favorite website and browse for hours, checking out bargains. They
dump every possible wish into their shopping carts, knowing they can cast each one aside before they finalize
their purchases. On the way, they may enter a sweepstakes in the hopes of winning a trip to Cabo San Lucas, or
maybe even a new SUV. And then, when they have decided on their purchases, they enter private information

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without giving it a thought. With a keystroke, they release their personal data into what may or may not be a
secure zone. Despite what much of the public believes, internet shopping is not safe.
In this paragraph, the idea that internet shopping may not be safe could be considered controversial. For this reason, groundwork is laid
before the final, topic sentence is stated.
C. Topic sentence in the middle of the paragraph
Perhaps the least common placement for a topic sentence is in the medial position. Placed here, a topic sentence can provide a transition
between two kinds of details, those appearing before the topic sentence and those appearing after it. In this paragraph structure, the
controlling idea may be of a cause/effect or comparison/contrast nature. The topic sentence, then, serves the function of linking sets of
related but different data. A paragraph of this type can be diagrammed as a diamond with details at both ends and the broad, topic
sentence in the middle.

The following is a sample paragraph with the topic sentence in the medial position:
When a camera flash is used in a low-light environment, the subject's eyes may appear red in the finished
photograph. What is known as "red-eye" is the result of light from the flash reflecting off the pupils of the eyes. The
phenomenon of red-eye can be lessened by using the red-eye reduction feature found on many SLR cameras. This
feature activates a lamp which shines a small light directly into the subject's eyes. When this happens, the
diameter of the pupil is reduced, thus tightening the opening in the iris. Since a smaller pupil means a smaller
host for the reflection, the chances of red-eye occurring are greatly reduced.
In the above paragraph, the topic sentence is ―The phenomenon of red-eye can be lessened by using the red-eye reduction
feature found on many SLR cameras.‖ It serves to connect information about the cause of red-eye (found at the beginning of the
paragraph) with information about how the problem can be alleviated (found after the topic sentence).
Topic sentences are not the only way to organize a paragraph, and not all paragraphs need a topic sentence.
For example, paragraphs that describe, narrate, or detail the steps in an experiment do not usually need
topic sentences. Topic sentences, however, are useful in paragraphs that analyze and argue. Topic sentences
are particularly useful for writers who have difficulty developing focused, unified paragraphs (i.e., writers
who tend to sprawl). Topic sentences help these writers develop a main idea or claim for their paragraphs,
and, perhaps most importantly, they help these writers stay focused and keep paragraphs manageable.
2.6. Narrowing a title
Writers often omit or underuse the helpful tool that is a paragraph title. Feeling stuck, writers may give up on generating a title, or
merely label their writings by assignment sequence (―Assignment #1‖) or task. An absent or non-specific title is a missed opportunity:
titles help writers prepare readers to understand and believe the writing that is to follow. A good title does several things:
o it predicts content.
o it catches the reader's interest.
o it reflects the tone or slant of the piece of writing.
Keeping these functions in mind will help a writer choose a specific and meaningful title, not a mere label. However, like any piece of
writing, an effective title does not appear in one magic moment; it takes brainstorming and revising. Make sure to use specific words in
your topic sentence. A topic sentence should not be ―vague, too broad, or too narrow.‖ Examples:
Vague: Public schools are great.
Strong: Public schools do as well academically as private schools, according to statistics.
The first topic sentence uses vague language, notably, the word ―great.‖ The second topic sentence is much more specific, and the reader
knows the author is going to discuss how public schools compare academically to private schools. Examples of broad, narrowed and
focused topics are given below.
Broad topic: Women‘s Health Computer games
Narrowed topic: Women and cancer Computer game violence
Focused topic: Women smokers and breast cancer Computer game violence and children
As you narrow your topic, consider many of the same things as you did when you selected your broad topic:
A. The requirements of the assignment
o What guidelines has your instructor set for topic selection?
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o What type of writing is this? A narrative or reflective paragraph may require that you narrow your topic to something you have
personal experience with. An argument paragraph will require that your topic be something that reasonable people would
disagree about.
o What are the content and length requirements? Your objective is to narrow your topic to a focus and size that enables you to
provide in-depth, detailed coverage of the topic within the page requirements of the assignment.
B. Your personal interests
o You will be spending a lot of time with this topic. Make sure that this is something that genuinely interests you. This will make
the research and writing process more enjoyable, and the finished work will reflect your sincerity and conviction.
o Ask yourself why you choose this topic. If your broad topic is the environment, think about what aspects of the environment
you most care about. Are you most interested in conservation of fish and game, or endangered species? Are you most
concerned about preservation of wetlands, forests, oceans, or deserts? Are there conservation measures or environmentally
friendly technologies that particularly interest you?
C. Audience and purpose
o What aspects of the topic would most be most interesting and important to your audience?
o What aspects of the topic would be new to the audience? Avoid tired topics that your audience and your instructor are already
thoroughly familiar with. For example, littering is certainly an environmental concern, but it is likely that your audience has
been reading papers or hearing speeches about litter since they were in grade school.
How to tell if your topic is too broad or too narrow
o The number of ideas and points you plan to cover
When you have narrowed your topic in mind and have done some preliminary research, do a rough
outline or list of key points and:
- If you have a number of unrelated ideas, your topic may still be too broad. For example,
conservation of wetlands and conservation of rainforests may be unrelated.
- Even if your ideas are related to each other, if you have too many key points to support your
ideas, your topic may be too broad. You should have a few key points (perhaps three to six,
depending on the length of your paper) and you have ample space to present details and
examples for each of those points.
- In contrast, if you have only one or two key ideas, and not much detail to support those ideas,
your topic might be too narrow.
o The availability of high quality sources
As you do your research, if your key word search turns up hundreds of high quality sources on your
topic, your topic may be too broad. If you can‘t find enough information about your topic, it may be too
narrow.

Activity: Choose the most effective topic sentence from the following sentence pairs.
1. A) This paper will discuss the likelihood of the Democrats winning the next election.
B) To boost their chances of winning the next election, the Democrats need to listen to public opinion.
2. A) The unrealistic demands of union workers are crippling the economy for three main reasons.
B) Union workers are crippling the economy because companies are unable to remain competitive as a result of added financial
pressure.
3. A) Authors are losing money as a result of technological advances.
B) The introduction of new technology will devastate the literary world.
4. A) Rap music is produced by untalented individuals with oversized egos.
B) This essay will consider whether talent is required in the rap music industry.
2.7. Structure of a paragraph
By the structure of a paragraph is meant the building or composition of it. The definition of a paragraph indicates that the sentences must
be related; they must have a particular structure. This structure is determined by the relationship of the ideas, and it is by constructing the
paragraph properly that you develop the idea. To develop an idea is to unfold or reveal it. For instance, when someone asks you how to
do a mathematical problem, you explain the process by giving the steps in order. The last sentence of your explanation is, of course, the
last step of the problem. The development of an idea in a paragraph follows the same procedure. The topic sentence may inform the
reader that washing an animal is a rather difficult process. From that point you proceed in the order in which you would if you were, in
fact, washing a dog. The final sentence should bring the paragraph to a complete end; that is, it must leave the reader feeling that you
have told him all you have to say.

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Such an ending may be: ―Now the dog is clean and shiny, all ready, in his opinion, to go out and roll over in the dirt.‖ If you follow this
method of developing your idea, your paragraph will be well structured. A well structured paragraph is expected to have some salient
features and will be discussed in the section below.
2.8. Essentials of a paragraph
2.8.1. Unity
The unity of a paragraph means that the paragraph only discusses one small idea. When you have another idea you have to move to
another new paragraph. Another evidence in the unity of a paragraph is that all the supporting sentences only support one main idea of
the paragraph. Here is an example of a unified paragraph. The first sentence expresses the main point of the paragraph and the rest of the
sentences relate to the main point.
Your sister is an attractive woman. Her large, dark eyes are beautiful. Her complexion is flawless, and she has
a lovely big smile. Her long, black hair is full and shiny. She is tall and slender, and her every movement is
graceful. She also dresses stylishly, and her assortment of passant skirts and loose-fitting blouses look great on
her.
The main point of the paragraph (how attractive the woman is) is supported by a number of specific details: beautiful eyes,
flawless skin, a lovely smile, beautiful hair graceful movements, and stylish dress. Notice that there is even more specific detail
to describe some of these features; large, dark eyes, full, shiny black hair, and passant skirts and loose-fitting blouses.

Activity 9
A. Circle the letter of one sentence in each group that is not clearly related to the topic sentence.
1. Topic sentence: I am sick of eating 'bread'.
A) I've been eating bread twice a day all semesters.
B) It is starting to taste like dog food
C) I love pizza very much.
D) I'm getting fat from eating bread.
E) I get a stomachache just thinking about eating another bread.
2. Topic sentence: There are many ways to study for a test.
A) You can review a few hours the night before the test.
B) You can study an hour a night the week of the test
C) You can study with friends and help each other
D) You can get up early in the morning of the test and study
E) You can improve your grades by attending classes regularly
3. Topic sentence: Bahir Dar is a pleasant place to live
A) There are three movie theaters in the town.
B) The people are friendly.
C) There is very little crime.
D) There is a bad smell coming from the town dump.
E) There are many places to shop for clothes.
B. Each of the following paragraph topics is followed by two sentences that relate to the topic sentence. Add two more sentences
of your own that are also related to the topic, and hence, would make a unified paragraph.
1. Topic sentence: Hailu has bad behaviors
A) He steals money from his poor mother.
B) He insults anyone whom he meets.
C) ____________________________________________________________
D) ____________________________________________________________
2. Topic: I have a lot of things to do by the coming summer vacation.
A) I will visit my grandfather.
B) I will read different books.
C) ____________________________________________________________
D) ____________________________________________________________
3. Topic sentence: War has many disadvantages.
A) It ruins infrastructures.
B) It causes migration.
C) ___________________________________________________________
D) ___________________________________________________________

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4. Topic: My dormitory room is not suitable to study.

