Instrumentation

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Control Final Control

Summary
Measurement Loop Elements

Process Equipment 2 Instrumentation

 Basic Instruments

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Basic Instruments

Automatic Control:

•Foundation for efficient continuous flow processes.

•Manual Control:
•Historically, processes were controlled manually.
•"Valve intensive" process required technicians to open and close valves manually.
•Modern Instrumentation:
•Advances enable automation of industrial processes.
•Instruments and computers can:
•Control opening, closing, and positioning of valves.
•Start and stop equipment.
•Measure process variables.
•Respond automatically.
•Benefits:
•Allows a single process technician to monitor and control large, complex process networks from a single control center.

4
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Control Loop

Process Equipment 5 Instrumentation

 Basic Process Instrumentation

Components:

• Primary elements and sensors

• Gauges
• Transmitters
• Controllers
• Computers
• Transducers
• Control valves
• Other final control elements

Process Equipment 6 Instrumentation

 Basic Process Instrumentation
Primary elements
and sensors

Gauges

Transmitters

Controllers
Computer Transducer
Computers
Controller Control Valve & Final Control Element
Transducers
Transmitter
Control valves
Guage
Other final control
Sensor or Element elements

Process Equipment 7 Instrumentation

 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Control Final Control

Summary
Measurement Loop Elements

Process Equipment 8 Instrumentation

Temperature
Measurement
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Temperature Measurement
Monitoring Temperature in Process Streams

• Process technicians closely monitor the temperatures of process streams.

• When heat energy is applied:
• Molecular activity increases.
• Energy is transferred from molecule to molecule.
• Pressure and temperature increase in an enclosed environment.
• Materials expand.
• Density changes.

Temperature Definition and Scales

• Temperature: Degree of hotness or coldness of an object or environment.

• Commonly used scales:
• Fahrenheit:
• 32°F: Freezing point of water.
• 212°F: Boiling point of water.
• Celsius:
• 0°C: Freezing point of water.
• 100°C: Boiling point of water.
• Process operators use Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers to measure temperature.

Process Equipment 10 Instrumentation

 Temperature Measurement
Local Temperature Indicators

•Typically contain a bimetallic strip that expands

differentially with increasing temperature.
•This expansion causes a deflection correlated with
temperature.
•Bimetallic thermometers (thermocouples) range from –300°
to 800°F.

Types of Thermometers

•Some thermometers have a primary element or sensor that

includes:
•A filled thermal bulb and capillary tubing.
•Resistance bulb.
•Thermocouple.

Industrial Use

•Mercury is not used in thermal bulbs or capillary tubing in

the industry.
•The most common temperature-measuring devices in the
chemical processing industry are thermoelectric.

Process Equipment 11 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 12 Instrumentation
Process Equipment Instrumentation
Process Equipment 14 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 15 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 16 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 17 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 18 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 19 Instrumentation
 Thermoelectric Temperature-
Measuring Devices
Thermoelectric
Resistance Temperature
Temperature-Measuring
Detectors (RTDs)
Devices
• Types: • Composed of a small
• Resistance Temperature platinum or nickel wire
Detectors (RTDs) encased in a rugged metal
• Thermocouples tube.
• Common Characteristics: • The electrical resistance in
the wire is influenced by
• Both are held in a changes in temperature.
thermowell, a chamber
• Temperature changes are
installed in vessels or
sensed by an electronic
piping.
circuit and directed to a
temperature indicator.

Process Equipment 20 Instrumentation

 Thermocouples
Thermocouples

• Composed of two different types of metal.

• Designed to convert heat into electricity.
• When heat is applied to the connected ends, a
low-level current is generated.
• The higher the temperature, the greater the
current generated.
• Electric current is detected by the associated
electronic circuit and converted to a
corresponding temperature scale.
• Types:
• J-type
• K-type
• Preferred for higher temperature
measurements.

Process Equipment 21 Instrumentation

Temperature
Control Loop

Process Equipment 22 Instrumentation

 Temperature Control Loop
Temperature Control Loop

•Measurement
•Taken at the furnace or from the exiting charge in large fired heaters.
•Primary sensors: Thermocouples or RTDs (temperature elements).
•Components
•Temperature Elements
•Linked to transmitters.
•Transmitters sense a process variable and produce a signal for a
controller, recorder, or indicator.
•Signal
•A 4- to 20-mA (milliamp) signal is sent to a controller.
•The controller compares the signal with a set point (desired value of
a process variable).
•Controllers
•Designed to initiate a change to return a process to its set point if a
variance exists.
•May be located in the field near the equipment or in a remote
location.
•Transducer
•Located near the valve to eliminate process lag.
•Converts the electric signal to a pneumatic signal of 3 to 15 psi.
•Control Valve
•Opens and closes depending on the signal received.
•Controls temperature by reducing or increasing fuel flow to the
burners.

Process Equipment 23 Instrumentation

 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Control Final Control

Summary
Measurement Loop Elements

Process Equipment 24 Instrumentation

 Pressure
Measurement

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Pressure Measurement
Pressure in Industrial Environments

•Definition
•Force per unit area exerted by fluid on the equipment.
•Applicable to fluids (gases or liquids).

