MECH 2262 A01

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 1: Introduction
 Main Topics

1.1. Definition of a Fluid

1.2. Basic Equations

1.3. Methods of Analysis

1.4. Dimensions and Units

 Learning objectives

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to

• define a fluid based on your understanding of shear stress

• identify the five (5) basic equations used to analyze fluid problems

• distinguish between the key methods of analysis of fluid engineering problems.

• differentiate between dimensions and units

• distinguish between primary and secondary dimensions

• identify three (3) main systems of dimensions and their respective units
 Review
Coordinate Systems: Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates

Sphere

Circular Duct
Rectangular Duct

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 Review: Cartesian Coordinate System

y, v
𝒋Ƹ

• 𝐏(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)

x, u
𝒊Ƹ
z, w
𝒌෡

෡
Position vector, 𝒓 = 𝒙 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛 𝒌

෡
Velocity vector, 𝑽 = 𝒖 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒗෡𝒋 + 𝒘 𝒌

𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 are scalar components of 𝑽

෡ are unit vectors in the x-, y- and z- coordinate directions

𝒊,Ƹ 𝒋Ƹ and 𝒌
 Review: Stress

• Stress = Force/Area

• Normal force, FN, is component of force acting perpendicular to surface

• Shear force, FS, is component of force acting parallel or tangentially to surface

• Normal Stress: FN/A

• Shear Stress: FS/A

F FN

FS 
A
 Review: No-Slip Condition
• Lower plate is stationary
• Upper plate moves to the right at a constant speed, 𝑼𝒐
• No-slip condition implies
Fluid velocity at the lower wall (y = 0), 𝒖𝒇 = 0

Fluid velocity at the upper wall (y = h), 𝒖𝒇 = 𝑼𝒐

Uo

y h
 Definition of a Fluid
• The definition is solely based on how a substance behaves in the presence of a
shear stress.

• The following figure illustrates deformation of different substances (solid, liquid

and gas) at different times when subjected to a shear stress

• Solids will deform to a point, but liquids and gases will deform continuously

𝒕𝟎 𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟑

Solids: Non-zero shear modulus; can resist shear force applied to them
Fluids: Zero shear modulus; cannot resist any shear force
 Definition of a Fluid

• Fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a

shear stress

• Fluids comprise liquids (e.g. water, alcohol, oil, mercury) and gases (air,
oxygen, helium)

• Note that a solid deforms when a shear stress is applied, but its deformation
is not continuous

• Thus, from fluid mechanics point of view, all matter consists of only two
states, fluid and solid
 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics is the study of fluids in motion or at rest under the action
of applied forces.

Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Static Fluid Dynamics

(at rest) (in motion)

Kinematics
Dynamics
Only velocity field
Both velocity and forces
No consideration for force

Aerodynamics Hydrodynamics
‘aerofoil’ ‘Hydrofoil’
(Air flow) (liquid flow)
 Basic Equations

To study fluid flows, we need the following five basic principles:

1. Conservation of Mass (Continuity)

The mass of a system is neither created nor destroyed; it is constant.

2. Newton’s second law of motion or Conservation of Momentum

The net force acting on a system is directly proportional to the
product of the system mass times its acceleration

෍ 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚 𝑎Ԧ
 Basic Equations

3. The principle of Angular Momentum

The net torque acting on a system is equal to the rate of change
of angular momentum of the system

4. The first law of thermodynamics

The change in stored energy of a system equals the net energy
added to the system as heat and work

5. The second law of thermodynamics

The entropy of any isolated system cannot decrease during any
process between equilibrium states
 Basic Equations

• Not all the basic laws are always required to solve any one problem.

• In some problems, it is necessary to employ additional relations in the form of

equations of state or constitutive equations.

Example, ideal gas equation:

𝒑 = 𝝆𝑹𝑻

𝒑 = absolute pressure, 𝝆 = density, 𝑹 = gas constant, 𝑻 = absolute

temperature. (see Appendix A, Table A.6 for values of R)

• Appropriate boundary and initial conditions (e.g. no-slip) must also be

satisfied.
 Methods of Analysis

System Control Volume

• A fixed, identifiable mass of fluid. • An arbitrary volume in space with a boundary

called a control surface (CS).
• System boundaries can move and the shape
of the boundary can deform. • The control volume and surface can move and
deform.
• Mass cannot pass through a system
boundary. • Mass can pass through a control surface.