A) The table is not comfortable.
B) There are some noisy students.
C) ____________________________________________________________
D) ____________________________________________________________
2.8.2. Coherence
A paragraph has coherence when all of its sentences are organized and flow smoothly and logically from one to the next. When a
paragraph has coherence, the reader can follow the main ideas more easily. You can achieve coherence in your paragraph by using
several cohesive devices. The following are some of these devices.
A. Pronouns: Since a pronoun refers to an antecedent, the pronoun and its antecedent form a link. You can often make a paragraph
coherent merely by using pronouns properly. On the other hand, incorrectly used pronouns can weaken coherence. In the following
examples, notice how pronouns in the second sentence of each pair provide coherence by referring to the important subject in the first
sentence. Example:
o Self-help books continue to proliferate. They appeal to anxieties of our middle-aged society.
o Patients must fast for twelve hours before the test. They should also avoid red meats for seventy-two hours before coming in.
B. Repetition: Substituting a pronoun for a noun is actually a kind of repetition. There are two ways of repetitions, i.e., direct and
indirect repetitions.
i. Direct repetition of a word or expression will also produce a similar effect. In other words, you can achieve coherence by
repeating some key words.
Example: Exposure to too much sun can damage the skin. This damage is irreversible and can result in skin cancer.
Use direct repetition with care. Overdoing it will give an awkward, immature ring to your
writing.
Example: Daily receipts are taken to the central office. Daily receipts are then tallied….
You can get much the same transitional affect by using synonyms or slightly altered forms of the repeated expressions.
Example 1: Bill Clinton has been somewhat distant since leaving the White House. The former president has settled in to a life of
privacy.
Example 2: A moderately honest man with a moderately faithful life, moderate drinkers both, in a moderately healthy home: that is
the true middle class unit.
ii. Indirect repetition is a kind of repetition that comes to effect by using demonstrative pronouns like this, these, that, those
and other determiners like ‗such‘ and ‗the‘ which serve as a bridge between two ideas. Using such linking devices as a
substitute for a noun is actually a kind of repetition.
Example: During the great famine of Niger, people were eating grass. This was unbelievable.
C. Transitional markers: Transitional terms make a paragraph coherent by relating ideas. They are referred to as the ‗glue‘ to hold
ideas together. Like pronouns, many of these terms come to mind automatically, but you should carefully choose among them. The
commonest markers are the simple connectives such as ‗and‘, or ‗but‘, ‗for‘, which serve as viaducts over which the reader may easily
pass from one sentence or clause to the next. Others - sometimes called transitional connectives - indicate the direction, which the new
sentence is about to take and to prepare the reader for what is to follow. Here is a partial list of common transitional terms:
1) Time: next, then, after, before, during, while, following, shortly, thereafter, later on, the next day, secondly, finally
2) Place: over, above, inside, to the left, just behind, beyond
3) Contrast: however, but, on the other hand, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, conversely, yet.
4) Cause - effect: so, therefore, thus, accordingly, consequently, as a result, hence, because of this.
5) Addition: and, furthermore, moreover, likewise, similarly, in a like manner, too, also
6) Emphasis: indeed, in fact, especially, most important
7) Summary: in other words, in short, to sum up, in conclusion, to conclude, all in all, in a nut shell, generally, in general, finally,
at last, etc.
8) Example: for instance, for example, that is, in particular

Activity: Fill in the blanks in the following paragraph by using suitable connectors below.
In the first place, Finally, Otherwise, In addition, on the contrary, Also
Why I Don't Make My Bed
Ever since I moved into my own apartment last fall, I have gotten out of the habit of making my bed--except on Fridays, of course, when
I change the sheets. Although some people may think that I am a slob, I have some sound reasons for breaking the bed-making habit.
____________, I am not concerned about maintaining a tidy bedroom because no one except me ever ventures in there. If there is ever a

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fire inspection or a surprise date, I suppose I can dash in there to fluff up the pillow and slap on a spread. __________, I am not
bothered. ________, I find nothing uncomfortable about crawling into a rumpled mass of sheets and blankets. ___________, I enjoy
poking out a cozy space for myself before drifting off to sleep. _________, I think that a tightly made bed is downright uncomfortable:
entering one makes me feel like a loaf of bread being wrapped and sealed. __________, and most importantly, I think bed-making is an
awful way to waste time in the morning. I would rather spend those precious minutes checking my email or feeding the cat than tucking
in corners or snapping the spread.
D. Sequencing - Suppose you have many notes about your ideas for a writing assignment. How do you put all these ideas together in
a logical way that will make sense to the reader? The sentences should follow each other in the most sensible order for developing the
main idea of the paragraph. This process of putting things in their proper order is called paragraph sequencing. There are several possible
orders for sequencing: chronological sequencing, spatial sequencing, generality sequencing, and sequence in importance.
i. Time order (chronological order) - In telling about an event the clearest way to present the moment is to give the
details in chronological order. You should use this sequence for related details or examples when you want to state them in the
time order in which they occur. In other words, you will list the earliest details first in your paragraph and the latest or most
recent details toward the end of your paragraph. This is a very common sequence for a series of events. The details in a
paragraph of this kind tend to answer such questions as what happens first. And then what happens last? Paragraphs that relate
either a series of incidents or steps in a process often follow such chronological order; in this way is mostly used in narrative
paragraphs or essays. The following paragraph, for example, is narrative and the details are arranged in chronological order.
The most terrifying day in my life came in July of 1946. I was washing lunchtime dishes in our
farmhouse in middle Georgia when my husband unexpectedly appeared at the door." Appeared" is the
best word that I can think to use, because he was not walking but crawling, dragging his left leg. I
got out of him as quickly as possible that he had bitten by a copperhead of some three feet, a snake
large enough for its venom to be fatal. We lived thirty miles from the nearest hospital, I did not have
a driver’s license (and in fact, had never driven a car), but my husband was dying before my eyes. I
pushed/ pulled him into the back seat of our Chevrolet and pointed the car toward Atlanta.
ii. Spatial order - If you want your readers to be able to picture a scene or object you are describing, you could use a spatial
sequencing of details. This sequence describes a scene or object by going from one part of it to another in an organized. For
instance if you intended your details to describe a building of some kind you might want to sequence the details so that you
went from the bottom to the top of the building by answering such questions as what is on the first floor ? the second floor ?
the third floor? and soon, until you had covered all the floors .or you might wish to go in the opposite direction ,beginning at the
top and proceeding down , floor by floor, to the lowest floor. Or you might describe the same building by going from side to
side; answering questions like what is on one side of the building? the section in the middle ? the other side of the building ?
And, of course, you could move in any direction inside the building; left to right , north to south, up to down, side to side, near
to far, or whatever.
As you enter the library, you are greeted by paintings on each side of the door. The painting on the right is
of the town’s high school, and on the left is a watercolor of the town’s city hall. There are several other works
of art in the main body of the building. As you face the archway on the left, you discover pieces of pottery
enclosed in a glass case. A ceiling mural appears over the archway, and on the right a wall hanging has
been hung. The entire library is filled with works of art.
iii. Sequence in importance - You generally sequence the points by their importance; you should use this sequence when
you want to give several details or examples and wish to start your paragraph with the most important or more interesting ones.
You may do this in order to attract the attention of your readers at the very start, especially readers who may be impressed for
time or who may be uninterested in your subject.
Suppose you wanted to write a paragraph for this topic sentence: When I returned to my old neighborhood, I was sad to see how many
things had changed.
 Ato Hundessa, my old history teacher, had died in a car accident.
 Faris Lodge, a local hangout, was destroyed in a fire.
 The park bench where I spent hours reading was gone.
From the incidents, because it seems to be the most important would best be first in the paragraph, it would be best discussed first in the
paragraph. Take a look at the example below:
Our department needs lots of fixing-up. Though it may be difficult to fix-up all of them at the same time, we have
got to fix the leaky roof first before the September rains come. Next, we need to patch the big holes in the bed
room walls and then strip the peeling paint off the walls. Then we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are
painted, we can work on replacing the linoleum squares in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later, the

