“The Heart of Education is the Education of the Heart.

What is Facilitation?

○ Bringing out and focusing the wisdom of the group, often as the group creates something
new or solves a problem. Hogan (2002)

Teaching vs Facilitating

What’s the Difference?

Teaching - A process whereby a teacher leads a group of students in acquiring new skills, knowledge,
or understanding.

Facilitating - Helping/making it easy for students to learn together in a group, or to achieve

something together as a group.

Teaching Facilitating
Most subject area teaching involves telling and Involves helping the students to discover by
teaching the students. Measurable outcome at themselves.
the end.

METACOGNITION
Metacognition: Who thinks about Who

When you sense that you are experiencing some difficulty with a topic you are studying, and you try out
different strategies to learn better, you are practicing METACOGNITION

METACOGNITION - Refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the
cognitive processes engaged in learning -John Flavell

ELEMENTS

• Person Variables - What one recognizes about his or her strengths and weaknesses in learning and
processing information.

• Task Variables - What one knows or can figure out about the nature of the task and the processing
demand required to complete the task.

• Strategy Variables - The strategies a person has “at the ready” to apply in a flexible way to
successfully accomplish a task.

Meta-attention -is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task at hand.

Meta-memory -is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you

I know that I have difficulty with word problems, so I will answer the computational problems first and save
the word problems for last.

-Livingston (1997)

I know that I have more difficulty with my science assignments than English and find Araling Panlipunan
easier, so I will do my homework in science first, then Language Arts, then Araling Panlipunan.
-Lucas & Corpuz

1
When do we practice Metacognition?
• Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities
• Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of time
• Knowing what learning strategies are effective and which are not
• Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
• Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material
• Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension
• Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information
• Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure that a goal
is met.
-Omrod

TEACHING STRATEGIES
• Have students monitor their own learning and thinking.
• Teach students study or learning strategies. Examples:
TQLR – for younger students
PQ4R – for older students
• Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have
read.
• Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures.
• Have students develop questions.
• Help students to know when to ask for help.
• Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, and values, skills to other situations or tasks.
-Lucas & Corpuz

APPLICATION (Recommended instructional starategy)

• Develop a plan before approaching a learning task.
• Monitor their understanding.
• Evaluate their thinking after completing the task.
-Fogarty (1994)

9 Questions to Improve Metacognition

Before
• Is this similar to a previous task?
• What do I want to achieve?
• What should I do first?

During
 Am I on the right track?
 What can I do differently?
 Who can I ask for help?
After
• What worked well?
• What could have I done better?
• Can I apply this to other situation?
-glnner_Drive

Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think.
-Albert Einstein

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 THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNERS DEVELOPMENT
FREUD
3 COMPONENTS PERSONALITY FREUD’S 5 PSYCHO-SEXUAL THEORY
1. ID- the aspect of personality allied with Freud believed that the few people successfully
the instinct, the ID operated according completed all of 5 stages.
to the Pleasure Principle. 1. ORAL STAGE-(Birth – 2)- infants achieves
2. EGO- rational aspect of personality, gratification through oral activities such as
responsible for directing and controlling feeding, thumb sucking and babbling.
the instinct according to the Reality 2. ANAL STAGE (2-3)- The child learns to
Principle. respond to some of the demands of society.
3. SUPEREGO- the moral aspect 3. PHALLIC STAGE (3-7)-the child learns to
personality, the internalization of realize the differences between males and
parental societal values and standard. females and becomes aware of sexuality.
4. LATENCY STAGE (7-11)-Oedipus and Electra
complexes are resolved and identification with
the same sex parents occurs to loss of interest
in opposite sex. Oedipus- little boys have a
sexual attraction towards their mothers and
sense of jealousy towards their father. Electra-
little girls have a sexual attraction towards their
father and a sense of jealousy towards their
mother.
5. GENITAL STAGE (11-ADULT)-increasing
concern with adult ways of experiencing sexual
pleasure

ERIKSON
8 PSYCHO-SOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

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 STAGE BASIC CONFLICT IMPORTANT EVENTS OUTCOME
Infancy 0-2 Trust vs. mistrust Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when
caregivers provide reliability, care and
affection. A lack of this, will lead to
mistrust
Early Autonomy vs. shame Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of
Childhood and doubt personal control over physical skills and a
2-3 sense of independence. Success leads to
feelings of autonomy, failure result in the
feelings of shame and doubt
Pre-School Middle Childhood 6- Exploration Children need to begin asserting control
4-5 11 and power over the environment. Success
in this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
Middle Industry vs. School Children need to cope with new social and
Childhood Inferiority academic demands. Success leads to a
6-11 sense of competence while failure result in
feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence Identity vs. Role Social Relationship Teens needs to develop a sense of self and
12 -18 confusion personal identity.
Young Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationship Young adult need to form intimate, loving
adulthood relationship with other people.
18-3
Middle age Generativity vs. Work and parenthood Adults need to create or nurture things
35-65 stagnation that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change that
benefits other people.
Old age 65 – Ego integrity vs. Reflection on life Older adults need to look back on life and
death despair feel a sense of fulfilment.

PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

STAGE 1. SENSORI-MOTOR (0-2) - Infants use sensory and motor capabilities to explore and gain
understanding of the environment.

STAGE 2. PREOPERATIONAL (2-7) - Children use symbolism to represent object and events.

STAGE 3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11) - A child has the ability to think logically but only in terms
of concrete objects.

STAGE 4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11 YEARS & BEYOND) - It involves an increase in logic

4
KHOLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
MORAL Means conforming to the standard of right behaviour.

PRE-
STAGE 1. Punishment- Obedience Level - RIGHT’ is obeying the rules simply to avoid punishment
because others have power over you and can punish you.
STAGE 2. Mutual Benefits/rewards - RIGHT’ is a fair exchange, so that both parties benefit,
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
STAGE 3. Good-boy/Good Girl orientation - RIGHT’ is being a good person by conforming to social
expectations.
STAGE 4. Law & Order Orientation - RIGHT’ is helping maintain social order by obeying simply
because they are laws.
POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
STAGE 5. Social Contract - Laws that are wrong can be changed
STAGE 6. Universal Principles - Associated with the development of one’s conscience; Personal
integrity
BRONFENBRENNER’S BIO-ECOLOGICAL THEORY
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY

MICROSYSTEM-relationship with direct contact to the child.

MESOSYSTEM-connection between relationships of child’s microsystem.
EXOSYSTEM-structures in which child does not have direct contact.
MACROSYSTEM-cultural context.

LEV VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER
- It refers to someone who has better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner,
with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
ZONE OR PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

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 - The distance between the students’ ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or
with peer collaboration and the students’ ability solving the problem independently.
SCAFFOLDING
- Refers to providing support and resources to help a child learn new skills, and then gradually
removing the support as child improves.

6
 LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
(LCP)
American Psychological Association – the largest scientific and professional organization of
psychologists in the US, with over 118,000 members including scientist, educators, clinicians,
consultants, and students.

The 14 principles have the following aspects:

 Focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the
learner rather than conditioned habits or psychological factors;
 Intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real – world learning situations;
 Divided into those referring to
a.) Cognitive and metacognitive
b.) Motivational and effective
c.) Developmental and social
d.) Individual difference factors influencing learners and learning

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the Learning Process
- The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an international process
of constructing meaning from information and experience.
Successful learners are:
 Active
 Goal directed
 Self – regulating
 Assume personal responsibility for contributing their own learning

2. Goals of the Learning Process

- The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
- To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must
generate and pursue personally relevant goals.

7
 3. Construction of Knowledge
- The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic Thinking
- The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies
to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful Learners use it in…
 Learning
 Reasoning
 Problem – solving
 Concept learning
5. Thinking about thinking
- Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative
and critical thinking.
6. Context of Thinking
- Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and
instructional practices.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
 What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
 Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional state, beliefs,
interests and goals and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
- The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn.
- Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of Motivation on effort
- Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice.
- Without learner’s motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without
coercion.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

10. Developmental Influences on learning
- As an individual’s develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
- Learning is most effective when differential development within across physical, intellectual,
emotional and social domains is taken into account.
11. Social Influences on Learning
- Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communications
with others.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

8
12. Individual differences in learning
- Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities of learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learner and Diversity
- Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and Assessment
- Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress – including diagnostic, process and outcome assessment – are integral
parts of the learning process.

SUMMARY OF THE 14 PRINCIPLES

 The knowledge base
 Strategic processing and control.
 Motivation and effect
 Development and individual differences
 Situation or context

9
MODULE 4: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
STUDENT DIVERSITY
“Everyone is Unique”

Factors that bring out student diversity:

1. Socioeconomic Status – The millionaire’s lifestyle differs from that of the middle
income or lower income group.
2. Thinking/Learning Style – Some of you learn better by seeing something, others by
just listening, and still others by manipulating something.
3. Exceptionalities – In class there may be one who has difficulty in speaking language
comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.