Units of Measurement

•Pounds per square inch (psi) in the English system.

•Kilograms per square meter (kg/m²) in the metric system.
•Newtons per square meter or pascals (Pa) in the System of
International Units (SI).
•1 newton = 1 kgm/sec².

Types of Pressure

•Atmospheric Pressure
•Force exerted on the earth by the weight of surrounding
gases.
•At sea level: ~14.7 psi (1.013 Pa).
•Decreases with altitude due to the reduced height and
weight of gas.

Process Equipment 26 Instrumentation

 Pressure Measurement

Pressure and Altitude

• Atmospheric pressure decreases with

altitude due to reduced height and
weight of gas.

Hydrostatic Pressure

• Pressure exerted on a contained liquid.

• Determined by the depth of the liquid.
• Example: Pressure differences
experienced by a swimmer at the
surface and bottom of a pool.
• Causes ears to “pop” when swimming
to the bottom of a 10-foot pool.

Process Equipment 27 Instrumentation

 Pascal Law
Blaise Pascal and Pascal's Law

• Discovered in the 1650s that pressure in fluids

is transmitted equally to all distances and
directions.
• Pascal's Law
• In a fluid at rest in a closed container, a
pressure change in one part is transmitted
without loss to every portion of the fluid and
the container.
• Based on the free movement of molecules in
fluids.
• The distance between molecules varies with
the state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas).
• Molecules in gases are much farther apart
than in solids.

Process Equipment 28 Instrumentation

 Boyle’s Law
Robert Boyle and Boyle's Law

• Developed laws in the 1650s describing the

relationship between pressure and the volume of
a gas.
• Boyle’s Law
• At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas
varies inversely with its volume.
• Higher gas pressure results in closer gas
molecules and a smaller volume.
• Under ordinary conditions, gas volumes decrease
by half when the pressure doubles.
• Liquids and Solids
• Also respond to pressure increases but in much
smaller proportions compared to gases.
• Generally considered noncompressible.

Process Equipment 29 Instrumentation

 Pressure Measurement
Converse of Boyle’s Law

• Pressure can affect temperature.

• Also affects level and flow rate.
• Impact on Processes
• Changes the boiling point of chemicals.
• Influences reaction rates.
• Affects the speed at which fluids flow
through piping.
• Importance for Product Quality
• These changes can impact product
quality.
• Many instruments (pressure elements)
are designed to monitor and control
pressure.

Process Equipment 30 Instrumentation

 Pressure Gauges

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Pressure Gauges
Common Pressure Scales in Manufacturing

• Gauge Pressure Scale

• Most commonly used.
• Values expressed in pounds per square inch gauge (psig).
• Starts with atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) as zero and
moves up the scale.
• Absolute Pressure Scale
• Starts with a perfect vacuum as zero.
• Values expressed in pounds per square inch absolute
(psia).
• Takes into account atmospheric pressure.
• Conversion:
• From gauge to absolute: Add 14.7 pounds to the psig
value.
• From absolute to gauge: Subtract 14.7 pounds from the
psia value.
• Vacuum Pressure Scale
• Refers to pressure below atmospheric pressure,
measured in inches of mercury (inHg) or millimeters of
mercury (mmHg).

Process Equipment 32 Instrumentation

 Pressure Gauges
Safety Precautions for Reading a Pressure
Gauge

• Do not stand directly in front of the gauge

when opening the valve to admit pressure.
• Once the valve is opened:
• Stand directly in front of the gauge face
to take the reading.
• Parallax Effect
• An optical illusion that shifts the gauge
reading left or right of the actual value.
• Caused by the space between the pointer
and the face of the gauge.
• Occurs if you position yourself to the left
or right of the gauge face.

Process Equipment 33 Instrumentation

Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Vacuum Pressure
Use of Gauges and Vacuum

• PSIG Gauge
• Cannot be used with processes operating
under a vacuum.
• Negative pressures can cause primary
elements to contract beyond design limits.
• Accidental encounter with a vacuum
compromises the reading scale (shows a low
reading).
• Vacuum Gauges
• Designed to operate at pressures less than
atmospheric pressure.
• Express pressure in inches of mercury (Hg).
• Vacuum is considered anything below
atmospheric pressure.
• Compound Gauges
• Can indicate both vacuum and gauge pressure
readings.
• Useful for applications where both positive
and negative pressures need to be monitored.

Process Equipment 35 Instrumentation

 Compound Gauge

• Can indicate both vacuum and gauge pressure

readings.
• Useful for applications where both positive and
negative pressures need to be monitored

Process Equipment 36 Instrumentation

 Manometer

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Manometer

Process Equipment 38 Instrumentation

Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Manometer
Manometer

• A device used to measure pressure or vacuum.