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living room carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace that old swaybacked sofa. Then we won’t be
embarrassed to have company over once in a while.
Of course, only the writer himself could determine which was most or least significant. The writer can follow
the opposite approach, for example, the least important ones come first in the paragraph, the important next
and the most important details come last. This arrangement allows you to build up your reader‘s interest
gradually (to create suspense if it is in fiction writing), with your final details providing a climax.
2.8.3. Adequate development (Completeness)
A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the topic sentence. If the "promise" of the topic sentence
is not fulfilled, or if the reader is left with questions after reading the paragraph, the paragraph has not been adequately developed. How
much support does the topic sentence requires depends on how much the readers need. Giving to much explanation may be boring but
giving too little may block communication.
A good paragraph is fully developed. Here are the main qualities of a well-developed paragraph.
o It provides enough supporting points for the main idea expressed in the topic sentence to
be clearly understood.
o It provides enough specific details and examples to be interesting and informative.
o It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions that could be cleared up with a
little more detail or an additional example or two.
o It concludes with a sentence that clearly" wraps up" the paragraph and relates to the topic
sentence in some manner.
2.9. Writing basic types of paragraphs
Basically there are four types of paragraphs that you need to know about. These are descriptive, narrative, expository and
argumentative/persuasive/. Each of this type is discussed as follows.
2.9.1. Descriptive paragraph
This type of paragraph describes something and shows the reader what a thing or a person is like. The words chosen in the description
often appeal to the five senses of touch, smell, sight, sound, and taste. Descriptive paragraphs can be artistic and may deviate from
grammatical norms.
Adjective to describe physical appearance
o Forehead: High, low
o Build: tall, short, plump, fat, over-weight , under-weight, frail, skinny, stocky, slim, slender thin, skinny,
o Build: tall, short, plump, fat, over-weight , under-weight, frail, skinny, stocky, slim, slender thin, skinny, well-built, muscular
o Age: toddler, young, elderly, middle-aged, old, teenager, in early/mid/late 20s, 30s,
o Face: round, oval, square, with scares, wrinkles, freckles, sun-tanned, pale
o Eyes: Big, round, blue, brown, large, small, bright, narrow
o Hair: bald, straight, curly, spiky, wavy, grey, plaited, short, long,
o Clothes: casual, scruffy, shabby, smart, tidy, messy, cotton, woolen, leather, traditional
o Adjectives to describe personality: careful, hard-working, worried, cheerful, broadminded, active, curious, secretive, dull,
boring, imaginative, ambitious, crafty, sensitive, gentle, naïve, aggressive, tough, careless, practical, sensible, independent,
strong-minded, stupid, generous, loyal, self-controlled, moody, trusting, modest, tolerant, friendly, energetic, confident, selfish,
shy, stubborn, reliable, clumsy, intelligent
Below is an example of a descriptive paragraph:
The lights grow brighter as the earth lurches away from the sun, and now the orchestra is playing yellow cocktail
music, and the opera of voices pitches a key higher. Laughter is easier minute by minute, spilled with prodigality,
tipped out at a cheerful word. The groups change more swiftly, swell with new arrivals, dissolve and form in the
same breath; already there are wanderers, confident girls who weave here and there among the stouter and more
stable, become from a sharp, joyous moment the center of a group, and then, excited with triumph, glide on
through the sea-change of faces and voices and color under the constantly changing light.
In this paragraph you can hear, see, and feel the setting in which the story takes place. When you practice writing a descriptive paragraph
yourself, you should address all aspects of the physical world.

Activity: Write a description paragraph on one of the following topics

a) A favorite food
b) Your dream house
c) An interesting place you visited
d) A scene that makes you feel threatened

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2.9.2. Narrative paragraph

This type of paragraph tells a story. There's a sequence of action or there's a clear beginning, middle, and end to the paragraph. Look at
the example paragraph:
It's been almost ten years since I first ran for political office. I was thirty-five at the time, four years out of law
school, recently married, and generally impatient with life. A seat in the Illinois legislature had opened up, and
several friends suggested that I run, thinking that my work as a civil rights lawyer, and contacts from my days
as a community organizer, would make me a viable candidate. After discussing it with my wife, I entered the
race and proceeded to do what every first-time candidate does: I talked to anyone who would listen. I went to
block club meetings and church socials, beauty shops and barbershops. If two guys were standing on a corner, I
would cross the street to hand them campaign literature. And everywhere I went, I'd get some version of the same
two questions.
This paragraph tells an interesting story about how a man entered the arena of politics. It has a beginning, middle, and an end, and it
raises the reader's curiosity about what will happen next.

Activity: Write a narrative paragraph on one of the following topic.

a) An experience or event that you will remember for a long time
b) A funny story about yourself or another person
c) Something important that is happening in your town/city
d) A time that you helped a friend or family member in trouble
2.9.3. Persuasive paragraph
This type of paragraph tries to get the reader to accept a particular point of view or understand the writer's position. It often requires the
collection of facts and research. The following is a sample persuasive paragraph:
Immigration contributes to the overall health of the American economy. Despite recent concerns related to the
costs created by illegal and some legal immigration to the United States, this country has largely benefited from
the skills, talents, and ambition that immigrants bring with them. American businesses gain from a good source
of affordable labor, while town and cities are revitalized by immigrant families who strengthen communities
through civic participation the generation of new economic activity. The United States must continue to welcome
new arrivals and help those who already here; otherwise, the country will lose the advantages it has over other
industrialized countries who compete against us in the global marketplace and seek to recruit from a vast pool of
unskilled and skilled global workers.

Activity: Write an argumentative paragraph either argues for or against on one of the following topics.
a) Alcohol advertisements in television
b) Age for driving license
c) Living together before marriage
2.9.4. Expository paragraph
Expository is a kind of writing that explains, defines or interprets. The purpose of exposition is simply to make clear to the order that
how something works, how something is made, or how something happened. It is to make the reader believe the writer and to make a
reader understands the writer‘s idea. It gives information about people, places, things or ideas. This is usually done by using a
combination of all or some of the following methods of developing idea: cause and effect, classification, definition, and comparison and
contrast, etc. We will have a closer look at these techniques of developing ideas in the following section.
2.10. Techniques of paragraph development
2.10.1. Definition paragraph
A definition paragraph is a paragraph explaining a term or subject, so your audience comprehends the topic of the paragraph. It answers
the question ―What is it?‖ Usually expository or informational, the definition may be one sentence or extended to be a paragraph, theme,
or even a book. It is usually combined with other methods of development. The definition is intended to clarify meaning; thus, it should
identify essential qualities and limit the term‘s meaning.

A simple definition has three parts: item, category and features.

1. ITEM 2. CATEGORY 3. FEATURES
A forsythia is a flowering shrub with yellow bell-shaped blossoms.
Herbivores are animals which feed on plants.
Change is a type of process which involves passing from one state or phase to another.

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Here is an excerpt of a sample definition paragraph:

Propaganda is information that is promoted to support certain views or messages. It can come in many
forms, but its purpose is to persuade us to see things a certain way. For example, the president of the United
States may give televised speeches to convince us that some policy or action he supports is right. We may get
mailings on the subject. People who agree with the president’s message may speak in favor of it on talk shows
or in interviews….

Activity: Write a definition paragraph on one of the following terms or topics

a. Cheating
b. Ethical
c. Success
d. A good relationship
e. A good student
2.10.2. Exemplification paragraph
An exemplification paragraph explains or clarifies a general statement or idea with one or more specific examples to illustrate a point
made in the writing. Examples and illustrations are used in almost all types of writing to help support points that the writer is making.
The example paragraph reaches a conclusion (topic sentence) as a result of observing a number of examples and then forms a
generalization called induction. One of the most effective ways to support the validity of a conclusion is to relate a few typical examples
that led you to such a conclusion in the first place. An example is a specific detail used to attempt to make an abstract idea concrete or a
general idea specific. Commonly used verb forms and methods of expression in exemplified paragraph are given in the tables below:
shown
X is exemplified by…..
illustrated

shows
X exemplifies this
illustrates

the following examples,

the following are examples of X:
a and b are examples of X
Look at the following sample paragraph.
People of various background and age wear different kind of T-shirt. Musicians for example, wear ranged T-
shirts when they perform on the stage. Restaurant workers wear T-shirt that mark the name of the restaurant
they work in. children, teens, parents and elderly people wear T-shirts on which almost anything can be
pictured. At concerts for instance, fans can buy T-shirts stamped with the name of the group on the stage.
College students can wear the name of their college on the shirt. Other people also wear T-shirt which reflects
their religious background. For example, while some Christians wear T-shirts on which, “I belong to Jesus!” is
printed, some people from Muslim backgrounds also wear T-shirts with “Alhamdulillah!” From this one can
understand that what is written or pictured on T-shirts is as varied as the people who wear them.

Activity: Write an illustration paragraph using one of the following topics

1. What you hope to get from a college education
2. Obstacles in university education
3. Examples of deceptive advertising
2.10.3. Comparison/contrast paragraph
Another method of developing paragraphs is through comparison or contrast. Comparison shows similarities while a contrast shows
differences. The main reason for using this method is to explain an unfamiliar object or idea by comparing or contrasting it to a familiar
object or idea. The writer may develop the paragraph by first discussing all of one subject and then fully presenting the second subject,
or the writer might discuss one like or different trait with each subject and then move to other characteristics, thus discussing both
subjects together.

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Structures and vocabularies used in compare and contrast paragraph

considerably
a great deal
(very) much smaller
(quite) a lot bigger
It is rather cheaper than ….
somewhat etc.
A little slightly
scarcely
hardly
only just

exactly
precisely
just
virtually
practically
X is more or less the same as …..
almost
nearly
approximately
about

Exactly
X is not entirely the same as….
quite

Totally big
X is completely different from y x is not expensive as….
entirely quite as/so dear
quite etc.

different in every way.

dissimilar respect.

X and Y are totally different.

completely
entirely
quite
The following is an example of a comparison/contrast paragraph developed using the point-by-point method.
Oceans and lakes have much in common, but they are also quite different. Both are bodies of water, but oceans
are very large bodies of salt water, while lakes are much smaller bodies of fresh water. Lakes are usually
surrounded by land, while oceans are what surround continents. Both have plants and animals living in them.
The ocean is home to the largest animals on the planet, whereas lakes support much smaller forms of life. When
it is time for a vacation, both will make a great place to visit and enjoy.