“In diversity there is beauty and strength” – Maya Angeluo

D –ifferent
I – nddividuals
V – aluing
E – ach other
R – egardless of
S – kin
I – ntellect
T – alent or
Y – ears

10
 How student diversity enriches the Learning Environment:
A teacher may be “challenged to handle a class with students so diverse. There
mybe students having different cultural background, different language, abilities, different
attitudes and aptitudes and behaviors. Some teachers might see this diversity as a difficult
predicament, really a hassle! Yet a more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an
exciting place to learn not just or her students, but for herself as well.

VALUES

1. STUDENTS SELF AWARENESS IS ENHANCED BY DIVERSITY

Exposing students to others with diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help
students focus on their awareness of themselves.
2. STUDENT DIVERSITY CONTRIBUTES TO COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Access to peers’ perspective and learning from fellow students not just the instructor, is
crucial for cognitive growth. The classroom is a market place of ideas.
3. STUDENTS DIVERSITY PREPARES LEARNERS FOR THEIR ROLE AS A RESPONSIBLE MEMBER OF
SOCIETY.
Suzanne Morse talks about the skill to see things from different perspectives, which helps
diverse teaching methods. She also says classrooms are not just for lectures but for building
a community.
4. STUDDENT DIVERSITY CAN PROMOTE HARMONY
When student diversity is integrated into the classroom teaching and learning process, it can
become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations.

As the German philosopher Nietzsche said, over 100 years ago: “The more affects we allow
to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use to observe one thing, the
more complete will out concept of this thing, our objectivity be.”

TIPS ON STUDENT DIVERSITY

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote student multicultural
and cross-cultural awareness.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group
differences.

MODULE 5

11
 LEARNING/THINKING STYLES & MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
‘Learning Styles – sum of the patterns how individuals develop habitual ways of responding to
experience.” - Hilliard

LEARNING/THINKING STYLES – refer to the preferred way an individual process information. They
describe a person’s typical made of thinking, remembering or problem solving.

 Sensory Preferences – individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two type of sensory
input and maintain a dominance in one of the following types of learners.

1. Visual Learners – these learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial expressions to
fully understand the content of a lesson.
Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into
A.) Visual-iconic – those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery
such as film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning.
B.) Visual-symbolic – those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract
symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the written word.

2. Auditory Learners – they learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things
through and listening to what others have to say.

2 CATEGORIES
A. The Listeners B. The Talkers
More common type. They remember things The ones who prefer to talk and discuss.
said to them and make the information They often find themselves talking to those
their own. around them.

3. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners – persons benefit much from a hands-on approach, actively

exploring the physical world around them

 Global-analytic continuum
Analytic – thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step process of learning.
Global – lean towards non-linear thought
Several theorist have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left brain/right-brain continuum. In
accord with Roger Sperr’ys model, thee left-brained dominant individual is portrayed as the linear
(analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker while the right – brained person is on who is viewed as
global, non-linear and holistic in thought preferences.

MULTIPLE INTELIGENCE

12
 9 Kinds of Intelligences
Linguistic Intelligence: being capable of learning new languages and understanding how to use
language to achieve goals.

Logical Mathematical Intelligence: being able to analyse problems logically and solve abstract
problems.

Spatial-visual Intelligence: being able to use visual aids to arrive at a solution.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: being capable of using the entire body and engaging in movement to
skilfully address a challenge.

Musical Intelligence: being able to produced and analyze pitch, rhythm, and sound

Interpersonal Intelligence: being able to detect and explore the intentions, moods, and desires of
others.

Intrapersonal Intelligence: being able to fully understand oneself and to effectively regulate one’s
own life and emotions.

Naturalist Intelligence: being able to recognize and classify the various plant and environmental
species in one’s surroundings.

Existensial Intelligence: being able to ask deep and critical questions about the broader human
experience.

MODULE 6: LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

13
 “Learning knows no bounds”
TERMINOLOGIES:

Impairment -Loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or

function -Intrinsic to the individual.

Disability -Measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a person’s ability. For
example, to walk, lift, hear or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory or mental condition.

Handicap -Disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability

Disability has become more accepted and used, replacing “handicap”.

In USA, “disability” is used in its federal laws, such as Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA).
In the Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Section 2: “…provide adult citizens, the disabled, and
out-ofschool youth with training.

Exceptional Learners - Learners who are different from “normal” or “average” learners, needing
special needs such related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical and
sensory impairments, emotional disturbances and giftedness.

CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES
By Jeanne Ellis Ormrod’s Educational Psychology (2000)

Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

a.) Learning Disabilities – perception, language, memory or metacognition
Dyslexia – reading disorder Dysgraphia – writing disorder
Dyscalculia – arithmetic disorder Dyspraxia – psychomotor disorder
Dyslexia Dysgraphia Dyscalculia Dyspraxia
difficulty with reading difficulty with the physical wide range of lifelong brain-based condition
act of writing learning disabilities affecting plan and
involving math coordinate physical
movement
• Trouble sounding out • Tight awkward pencil •Shows difficulty •Poor balance.
words grip and body position understanding concepts Difficulty in riding a
• Difficulty in • Illegible handwriting • •Difficulty bicycle going up and
memorizing sight Tiring quickly while understanding and down hills
words writing completing word •Poor manipulative
• Avoiding reading • High levels of problems skills. Difficulty with
aloud resistance and •Exhibits difficulty using typing, handwriting and
• Confusing the order frustrations while steps involved in math drawing
of the letters writing operations •Challenged •Tracking. Difficulty in
• Trouble following a • Large gap between making change or following a moving
sequence of directions written ideas and handling money object smoothly with
• Difficulty organizing understanding eyes without moving
thoughts when demonstrated through head excessively.
speaking speech Tendency to lose the
place while reading

b.) ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) – inattention, distractibility; with or without

hyperactivity
c.) Speech and Communication Disorders – spoken language including voice disorders (e.g.
difficulties pronouncing sounds or articulation disorders, and stuttering)

14
 Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties
a.) Autism – social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and non-verbal communication
b.) Mental Retardation – sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior (imbecile)
c.) Emotional/Conduct Disorders – presence of emotional states like depression and aggression
disturbing learning and performance in school

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

a.) Physical and health impairments – affects individual’s energy and strength, mental alertness
and muscle control.
b.) Severe and multiple disabilities – presence of two or more different types of disabilities

Sensory Impairments
a.) Visual Impairments – malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision
even
•Myopia (farsightedness) •Hyperopia (nearsightedness) •Astigmatism
b.) Hearing Impairments (otherwise known as hearing loss) – malfunction of the ear or auditory
nerves that hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech

Giftedness
•Speaks of talent, which includes all areas of a child’s life: academic, artistic, athletic and social.
(US Dep’t. of Education, 1993)
•Involves significantly high levels of cognitive development
Six areas where giftedness could be found: Characteristics:
 Creative thinking • Perfectionists and idealistic
 Leadership • Heightened sensitivity to their own
 General Intellectual Ability expectations and those of others
 Psychomotor • Maturity beyond age
 Specific academic ability • Problem solvers
 Visual/Performing Arts • Abstract thinkers

Dealing with Learners with Exceptionalities

A. People-First Language – is used to speak appropriately and respectfully about an individual

with a disability.
No generic labels Emphasize abilities; not limitations
No euphemisms No implication of illness of suffering
People First Language Language to Avoid
Person with a disability The disabled, handicapped
Person with an intellectual, cognitive developmental Retarded, slow, moronic, defective, afflicted, special
disability person
Person with an emotional or behavioral disability, Insane, crazy, psycho
person with a mental health or a psych iatric
disability
B. Brief and simple instructions
C. Clear definition of course requirements, the dates of exams and deadline of assignments.
D. Handouts and visual aids and study guides
E. Several examples and demonstrations
F. Consultation time
G. Asking and providing assistance
H. Encouragement

15
I. Patience, patience, patience and PATIENCE!

How can I make adjustments to instruction and assessment to help this student achieve intended
learning outcomes in a way that does not require excessive effort on the part of the student or
excessive supports from the adults?

Differentiated Instructions:
Universal Design for Learning recognizes and accommodates varied learning styles focusing on
social participation and inclusion
Adaptations designed to accommodate a student’s needs
Formative Assessment uses feedback from the continuous monitoring of student
progress
Response to Intervention will use interventions (a set of teaching procedures)
Direct Instructions particular skill or content to be learned is presented explicitly
Early Intervention monitoring student response to instruction and documenting
difficulties
Learning Strategies maximize student strengths and provide structures
Technology personalize the learning experience

BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE
MODULE 7: Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner

16
• Ivan Pavlov A Russian psychologist, I well known for his work in classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution. Experiment involved meat, a dog and a
bell.
Pavlov’s Findings
• Stimulus Generalization – once the dog has learned to
salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other
similar sounds.
• Extinction – if you stop pairing the bell with the food,
salivation eventually cease in response to the bell
• Spontaneous recovery – extinguished responses
can be “recovered” after an elapse time but it will soon
extinguished again if the dog is not presented with food.
• Discrimination – the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
• Higher –Order Conditioning – once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is
rung.