• Basic laws applied directly to a system • Basic laws cannot be applied directly to a
control volume
 Methods of Analysis

Differential Approach Integral Approach

• We consider infinitesimal elements of • Basic laws are applied to finite systems
system or control volume and control volumes

• This gives differential equations defining • The integral approach provides

the flow information on gross behavior of a fluid
flow rather than a detailed behavior.
• Solution provides a detailed picture of
the flow. • The integral formulation is relatively
easier to treat analytically, as will be
• Differential equations of the basic laws seen in Chapter 4.
are discussed in Chapter 5.
Differential vs Integral Approach
 Differential vs Integral Approach
• Consider fully developed flow through a pipe

𝑄 (𝑚3/𝑠) 𝑅 = 𝐷/2
𝑟

Differential Approach
Integral Approach
Velocity distribution: 𝑸
Bulk velocity: 𝑼𝒂𝒗 = ,𝑨 = 𝝅𝑹𝟐
E.g. Laminar flow 𝑨

𝒓𝟐 is a global or integral quantity

𝑼(𝒓) = 𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏− 𝟐
𝑹
 Methods of Analysis

Eulerian Approach
Lagrangian Approach

• We follow an individual fluid particle as it • We find a description which gives the details
moves through the flow. of the entire flow field at any position and
time.
• The particle is identified by its position at 𝑽 = 𝑽 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕 = 𝑽 𝒓, 𝒕
some instant and the time elapsed since that
time.
For a single particle,
෡
Position vector: 𝒓 = 𝒙(𝒕) 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛(𝒕) 𝒌
𝒅𝒓 • Note that we are no longer explicitly
Velocity vector: 𝑽 = 𝒅𝒕 following fluid particles of fixed mass, at a
𝒅𝑽 given point in the flow, new particles are
Acceleration: 𝒂= 𝒅𝒕 arriving all the time.

• It is not widely used in fluid mechanics • This makes it difficult to apply Newton’s
because typical fluid flows consist of huge second law since it applies only to particles of
number of particles and it is very difficult to fixed mass.
track the individual particles.
Methods of Analysis

Lagrangian particle tracking

Eulerian description
 Dimensions and Units
A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is
expressed quantitatively.
𝑴 = Mass, 𝑳 = Length, 𝒕 = time, 𝑻 = Temperature, 𝑭 = Force

How long does it take?

How large?

How fast?

How hot/cold?

How heavy?
 Dimensions and Units

A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to a quantitative dimension.

Velocity/Speed:

Length (of a ruler):

Mass:

Temperature:
 Dimensions and Units

• For example, a sphere has dimensions of length for its radius, but we
measure this length using units such as inches or meters.

• The sphere also has dimensions of surface area and volume, which are
defined as length squared and length cubed respectively.

The corresponding units are in2 /m2 and in3 /m3, respectively.

• Notice the dimensions of area and volume are not independent but
rather derived from others - length.
 Primary and Secondary Dimensions
• Primary dimensions are those from which all other dimensions (secondary dimensions) can be
derived.

• The primary dimensions depend on the system of dimensions we adopt.

• Length (L), time (t) and temperature (T) are primary dimensions in all systems of dimensions.

• In some systems, mass (M) is selected as a primary dimension. These are the MLtT system.

• Other systems select force (F) or both force (F) and mass (M) as primary dimensions.

These are the FLtT or FMLtT systems of dimensions.

 Systems of Units

SI Unit (MLtT): In this system, mass (M) is a primary dimension

while force (F) is a secondary dimension.
M: Kilogram (kg)
L: Meter (m)
t: Second (s)
T: Kelvin (K)
*F: Newton (N); 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2

BG System (FLtT): In this system, force (F) is a primary

dimension while mass (M) is a secondary dimension.
F: Pound force (lbf)
L: Foot (ft)
t: Second (s)
T: degree Rankine (oR)
*M: Slug, 1 slug = 1 lbf.s2/ft
 Systems of Units

English Engineering System (FMLtT): Here, both force (F)

and mass (M) are primary dimensions.
F: Pound force (lbf)
M: Pound mass (lbm)
L: Foot (ft)
t: Second (s)
T: Rankine (oR)

Note that in the SI and BG systems, there are four (4)

primary dimensions while the English Engineering
system has five (5) primary dimensions.
 Systems of Units

Preferred Systems of Units

SI (kg, m, s, K)
𝟏 𝐍 ≡ 𝟏 𝐤𝐠 ∙ 𝐦/𝐬 𝟐

BG (lbf, ft, s, oR)

𝟏 𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠 ≡ 𝟏 𝐥𝐛𝐟 ∙ 𝒔𝟐 /𝐟𝐭
𝟏 𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠 ≡ 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝐥𝐛𝐦
Conversion Table
 Review

• Define a fluid

• Explain no-slip condition

• State the 5 basic equations

• Methods of Analysis
• System versus Control Volume
• Differential versus Integral
• Lagrangian versus Eulerian

• Dimensions and Units

• Primary and Secondary dimensions

• 3 systems of units
• SI – MLtT
• BG – FLtT
• EE – FMLtT
• Convert from one system to another