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Activity: Write a comparison/contrast paragraph on one of the following terms or topics

a. High school and college
b. Two towns in Ethiopia
c. Successful versus unsuccessful students behaviors
2.10.4. Classification paragraph
Classification is the process of putting a large number of items or behaviors in to smaller, well defined groups. Each group members or
items share similar traits or characteristics that are unique.
According to…..
X may be classified On the basis of …..
Depending (up) on...

consists of …. parts there are …. types/kinds of

X comprises … groups According to … X is divided into ……
Look at the following example:
Although friendship is something that most people enjoy, friendships are not all the same. Some friendships are
forged from a long-term familiarity with one another, and other friendships can spring up just by spending one
fun evening together. Not all friendships result in daily or even weekly time spent together; long-term friendships
can be kept afloat using communication tools like the Internet and telephone, while other friendships result in
sporadic get-togethers sometimes months or even years apart. People seek different things in friendship, meaning
certain friendships result around trips to a diner or video games while other friendships may occur due to a
work relationship or general common interests.

Activity: Write a classification paragraph in one of the following topics.

a) Kinds of music
b) Kinds of television programs
c) Kinds of drivers
d) Kinds of cars
2.10.5. Cause/effect paragraph
A cause is what makes something happen. An effect is what happens as a result of something. The main point reflects the writer‘s
purpose i.e. to explain causes, effects, or both. If the purpose is to explain causes, it gives real causes, not just things that happened
before. For example, the fact that you ate a hot dog before you got the flu does not mean that the hot dog caused the flu. If the purpose is
to explain effects, it gives real effects, not just things that happened after. For example, getting sick was not the effect of eating the hot
dog; it simply happened after you ate the hot dog. Look carefully at the connectives or markers of cause – effect relationships,
particularly how they are used in a sentence construction:
Causes
results in
An increase in demand often leads to higher prices
produces

because of
as a result of
on account of
The price are higher owing to an increase in
through demand
because
since there is
as
because the demand has increased.

Cause of A higher price was an increase

The Reason for in demand.

Because
As the demand has increased, the prices become higher.
Since

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Look at the following excerpt:

Air pollution comes into picture due to the accumulation of hazardous substances into the atmosphere that
danger human life and other living matter. The most dominant player responsible for pollution is automobiles;
apart from that the other causes are Combustion of coal, Acid rain, Manufacturing buildings, automobiles; apart
from that the other causes are Combustion of coal, Acid rain, Manufacturing buildings, Tobacco smoke, Paint
fumes, Aerosol sprays, Nuclear weapons and wild fires. As far as effect of air pollution is concerned, respiratory
diseases tops the chart of health problems. The second one is heart diseases, it caused due to increased level of
carbon monoxide in the air. In addition to that you can avoid a risk of Asthma, Eye Irritation and a range of
bronchial disease due to air pollution. If statistics is to be believed, this year air population segment will count for
80% of premature deaths.

Activity
A. Write a cause-and-effect paragraph in one of the following topics.
a) Car accident
b) War
c) Poverty
B. Read each paragraph carefully and decide whether it is a narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive paragraph. Label it
appropriately in the blank.
1. To be healthy, teens can exercise, eat nutritious foods, and keep themselves safe. First, participating in various kinds of fitness can
keep them in shape. This can include walking, riding their bikes, and playing sports. Next, maintaining a nutrient-rich diet can help teens
stay well. Three balanced meals and two wholesome snacks a day can keep their health on track. Finally, staying out of dangerous
situations can keep teens healthy. Avoiding strangers, wearing seatbelts in cars, and checking smoke detectors are all great ways to
accomplish this task. Teens who follow these tips will keep their bodies unharmed and in good physical shape. _______________

2. One of the oddest coincidences in my life happened when I left America to visit Seoul, South Korea. A friend and I wanted to visit a
castle in Seoul, so we found some locals who agreed to take us to see it. As we were walking up some steps from one part of the grounds
to another, I saw some people watching us from the top of the steps. When I got to the top, someone I had never seen before mentioned
my sister‘s name and asked if I was her sister. I almost couldn‘t talk! How could these people know my sister, who lived in Australia?
They explained that they were my sister‘s neighbors in Australia and that I looked just like her. It was the strangest experience in my
life! __________________________

3. Pets should be allowed in school for a number of reasons. First, they help students feel more comfortable. Some students feel very
uncomfortable in a school setting, but taking along a pet gerbil or gecko might help students relax. Also, students can make friends more
easily with a pet. A pet frog or tarantula can gather quite a crowd; and when students see what pets they have in common, they can unite
around their common interests. Finally, pets can keep students safe. Who wants to bully a student who has a protective dog with him?
For all of these reasons, students should be allowed to take their pets to school. ______________________

4. Hanging on my bedroom wall is a picture of a train. Sometimes, when I‘m lying on my bed, I take a closer look. The front of the train
has a number of flags, but they don‘t look like today‘s American flag. Instead, these flags have stripes and a circle of stars. The train is at
a station, and the conductor is walking toward the tracks in front of the train. Is he preparing to speak to all of the hat-wearing men and
children behind him, or is he checking out the tracks? I can‘t decide. The clock on the post outside the station says it is about six fifteen,
and I‘m guessing that it‘s evening and not morning since it doesn‘t look dark. I can just imagine the smell of coal and hear the sound of
the train as it snorts and breathes, chomping at the bit to get moving. The picture always makes me think about life in the past.
______________________

5. All students should be required to learn how to use the internet. First, because the web gives students access to a tremendous
amount of research from the comfort of school or home, they can save time doing research if they learn to use this resource. For
example, if students want to write about poodles, they can easily go to a search engine and find all of the resources they could possibly
want or need on the topic. Next, the internet allows instant communication with access to everything from email to Skype. Students
who have access to the web can communicate with parents and friends during breaks, resolving issues or letting parents know about a
schedule change. Finally, learning to use the internet will help students compete in the highly-competitive and technologically-savvy
world. Many jobs today require employees to use the internet, and if students don‘t know how to do this, they will be stuck in lower-
paying jobs. Clearly, the internet is a necessity in today‘s world, so all students should learn how to use it. ___________________

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2.11. Developing a paragraph

Dear learners, having discussed all the issues regarding paragraph writing, we will now go to developing our own paragraphs. There are
three different writing strategies that are helpful to develop our effective paragraphs: controlled, guided and free writing. The following
section is devoted to the discussion of the two writing strategies: guided and free writing.
2.11.1. Guided writing
Guided writing involves a teacher working with a group of learners on a writing task. The aims of the task are based on what they have
previously been learning about the writing process. Guided writing aims to support learners in a psychologically and cognitively difficult
activity.
Example
Guided writing serves as a scaffold to independent writing. Teachers discuss and model writing strategies with students. These can
include using acronyms, templates, and writing frames. More or less support can be provided depending on the needs of students.
The benefits of guided writing
o An effective way of modelling the structure and language of a range of text types.
o Supports students to sequence and structure their ideas to meet the purpose of the writing task.
o Differentiated support can easily be provided by giving more or fewer prompts/starters. As students become familiar with the
form, less support can be given.
Guided writing activities include writing a paragraph from tabular information, writing by giving answers to questions, etc. In guided
writing, the writer is free to organize the information given in his/her own way. Look at the paragraph written below - it is written based
on the information given in the table below. It is an example of guided writing.
% students Types of writing (average) frequency (average) length
50 Essay 5 per term 2000 words
34 Report 2 per term 4000 words
14 Dissertation 1 per year 8000 words
12 Thesis 1 after 2-3 years 300-1000 pages
Writing in English: Manchester University (50 students)
Notice the construction of the following sentence.
A survey was conducted among fifty overseas postgraduate students at Manchester University. The purpose of the
survey was to discover the type, frequency and length of academic writing that was expected of the students by
their supervisors or tutors. Among the total, 50% of the students wrote essays, of an average frequency of 5 per
terms, of an average length of 2000 words. Some 34% of the students wrote reports, of an average frequency 2 per
term, of an average length of 4000 words…

Activity
A. Below are jumbled sentences of which the first and the sixth sentences are placed in their correct order. The remaining four
jumbled sentences are to be serialled in a meaningful and correct way. So choose the letter that contains the correct order of the
sentences.
1. S1: Man, when first came, must have been surrounded by great animals and he must have lived in fear of them.
P. He makes the animals do what he likes.
Q. But in those days, he was not the master but a poor hunted creature himself trying to keep away from the great animals.
R. Today man is the master of the world.
S. Some he tames, some he eats and some he shoots for pleasure.
S6: Gradually, however man raised himself and became more and more powerful till he became stronger than any animal.

The proper sequence should be: (a) RQPS (b) RSPQ (c) RPSQ (d) PQSR

2. S1: He went to his friends, but none of them was ready to help him now.
P. He had to look after the farmer‘s pigs.
Q. And when he was hungry he ate the food which was given to the pigs.
R. He went away from the city and wandered round the countryside looking for food to eat.
S. In the end, he went to the house of a farmer and became his servant.
S6: Now, the young man understood that he had made a mistake.

The proper sequence should be: (a) PSRQ (b) RSPQ (c) SQPR (d) QPSR

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3. S1: Newton was perhaps the greatest scientist that ever lived.
P. But when he was only 22, a terrible plague epidemic swept over England.
Q. He was the son of a Lincolnshire fanner and was born in 1642.
R. Therefore, the universities were closed.
S. He went to Cambridge to study Mathematics when he was 19.
S6: Newton went home and worked quietly by himself for about 18 months.

The proper sequence should be: (a) SPRQ (b) QPSR (c) SQPR (d) QSPR

4. S1: I had not seen my father for several years.

P. I met him late one evening in his flat.
Q. I wrote him a note suggesting a very early meeting.
R. He listened to my story in silence.
S. When he spoke, his voice was soft but without, warmth.
S6: His words sank deep into my heart.