• Edward L. Thorndike Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral
psychology. The main principle of connectionism was that learning could be adequately explained
without considering any observable internal states.
• Learning has taken place when a strong connectionism or bond between stimulus and response is
formed”
Thoendike’s 3 Primary Law
• Law of Effect - connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when the
consequences is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the response is
weakened when the consequence is negative.
• Law of Exercise – the more S-R (stimulus response) bond is practice the stronger it will become.
• Law of Readiness – the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger
will be the bond between them.
Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connectionism can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence
(law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

• John Watson First American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He considered that
humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other
behavior is learned through stimulus-response associations through conditioning.

Experiment on Albert - His work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of
emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias and
prejudices that people develop.

• Burrhus Frederick Skinner

- Believed in the S-R pattern of conditioned behavior.
- Wrote Walden Two (1948) and Science and Human Behavior (1953)

17
 - Studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment
-
Operant Conditioning
• Based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior. Change in behavior are
the result of individual’s response to event (stimuli) that occur in the environment.
• Reinforcement - is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory.
• Reinforcer – anything that strengthen the desired responses
• Positive reinforcer – any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response.
• Negative reinforcer - any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is
withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforce is not a punishment, it is a reward.
• Punishment - consequence intended to result in a reduced responses.
• Extinction or Non-reinforcement: responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated.
• Shaping behavior - successive approximation of the behavior are rewarded.
• Behavior chaining - comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned.
• Reinforcement schedules – once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement
does not have to be 100%
• Fixed interval schedule - target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed
since the last reinforcement.
• Variable inter schedule – similar to fixed interval schedule but the amount of time that must pass
between reinforcement varies.
• Fixed ratio schedule - fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may
recur.
• Variable ratio schedule – number of correct repetitio9ns of the correct response for reinforcement
varies.

Implication of Operant Conditioning

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the
student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and received immediate feedback
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a
positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly
effective. 2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced
(shaping).
3. Reinforcements will generalized across similar stimuli (stimulus generalization) producing
secondary conditioning.

MODULE 8
NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND BANDURA

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

18
 - AKA “ Sign Learning Theory”
- Learning is a cognitive process
- Learning is acquired through meaningful behaviour

“The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the
outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the
central control room into a tentative cognitive like map of the environment”

A new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significant)
through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning.

Tolman’s Key Concept

Learning is always purposive and goal directed – individuals do more than merely respond to
stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive towards goal.
Cognitive Maps – Famous experiment on rat concluded ex. Going to school everyday
Latent Learning – learning that stays with the individual until needed ex. A 2 years old holding a
remote
The Concept of intervening variable - variables that are not readily seen but serves as determinants
of behaviour. Ex. Experiments of rats in hunger
Reinforcement not essential on learning – ex. Rats acquired knowledge of the way through maze in
the absence of reinforcement.

Social Learning Theory – Albert Bandura

- Observational learning
- Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others

Types of Observational Learning Effect

INHIBITION – to learn not to do something we already know how to do because a modelling being
observe refrains from behaving in that way or does something different from what is intended to be
done.
DISINHIBITION – to learn to exhibit a behaviour that is usually disapproved of by most people
because a model does the same without being punished.
FACILITATION – to be prompted to do something that is not ordinarily done because of insufficient
motivation.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING – to learn a new behaviour pattern by watching and imitating the
performance of someone else.

General Principles of Social Learning Theory

1. People can learn by observing the behaviour of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behaviour.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social Learning can be considered a transition between behaviourist learning theories and
cognitive learning theorises.

Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modelling in several

ways:

1. The observer is reinforced by the model.

2. The observer is reinforced by a third person.
3. The imitated behaviour itself leads to reinforcing consequences.

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 4. Consequences of the behaviors model affect the observer’s behaviour vicariously.

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE OF REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT

- Have indirect effects on learning
- Influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned.
- Expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive process that promote learning.

COGNITIVE FACTORS IN SOCIAL LEARNING

1. Learning without performance (through observation and actual imitation)
2. Cognitive process during learning (attention)
3. Expectations (consequences)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behaviour, and environment)
5. Modeling (live models and symbolic models)

BEHAVIOR THAT CAN BE LEARNED THROUGH MODELING

 Aggression can be learned through models.
 Moral thinking and moral behaviour
 Moral judgement

4 ELEMENTS OF OBSERVATINAL LEARNING

 Attention – mental focus/concentration ; willingness to observe and mimic the behaviour of
a model
 Retention – encode the behaviour in the memory ; ability to store info
 Production – actually perform the behaviour observed
 Motivation/Reinforcement – force that drives one to act

3 FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT
1. Direct Reinforcement – occurs when an individual watches a model perform
2. Vicarious Reinforcement- the observer anticipates receiving a reward
3. Self-Reinforcement – individual strive to meet personal standards

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