The correct sequence should be: (a) QSRP (b) PQRS (c) QPRS (d) QPSR

5. S1: It was Saturday.

P. A taxi carried us all to the zoo.
Q. They wanted to be taken out and we decided to take them to the local zoo.
R. My sister‘s two young children were at our house.
S. We bought the tickets and entered the zoo.
S6: The children had already bought roasted gram and peanuts to get into a picnic mood.

The correct sequence should be: (a) RQSP (b) RPQS (c) RQPS (d) PRQS

B. Write a short paragraph in which you state why Morocco is one of the best countries in the world.
Reason 1: Morocco has an excellent healthcare system. All Moroccans have access to medical services at a reasonable price.
Reason 2: Morocco has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to
continue studying at university.
Reason 3: Moroccan‘s cities are clean and efficiently managed. Moroccan‘s cities have many parks and lots of space for people
to entertain.
There are three reasons why Morocco is one of the best countries in the world. First, Morocco has
……………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………All Moroccan’
………………………………………………………………………………….Second,………………………………………………………………………
Students are taught ………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….. Finally, Moroccan’s
……………………………………………..………………………………………….… Moroccan’s cities …………………………………….......
………………………………………….……………. As a result, Morocco is a desirable place to live in.
C. Based on the information you get by asking the following questions, write a narrative paragraph about one of your friend.
a) What is your name?
b) When were you born?
c) Where were you born?
d) How many sisters/brothers do you have?
e) What is your mother‘s/father‘s name?
f) What is your father‘s/mother‘s occupation?
g) Where did you attend your primary and secondary education?
h) What is your favorite drink/food/sport/subject?
i) What is your hobby?
j) What is your future plan?
2.11.2. Free Writing
Free writing is a simple process that is the basis for other discovery techniques. Basic free writing follows these guidelines:
o Write nonstop for a set period of time (10 - 20 minutes).
o Do not make corrections as you write.
o Keep writing, even if you have to write something like, "I don't know what to write."
o Write whatever comes into your mind.

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o Do not judge or censor what you are writing.

"Then free writing results in a mess?" Yes, it certainly can. In fact, if your free writing is neat and coherent, you probably haven't
loosened up enough. However, remember that you can't fail in free writing. The point of doing free writing is the process, not the end
result. If you follow the guidelines, your free writing is successful. Free writing has these benefits:
o It makes you more comfortable with the act of writing.
o It helps you bypass the "inner critic" who tells you can't write.
o It can be a valve to release inner tensions.
o It can help you discover things to write about.
o It can indirectly improve your formal writing.
o It can be fun.
Some final suggestions for free writing:
o Use the writing tool that is most comfortable for you pencil, computer, or whatever.
o Don't cross anything out: Write the new idea down; leave the old one.
o Drop all punctuation. That can make your free writing faster and more fluent.
How to Write a Good Paragraph: A Step-by-Step Guide
Writing well composed academic paragraphs can be tricky. The following is a guide on how to draft,
expand, refine, and explain your ideas so that you write clear, well-developed paragraphs and discussion
posts:
Step 1: Decide the Topic of Your Paragraph
Before you can begin writing, you need to know what you are writing about. First, look at the writing
prompt or assignment topic. As you look at the prompt, note any key terms or repeated phrases because
you will want to use those words in your response. Then ask yourself:
 On what topic am I supposed to be writing?
 What do I know about this topic already?
 If I don‘t know how to respond to this assignment, where can I go to find some answers?
 What does this assignment mean to me? How do I relate to it?
After looking at the prompt and doing some additional reading and research, you should better understand
your topic and what you need to discuss.
Step 2: Develop a Topic Sentence
Before writing a paragraph, it is important to think first about the topic and then what you want to say
about the topic. Most often, the topic is easy, but the question then turns to what you want to say about the
topic. This concept is sometimes called the controlling idea. When your paragraphs contain a clearly
stated topic sentence such as one of the following, your reader will know what to expect and, therefore,
understand your ideas better.
Step 3: Demonstrate Your Point
After stating your topic sentence, you need to provide information to prove, illustrate, clarify, and/or
exemplify your point. Ask yourself:
 What examples can I use to support my point?
 What information can I provide to help clarify my thoughts?
 How can I support my point with specific data, experiences, or other factual material?
 What information does the reader need to know in order to see my point?
Here is a list of the kinds of information you can add to your paragraph:
 Facts, details, reasons, examples
 Information from the readings or class discussions
 Paraphrases or short quotations
 Statistics, polls, percentages, data from research studies
 Personal experience, stories, anecdotes, examples from your life
Sometimes, adding transitional or introductory phrases like: for example, for instance, first, second, or last
can help guide the reader. Also, make sure you are citing your sources appropriately.
Step 4: Give Your Paragraph Meaning
After you have given the reader enough information to see and understand your point, you need to explain
why this information is relevant, meaningful, or interesting. Ask yourself:
 What does the provided information mean?

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 How does it relate to your overall point, argument, or thesis?

 Why is this information important/significant/meaningful?
 How does this information relate to the assignment or course I am taking?
Step 5: Conclude
After illustrating your point with relevant information, add a concluding sentence. Concluding sentences
link one paragraph to the next and provide another device for helping you ensure your paragraph is unified.
While not all paragraphs include a concluding sentence, you should always consider whether one is
appropriate. Concluding sentences have two crucial roles in paragraph writing:
First, they draw together the information you have presented to elaborate your controlling idea by:
 Summarizing the point(s) you have made.
 Repeating words or phrases from the topic sentence.
 Using linking words that indicate that conclusions are being drawn (e.g., therefore, thus,
resulting).
Second, they often link the current paragraph to the following paragraph. They may anticipate the topic
sentence of the next paragraph by:
 Introducing a word/phrase or new concept which will then be picked up in the topic sentence of
the next paragraph.
 Using words or phrases that point ahead (e.g., the following, another, other).
Step 6: Look Over and Proofread
The last step in good paragraph writing is proofreading and revision. Before you submit your writing, look
over your work at least one more time. Try reading your paragraph out loud to make sure it makes sense.
Also, ask yourself these questions:
 Does my paragraph answer the prompt and support my thesis?
 Does it make sense? Does it use the appropriate academic voice?

Activity: Write your own paragraphs on the following paragraph development types.
 Write Definition, Exemplification/illustration, comparison/contrast, Classification, cause-effect, Problem/solution, classification
paragraphs.

Unit Three
Essay Writing
3.1. Definition of an essay
An essay is a series of paragraphs that support one central idea. It is divided into three parts: an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
There is no perfect length for an essay. Some prefer five paragraph essay and others may ask for two or three pages of essays. The
important thing to remember is that all essays, regardless of length, have certain features: the introductory paragraph introduces the
essay‘s thesis, the body paragraphs provide support for the thesis, and the concluding paragraph brings the essay to a satisfactory close.
Let‘s take a look at the parts of a typical essay.
3.2. Structure of an essay
Essentially well structures essay has three parts: the introduction, the body and the conclusion. Let us see what we mean by each.
A. Introduction: The introductory paragraph is the first paragraph of your essay. It introduces the main idea of your essay. A good
opening paragraph captures the interest of your reader and tells why your topic is important. The introductory paragraph needs to
include a thesis statement. The thesis statement is the main idea of the essay stated in a single sentence. You must limit your entire
essay to the topic you have introduced in your thesis statement. The introductory paragraph should also provide some background
information about your topic. You can use interesting facts, quotations, or definitions of important terms you will use later in the essay.
The last sentence of this paragraph must also contain a transitional ―hook‖ which moves the reader to the first paragraph of the body of
the essay.
B. Body: Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay. They also develop the main idea. The supporting paragraphs
list the points that develop the main idea of your essay. You should place each supporting point in its own paragraph, and develop each
supporting point with facts, details, and examples. To connect your supporting paragraphs, you should use special transition words.
Transition words link your paragraphs together and make your essay easier to read. Use them at the beginning and end of your
paragraphs. Like all good paragraphs, each supporting paragraph should have a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding
sentence.
Body – First Paragraph

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The first paragraph of the body should contain the strongest argument, most significant example, cleverest illustration, or an obvious
beginning point. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the ―reverse hook‖ which ties in with the transitional hook at the
end of the introductory paragraph. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the
thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the
second paragraph of the body.
Body – Second Paragraph
The second paragraph of the body should contain the second strongest argument, second most significant example, second cleverest
illustration, or an obvious follow up to the first paragraph in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the reverse
hook which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the first paragraph of the body. The topic for this paragraph should be in the
first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this
paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the third paragraph of the body.
Body – Third Paragraph
The third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest argument, weakest example, weakest illustration, or an obvious follow up
to the second paragraph in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the reverse hook which ties in with the
transitional hook at the end of the second paragraph. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic
should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional,
concluding hook that signals the reader that this is the final, major point being made in the paper. This hook also leads into the last or
concluding paragraph.
C. Conclusion: The summary paragraph comes at the end of your essay after you have finished developing your ideas. It
summarizes or restates the main idea of the essay. You want to leave the reader with a sense that your essay is complete. This
paragraph should include the following.
o an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph.
o a restatement of the thesis statement, using some of the original language or language that ―echoes‖ the original language.
(The restatement, however, must not be a duplication of your thesis statement.)
o a summary of the three main points from the body of the paper.
o a final statement that gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end.
Look at the essay below that has five paragraphs.
The Hazards of Movie going
I am a movie fanatic. When friends want to know what picture won the Oscar in
Introductory 1980 or who played the police chief in Jaws, they ask me. My friends, though, have
paragraph stopped asking me if I want to go out to the movies. The problems in getting to the
(Thesis) theater, the theater itself, and the behavior o f some patrons are all reasons why I
often wait for a movie to show up on TV.

First of all, just getting to the theater presents difficulties. Leaving a home
First supporting equipped with a TV and a video recorder isn't an attractive idea on a humid,
paragraph cold, or rainy night. Even if the weather cooperates, there is still a thirty minute
drive to the theater down a congested highway, followed by the hassle of looking
for a parking space. And then there are the lines. After hooking yourself to the end
of a human chain, you worry about whether there will be enough tickets, whether
you will get seats together, and whether many people will sneak into the line
ahead of you.
Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets, you are
Second confronted with the problems of the theater itself. If you are in one of the run-down
supporting older theaters, you must adjust to the musty smell of seldom cleaned carpets.
paragraph Escaped springs lurk in the faded plush or cracked leather seats, and half the seats
you sit in seem loose or tilted so that you sit at a strange angle. The newer twin
and quad theaters offer their own problems. Sitting in an area only one-quarter
the size of a regular theater, moviegoers often have to put up with the sound of the
movie next door. This is especially jarring when the other movie involves racing
cars or a karate war and you are trying to enjoy a quiet love story. And whether
the theater is old or new, it will have floors that seem to be coated with rubber
cement. By the end of a movie, shoes almost have to be pried off the floor because
they have become sealed to a deadly compound of spilled soda, hardening bubble
gum, and crushed Ju-Jubes.

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Some of the patrons are even more of a problem than the theater itself. Little kids
race up and down the aisles, usually in giggling packs. Teenagers try to impress
Third their friends by talking back to the screen, whistling, and making what they
supporting consider to be hilarious noises. Adults act as if they were at home in their own
paragraph living rooms and comment loudly on the ages of the stars or why movies aren't as
good anymore. And people of all ages crinkle candy wrappers, stick gum on their
seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups of crushed ice and soda on the floor. They also
cough and burp, squirm endlessly in their seats, file out for repeated trips to the
rest rooms or concession stand, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of
your seat.
After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not going to
be a moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in getting to the
Concluding movies and dealing with the theater itself and some of the patrons. The next day I
paragraph arranged to have cable TV service installed in my home. I may now see movies a
bit later than other people, but I'll be more relaxed watching box office hits in the
comfort of my own living room.

Look at a sample outline for a five-paragraph essay for the above essay entitled "The Hazards of Movie going"
Title: The Hazards of Movie going
I. Introduction
A. Introductory statement
B. Thesis statement: I like watching movies but I prefer watching them at home.
II. Body
A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): just getting to the theater presents difficulties
1. bad weather
2. long drive and limited parking space
3. long waiting to buy ticket
B. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): facing the problems of the theater itself
1. old theater's problems such as smelly carpet, worn-out seat, etc
2. new theater's problems such as smaller size, noise from next movie theater, etc
3. both floors will be rubber-like dirty at the end of the movie
C. Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): Some of the patrons are annoying
1. bad behavior such as running, talking loud, etc
2. human noise and disturbance
III. Conclusion
A. Closing statement
B. Restate thesis: I prefer to watch movies at home where it is comfortable, clean and safe.

Activity: Read through the following essay and prepare an outline.

It is harder than ever for a couple to buy that first house. This is a frustrating fact of life that my husband and I
learned after we were married. in order to make our dream of home owners come true, we decided to take certain steps.
By moving in temporarily with my parents, severely limiting our leisure expenses, and working extra jobs, we hope to
have enough money for a down payment on a modest house within two years.

As our first part of our strategy, we moved in with my parents instead of renting our apartment. Luckily, they have a
house with a finished basement, and they were willing to have us live with them. Tom and I set up a bedroom and a
living room for ourselves in the basement, and we eat our meals with my parents. We pay $200 a month for room and
board, which is a considerable saving over the $400 that we would have to pay in rent alone for an apartment in this
area. We do not have total privacy, and we sometimes feel more like kids than married adults because we live at home,
but we are willing to make the sacrifice in order to afford a house.

In addition, we are saving money by agreeing to limit our expenses for recreation. We watch television instead of going
to movies. We have radio, but we have to put off buying stereo equipment. We don’t eat out except for a rare $ 7 meal at
Pizza Hut. Tom has given up the pro basket ball games he used to attend several times a season. I dropped out of my
task classes at a health club and now do my workouts on a mat at home. When we feel deprived, as we sometimes do, we

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add up how much money we are putting away for our house by giving up costly leisurely activities. Often the total is
$100 more a month.

The most important part out plan is working extra job. In addition to his job as TV cable installer, Tom works at night
in the appliance department of a sears store. I type in a title company office five days a week; on weekends I am a
hostess in a local restaurant. The hours are long for both of us and we miss spending time together. Often we are tired
and cranky when we get home. but the two extra jobs allow us to save an added $5,500 a year. Once we save the$12,000
we estimate we will need to buy a house, I will probably quit my extra job. Until then, we are willing to work doubly
hard for these two years.

Tom and I always assumed that we would live in our house someday. Once we were married, though, we learned
expense house are in today’s market. But we decided that instead of giving up or getting angry, we would make
sacrifices to reach our goal in the future.
3.3. Reviewing paragraph structure vs. essay structure
A. The paragraph: A paragraph is a group of related sentences having three parts. The topic sentence introduces the subject of a
paragraph and shows the writer‘s attitude towards the subject. The body of a paragraph contains details that support its topic sentence. A
paragraph ends with a concluding sentence. Here is an example of a paragraph structure:
Topic sentence Winning a lottery can lead to feelings of boredom, paranoia,
and guilt. With no financial incentive to work, people often quit
their jobs. Lottery winners also complain that they lose their
Body
workplace friendships. Without work, winners may feel that their
days are wasted. Ultimately people should not expect a lottery
Concluding sent. win to improve their lives.
B. The essay: An essay is a group of paragraphs developed on a topic. Like the paragraph, an essay has three parts. An introduction
paragraph engages the reader‘s interest and contains a thesis statement.
- Example: Winning a lottery can lead to feelings of boredom, paranoia, and guilt. Many lottery winners quit their jobs, but then
they feel bored.
Body paragraphs support the main idea of an essay.
- Example: Friendships and family relationships often disintegrate after a lottery win. Feelings of guilt are common in the newly
rich.
A conclusion reemphasizes the main idea (thesis) and restates the main points of an essay. It brings an essay to a satisfactory close. A
concluding paragraph in the essay ends with a concluding statement. The following picture clearly shows the features of a paragraph and
essay structure:
Paragraph Structure Vs Essay Structure

Introduction paragraph includes:

Topic sentence - general statements
- thesis statement

Supporting idea 1

Supporting idea 2
Supporting sentences
Supporting idea 3

Concluding paragaraph includes:

Concluding sentence - Concluding sentence
- Final thought

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3.4. Identifying thesis statement and supporting paragraph

A. Thesis statement
Like the topic sentence in a paragraph, the thesis statement introduces what the essay is about and arouses the interest of the reader by
making a point about the topic.
A good thesis statement has the following characters:
o It expresses the main topic of the essay
o It contains a controlling idea
o It is a complete sentence that usually appears in an essay‘s introductory paragraph.
When you develop your thesis statement, ask yourself the following questions:
 Is my thesis statement a complete statement that has a controlling idea?
Your thesis statement should always reveal a complete thought and make a point about the topic. It should not announce the topic. Have
a look at the example below.
Incomplete: Campus drinking (This is not a complete statement. A complete sentence has both a
subject and a verb).
Announcement: I will write about campus drinking. (This announces the topic but says nothing relevant
about the topic. Do not use expressions such as I will write about or my topic is.)
Revised: Binge drinking is a serious problem on college campuses.
 Does my thesis statement make a valid and supportable point?
Your thesis statement should express a valid point that you can support with details. It should not be a vaguely worded statement, and it
should not be a highly questionable generalization.
Vague: Politicians spend too much money. (Which politicians? What do they spend it on?)
Invalid point: Politicians are liars. (Is this really true for politicians? The generalization might be difficult
to prove.)
Revised: Our mayor has spent too much money on renovations to his office.
Make sure that your thesis statement is very clear. You should give enough details to make it interesting.
Your instructor may want you to guide the reader through your main points. You can do this by
including specific points that you will later argue in the body of your essay. Example:
o My years in high school taught me to stand up to myself, to focus on my goals, and to
be a more open-minded person.
B. Supporting paragraphs
The thesis statement expresses the main idea of the entire essay. In the illustration below, you can see how topic sentences relate to the
thesis statement and how details support the topic sentences. Every idea in the essay is unified and supports the thesis.
To generate ideas for the body paragraphs, you can use exploring strategies such as brainstorming, clustering, or free writing. Come up
with any ideas that can support your thesis statement.
Olivia‟s supporting ideas: Student writer Olivia created a list to support her thesis statement. Then she reread her supporting
points and removed ideas that she did not want to develop in her essay.
Thesis statement: Although many people want to be famous, there are
problems associated with fame.
Lack of privacy
Paparazzi follow celebrities
Supporting points:
Get swelled heads and believe they are special
Have too much money
Some people get famous on reality shows
May develop addictions to drugs or alcohol.
Most celebs are good looking.
3.5. Elements of the thesis statement
Just like the topic sentence, a thesis statement has two elements: the topic and controlling idea. The topic of a thesis statement refers to
the subject you will write about and the controlling idea focuses on how you will approach your subject, your perspective of the subject.
Look the example below:
o Elvis Presley (topic)
established himself as the greatest entertainer of the twentieth century because of four factors:
appearance, singing ability, style, and influence (controlling idea).

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3.6. Achieving unity and coherence within an essay

As was discussed in the previous chapter, both unity and coherence are essential features in writing. By unity we mean the ideas raised
in the body paragraphs of the essay should be in line with the thesis statement and coherence refers to the logical sequence of ideas in the
essay.
3.7. Steps in writing an essay
Producing an effective essay is not an easy task. One should go through various steps before coming up with a good essay. Below is the
discussion of these steps used in writing a good essay.
Step 1: Planning
Explore the topic: In this planning stage you need to explore the topic of your essay. Your topic is who or what you are writing
about your audience is your intended reader, and your purpose is your reason for writing. Do you hope to entertain inform or persuade
the reader?
Narrow the topic: You may need to narrow your topic (make it more specific) to ensure that it suits your purpose for writing and
fits the size of assignment. To narrow your topic, you can use some exploring methods, such as questioning (asking and answering
questions) or brain storming (jotting a rough list of ideas that come to mind). Look how William narrows the broad topic ―education‖ by
using brainstorming and questioning
- coded schools versus single-sex schools.
- qualities of a good teacher
- extra-curricular activities
- prayer in public schools
- year-round schooling
- should private schools be abolished?
- bullying
- is there too much emphasis on high-school sports?
- why do students drop out?
Developing the thesis statement: Once you have narrowed the topic of your essay, it is important to state your topic clearly in
one sentence. Make sure that your thesis statement is very clear. You should give enough details to make it interesting. Your instructor
may want you to guide the reader through your main points. You can do this by including specific points that you will later argue in the
body of your essay. Example thesis statement:
My years in high school taught me to stand up to myself, to focus on my goals, and to be a more open-minded
person.
Developing the supporting ideas - The thesis statement expresses the main idea of the entire essay. In the illustration below,
you can see how topic sentences relate to the thesis statement and how details support the topic sentences. Every idea in the essay is
unified and supports the thesis. To generate ideas for the body paragraphs, you can use exploring strategies such as brainstorming,
clustering, or free writing. Come up with any ideas that can support your thesis statement. Student writer Olivia created a list to support
her thesis statement. Then she reread her supporting points and removed ideas that she did not want to develop in her essay.
Thesis statement: Although many people want to be famous, there are
problems associated with fame.
Lack of privacy
Paparazzi follow celebrities
Supporting points:
Get swelled heads and believe they are special
Have too much money
Some people get famous on reality shows
May develop addictions to drugs or alcohol.
Most celebs are good looking.
Developing the essay plan - When you write an essay plan or outline, organize our ideas logically by using time, space, or
emphatic order. To create an essay plan, do the following:
- Look at your list of ideas and identify the best supporting ideas
- Write topic sentences that express the main supporting ideas
- Add details under each topic sentence
Olivia wrote topic sentences and supporting examples and organized her ideas into a plan. Notice that her plan begins with a thesis
statement, and she indents her supporting ideas.

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Thesis statement: Although many people want to be famous, there are problems associated with fame.
1. Celebrities have little to no privacy.
o Paparazzi hound them (Britney Spears, Angelina Jolie, Beyoncé).
o They can never relax in public because fans want to meet them.
2. Many famous people start believing that they are special.
o They‘re surrounded by people who praise them.
o They become egotistical and demanding
3. Money and pressure lead some celebrities to abuse substances.
o Some become alcoholics (Colin Farrell, Keith Urban).
o Some develop serious addictions to drugs (Kurt Cobain, Whitney Houston, Amy Winehuse).
Developing the introduction - After you have made an essay plan, develop the sections of your essay by creating an effective
introduction, linking body paragraphs, and forming a conclusion. The introductory paragraph introduces the subject of your essay
contains the thesis statement. A strong introduction will capture the readers‘ attention and make them want to read on. You can develop
the sentences in the introduction in several different ways. To attract the reader‘s attention, your introduction can include various types
of material.
o General background information
o Historical background information
o An interesting anecdote r a vivid description
o A contrasting position (an idea that is the opposite of the one you will develop)
Most introductions begin with sentences that introduce the topic and lead the reader to the main point of the
essay. Generally, the thesis statement is the last sentence in the introduction.
Developing the conclusion - Every essay ends with a conclusion. The concluding paragraph rephrases the thesis statement and
summarizes the main points in the essay. Olivia concluded her essay by restating her main points.
Many celebrities lack privacy. They can also develop huge egos because they get praised constantly. Some
celebrities have a hard time handling fame and become addicted to various substances.
To make her conclusion more interesting and original, Olivia could incorporate a prediction, a suggestion or a quotation.
Prediction: In the future, we will continue to hear about celebrities with wrecked lives.
Suggestion: people should not chase fame; instead, they should try to appreciate the life that they have.
Quotation: a Chinese proverb states, ―As great trees attract the winds, a great fame attracts envy.‖
In your conclusion, do not contradict your main point, and do not introduce new or irrelevant information.

Step 2: Drafting
After creating an introduction and conclusion, and after arranging the supporting ideas in a logical order, you are ready to write your first
draft. The first draft includes your introduction, several body paragraphs, and your concluding paragraph. Also, think of a title for your
first draft.
Step 3: Revising and editing the essay
Revising and editing are extremely important steps in the writing process. When you revise your essay, you modify it to make it stronger
and more convincing. You do this by reading the essay critically, looking for faulty logic, poor organization, or poor sentence style.
Then you reorganize and rewrite it, making any necessary changes.
o Revise for unity. Verify that all of your body paragraphs support the essay‘s thesis statement. Also look carefully at each body
paragraph and ensure that the sentences support the topic sentences.
o Revise for adequate support. Ensure that there are enough details and examples to make your strong and convincing
o Revise for coherence. Make sure that your paragraphs flow smoothly and logically. To guide the reader from one idea to the
next or from one paragraph to the next, try using transitional words or expressions. Here are some examples: Finally, first, in
conclusion, moreover, furthermore, second
o Edit for errors. Proofread your essay and check for errors in punctuation, spelling, grammar, and mechanics.
When you have finished revising the first draft of your essay, write the final version. This draft should include all the changes that you
have made during the revision phase of your work.
Step 4: proofreading
You should proofread the final copy of your work to check for mistakes in grammar, spelling, mechanics, and punctuation.
3.8. Writing the basic types of essays
There are four basic types of essays: the descriptive essay, the argumentative essay, the narrative essay and the expository essay. The
sections below are dedicated to the illustration of these basic types of essays.

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3.8.1. Writing descriptive essay

Descriptive essays generally focus on a person, a place, an event, or a thing. Writers convey an idea about their topic by describing the
topic of the reader in a ‗show, not tell‘ manner.
o Showing and not telling means that you paint a picture for your reader. For example, instead of saying ―There were trees near
the lake‖ you could say, ―The lake stared through the trees, a wide gray eye trapped in a perpetual state of weeping.‖ Look the
following sample descriptive essay.
The Old Fence
The old fence stands weathered and tired. It has been holding cattle in the field ever since the farmer put it up. The
cows have occasionally tried to break through, but they have lost their battles; only the small yearlings have been
able to squeeze under the fence

The poles stand rotten and weary; they are lined up in a sporadic order. The spaces between are not always equal
and their heights differ greatly. Some have pulled loose from their holes, and they are held up only by the line of
barbed wire that clings to their hide. The line of fence looks much like a parade of weary, beaten soldiers who have
been defeated in battle and are lining up for their last breath of honor before they are shot and killed.

In several places on the fence the barbed wire has been cut or bent out of shape. But neither the rain and rust nor
the cattle's fury has made the wire calm or dangerous. Sharp, erect pins still show their warning of power; many
times they have acted as a catalyst between the cows and their angered emotions.

Even though the fence is old and historical, it will not last very long because there is a new owner. He is a man of
power and wealth who has big plans, a man too high to care for the cattle or the soil, a man whose only dream is
riches.
3.8.2. Writing argumentative essay
Understanding how to structure and write an argumentative essay is a useful skill. Strong argumentative essays present relevant
evidence that supports an argument and convinces the audience of a particular stance. The persuasive paragraph/essay is perhaps the
most difficult to write but below is a good tip for you in order to be successful in writing one.
o Introduction - Give background or perhaps an illustrative example to show the significance of the subject or the nature of
the controversy. Consider stating the conclusion of your argument here as the thesis of your essay.
o Refutation - Give a brief statement of a refutation of the opposing view(s) to make your reader aware that you have
considered but rejected it (them) for good reasons. This refutation may be more appropriately placed last, just before your
conclusion, or even interspersed at effective locations throughout the essay. You must choose the best location.
o Presentation of your argument - Throughout the body of your paragraph you should build your case one point at a
time, perhaps devoting one paragraph to the defense of each of your premises, or setting forth your evidence in separate,
meaningful categories.
o Conclusion - After all your evidence has been presented and/or your premises defended, pull your whole argument together
in the last sentence by showing how the evidence you have presented provides sufficient grounds for accepting your conclusion.
You may also add here some conventional device to finish your paragraph, such as a prediction, a new example, a reference to
the example with which you began (now seen in a new light) etc. Below is an example of an argumentative essay
Breaking the Rule
College and high school students often look for short cut to make their work easier. To achieve a good grade,
students are sometimes tempted to cheat. One of the most frequent ways of cheating is to buy essays off the Internet.
This may result in a good grade. However, plagiarism is responsible from a social and academic stand point.

First, plagiarism is socially unacceptable. Students are expected by teachers and their classmates to do their own
work. If a student plagiarizes, he or she violates that trust. This may damage the relationship between the student
and the teacher, as well as the relationship with classmates. I remember once when a student was discovered to
have plagiarized his essay. We were mad that our classmate had lied to us. It was an embarrassment for everyone-
the institution, the instructor and student- to discover that he had been cheating all along.

Plagiarism is also wrong because it is against academic policy. Even though buying essays and presenting them as
your own may save time initially, this practice is against university rules. In fact, universities have ways to prove if
students have plagiarized. Instructors can use software that compares a student essay and material on Internet.
This way, instructors can detect if a particular essay was copied. The consequences are very serious. I remember
when one of my classmates started buying essays to prove that he was an excellent student. After the fin al exam,

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our instructor found his essay on a website and the student was expelled.

It is true that many students at community college have busy schedules and may argue have trouble completing
their assignments on time. Some students may argue that because of their situation, they sometimes have no
choice but to buy essays off the Internet. However, buying essays off the Internet should never be the solution.
Instead, students might try to negotiate the deadline with the instructor. Furthermore, while writing may be a
struggle for some students who feel that their writing is not good enough to receive an A, it is crucial that they do
their own work. They may go to writing center for help. Otherwise, if they plagiarize, they will not develop their
own writing skills. As a result, they may not be prepared to pass their final exams. In the end, plagiarism is
harmful to a student’s own academic success.

I believe that university authorities should discourage plagiarism by making students more aware of the problem
it causes. Plagiarism damages classroom relationships. It also violates school policies and prevents students from
realizing their own potential. If we do not stop plagiarism, many students will lose prevents students from
realizing their own potential. If we do not stop plagiarism, many students will lose out on their education.
(Effective Academic Writing 3 by Jason Davis and Rhonda Liss)
3.8.3. Writing narrative essay
There's nothing like reading a great narrative. Whether in novel or essay form, a narrative piece of writing transports readers into the
time and space of the world portrayed by the writing.
There's also nothing like writing a great narrative. Through reflecting upon an event, and through recreating the experience for other
readers, writing a narrative essay can enable you to develop new, subtle, and rewarding perspectives.
Basic qualities of a narrative essay:
o A narrative essay is a piece of writing that recreates an experience through time.
o A narrative essay can be based on one of your own experiences, either past or present, or it can be based on the experiences of
someone else.
o In addition to telling a story, a narrative essay also communicates a main idea or a lesson learned.
Example
An Embarrassing Incident
Where I grew up, the rules for family life are strict. I had five brothers and five sisters, and we spent a lot of time with
our relatives. My parents taught us we should respect grandparents more than anyone in the world because
grandparents had lived the longest. They had more knowledge about life, and no matter what they said, even if it
did not make sense, they were right. We were taught that no hug or kiss grandparents was disrespectful and that we
should greet them by kissing their hands. I was young, and I thought that everyone lived and thought just as I did.
Well, I soon found out this is not true.

One day, an American friend invited me to her birthday party. I was very exited but at the same time very nervous. I
wanted her family to like me, and I wanted to use my best manners. Slowly, I walked up to the house and rang the
bell. My friend came running out with a big smile, telling me she was happy that I came. Then she let me in and
introduced me to her parents. They smiled and said hello. Later she said “Come here. I want you to meet my
grandpa.” I followed her into the living room where her grandpa was sitting. She introduced us, and he reached out
his hand. He was going to shake hands, but I thought he was expecting me to kiss his hands, so did I. He pulled his
hand away and looked at me in a strange way as if he did not like what I had done. Everyone else in the room
looked at me, and my friend started laughing. I was confused. I sat down and tried to figure out what had
happened. Just then, a little boy ran to my friend’s grandfather and jumped on his lap. The little boy started to hug
and kiss the grandfather. When I saw this, I got up to the little boy by the hand and said, “No,” I guess I said it
pretty loudly because the room became very silent and all eyes were on me.

The next day at school my friend asked me why I kissed her grandfather’s hand and why I told the little boy to get
away from his grandfather. I explained my customs to her and she explained hers to me. Finally, I learned that
good manners are not always the same in different countries. Fortunately, my friend and I stayed very good friends.
(Effective Academic Writing 2, by Alice Savage and Patricia Mayer)
3.8.4. Writing expository essay
The purpose of the expository essay is to explain a topic in a logical and straightforward manner. Without bells and whistles, expository
essays present a fair and balanced analysis of a subject based on facts – with no reference to the writer‘s opinions or emotions.
A typical expository writing prompt will use the words ―explain‖ or ―define‖ such as in ―Write an essay explaining how the computer
has changed the lives of students.‖ Notice there is no instruction to form an opinion or argument on whether or not computers have

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changed students‘ lives. The prompt asks the writer to explain simply. However, that doesn‘t mean that expository essay writing is easy.
Essay Variations
Essay writing is a huge part of a education today. Most students must learn to write various kinds of essays during their academic
careers, including different types of expository essay writing:
A. Definition essays explain the meaning of a word, term, or concept. The topic can be a concrete subject such as an animal or tree,
or it can be an abstract term, such as freedom or love. This type of essay should discuss the words denotation (literal or dictionary
definition), as well as its connotation or the associations that a word usually brings to mind.
B. Classification essays break down a broad subject or idea into categories and groups. The writer organizes the essay by starting
with the most general category and then defines and gives examples of each specific classification.
C. Compare and contrast essays describe the similarities and differences between two or more people, places, or things.
Comparison tells how things are alike and contrast shows how they are different.
D. Cause and effect essays explain how things affect each other and depend on each other. The writer identifies a clear
relationship between two subjects, focusing on why things happen (causes) and/or what happens as a result (effects).
E. “How to” essays sometimes called process essays, explain a procedure, step-by-step process, or how to do something with the
goal of instructing the reader.
In writing an expository essay, avoid using the first-person pronoun ("I"). Rather, use second-person
pronouns.
Example on expository essay:
Many teenagers spend a lot of time contemplating what they want to do when they graduate from high school. I
am fortunate in that I already know; I decided to become a veterinarian when I was two or three years old. Just
like humans, animals need people to treat them with the respect and dignity they deserve, years old. Just like
humans, animals need people to treat them with the respect and dignity they deserve, and I want to be one of
those people. Because of this, I am doing all I can at Reavis to lay the groundwork for my success in college. Then,
once I am in college, I will study and learn about all species of animals. Finally, I will find happiness in my
career as a veterinarian because when animals need my assistance, I know that I will be able to help them.

First, as a freshman at Reavis High School, I keep in mind my lifelong dream of becoming a veterinarian. I have
been taking my education here very seriously, because I know that a person needs to be not only knowledgeable,
but also extremely disciplined in order to become a veterinarian. Because of this, I work hard to earn good
grades, I take pride in my work, and I have learned to manage my time properly. These skills will be particularly
valuable when I enter college.

After leaving Reavis, I must attend college because it is definitely a requirement for becoming a veterinarian. In
fact a bachelor’s degree is necessary in order to even enter a veternarian program. One must also possess excellent
communication, leadership, public speaking, and organizational skills. I have put a lot of thought and
consideration into college, and I have decided that I would like to go to the University of Illinois. It is a
wonderful school, and they even have a graduate program designed for students who want to become
veterinarians.

Once I have completed a veterinarian program, I will be able to pursue my dream career. This career provides
numerous benefits, the first of which is salary. The average veterinarian salary is $60,000 a year, a salary that
would definitely allow me to live a comfortable life. Secondly, it is a rewarding job. This job would provide me
with the satisfaction of knowing that I am helping or saving an animal’s life. Finally, becoming a veterinarian
would assure me a lifetime of happiness. I know I would love going to my job every day, because I would be
working with what I love most: animals.

In summary, when I graduate from Reavis, I plan to go to college to become a veterinarian. I love animals and I
want to do anything that I can to help them. I know I am only a freshman, but I also know that I am growing up
quickly. As Ferris Bueller quotes, “Life moves pretty fast. If you don’t stop and look around once in a while, you
could miss it!”

Activity
A. Write descriptive essays on the following topics:
1. Describe your dorm
2. Describe Werabe University
3. Describe your father/ mother/grandpa/grandma

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4. Describe any famous person

5. Describe any animal that you like.

B. Write argumentative essays on the following topics.

1. Playing computer games is very important
2. Having Laptop is better than having desktop computer.
3. Radio is more valuable than TV.

C. Write Narrative Essays on the following topics.

Potential prompt for your narrative essay:
o A childhood event. Think of an experience when you learned something for the first time, or when you realized how important
someone was for you.
o Achieving a goal. Think about a particularly meaningful achievement in your life. This could be something as seemingly minor
as achieving a good grade on a difficult assignment, or this could be something with more long-lasting effects, like getting the
job you desired or getting into the best school to which you applied.
o A failure. Think about a time when you did not perform as well as you had wanted. Focusing on an experience like this can
result in rewarding reflections about the positive emerging from the negative.
o A good or bad deed. Think about a time when you did or did not stand up for yourself or someone else in the face of adversity
or challenge.
o A change in your life. Think about a time when something significant changed in your life. This could be anything from a
move across town to a major change in a relationship to the birth or death of a loved one.
o A realization. Think about a time when you experienced a realization. This could be anything from understanding a
complicated math equation to gaining a deeper understanding of a philosophical issue or life situation.
o Write about your first journey from your home place to Werabe University.
o Write an autobiography.
o Write a biography about any person you like.

D. Write an Expository Essay on any Topic you like

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