• Operates under the hydrostatic pressure principle.
• A column of water (or other liquid) of a given volume
always exerts a specific force.
• Working Principle
• The liquid level in the manometer indicates the
pressure.
• Movement of the liquid in response to pressure
changes allows for measurement.
• Types
• U-tube Manometer: Measures pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure.
• Inclined Manometer: Measures small pressure
differences with higher precision.
• Differential Manometer: Compares pressures
between two different points in a system.

Process Equipment 40 Instrumentation

 Primary Pressure Elements

Process Equipment 41 Instrumentation

 Primary Pressure Elements
Primary Pressure Elements

• Specifically designed part of a pressure

instrument.
• Function
• Sense changes in pressure.
• Convert pressure changes into mechanical
motion.
• Connection and Operation
• Connected to mechanical linkages and scale
indicators.
• Higher pressure results in greater movement
by the mechanical linkage.
• Importance
• Essential for accurate measurement and
control of pressure in industrial applications.

Process Equipment 42 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 43 Instrumentation
Process Equipment Instrumentation
Process Equipment 45 Instrumentation
Process Equipment Instrumentation
Process Equipment 47 Instrumentation
 Bellows Pressure Element
Bellows Pressure Element

•Consists of:
•Accordion-type bellows.
•Spring that resists expansion of the bellows.
•Pressure inlet.
•Mechanical linkage.
•Pointer (gauge indicator).

Operation

•Admits flow into the bellows.

•As the bellows expands:
•Tension on the spring increases.
•Mechanical linkage moves, operating the pointer on the
gauge.
•If pressure is reduced:
•The spring forces the bellows back to its original position.

Applications

•Can be used to measure a variety of pressures in different

industrial settings.

Process Equipment 48 Instrumentation

 Bourdon Tubes Element
Bourdon Tube Pressure Element

•Most common type of pressure element.

•Available in various shapes and designs, including:
•C-type
•Helical-type
•Spiral-type

C-type Bourdon Tubes

•Named for their C-shaped, hollow pressure element.

•Components:
•C-shaped hollow tube.
•Pressure inlet attached to one end.
•Mechanical linkage attached to the top.
•Pointer (gauge indicator).

Operation

•Expands and contracts in response to pressure changes (elastic

deformation).
•Movement of the tube drives the mechanical linkage and moves the
pointer.

Applications

•Measures a wide variety of pressures, including vacuum.

Process Equipment 49 Instrumentation

 Bourdon Tubes Element

Helical and Spiral-Type Bourdon Tubes

• Operate similarly to C-type Bourdon tubes.
• Main difference lies in the shape of the pressure
element.

Applications in Automatic Control

Systems
• Spiral-type Bourdon can be connected to a transmitter.
• As the spiral element responds to pressure changes:
• The transmitter sends a signal to the controller.
• The controller then sends a signal to the control valve.

Process Equipment 50 Instrumentation

 Diaphragm Capsule Pressure
Element
Diaphragm Pressure Elements

•Two basic types:

•Diaphragm capsule pressure element.
•Slack diaphragm pressure element.

Diaphragm Capsule Pressure Element

•Components:
•Metallic diaphragm capsule consisting of a metal cup covered by a
flexible metal plate.
•Pressure inlet line to the cup.
•Mechanical linkage.
•Pointer (gauge indicator).
•Function
•Designed to measure small pressure changes.
•During operation, the dome of the cup flexes up or down.
•Movement is transferred proportionally to the pointer, allowing small
dome movements to result in significant pointer travel.

Slack Diaphragm Pressure Element

•Key Components:
•Flexible diaphragm attached to a spring.
•Pressure inlet.
•Mechanical linkage.
•Pointer.
•Function
•Designed to operate under very low pressures (0 to 0.5 psi).

Process Equipment 51 Instrumentation

 Diaphragm Capsule Pressure
Element
Slack Diaphragm Pressure Diaphragm Capsule Pressure
Element Element

Process Equipment 52 Instrumentation

 Pressure Transmitter

Pressure Transmitter

• Uses a pressure element to sense pressure.

• Sends a signal to a controller or recorder.

Primary Pressure Elements Used

• Includes all previously discussed elements

(Bourdon tubes, diaphragms, etc.).

Operation

• Linkage movement within the pressure

element allows the transmitter to transmit a
representative signal of the pressure.
• The controller, based on the received signal,
opens or closes control valves.

Process Equipment 53 Instrumentation

 Pressure
Control
Loop

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Pressure Transmitter

Process Equipment 55 Instrumentation

 Pressure Controller

Pressure Control Loop Design

• Similar elements to temperature, level, and flow

control loops.
• Consistent changes occur in primary elements and
sensors.

Primary Elements and Sensors

• Used to detect and respond to pressure changes.

• Typically expansion-type devices.

Components of Pressure Control Loop

• Pressure Transmitter
• Controller
• Transducer
• Control Valve

Process Equipment 56 Instrumentation

 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Control Final Control

Summary
Measurement Loop Elements

Process Equipment 57 Instrumentation

 Flow Measurement

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 FT

FE
P1 P2

Venturi

Process Equipment 59 Instrumentation

 Flow Measurement
Fluid Flow in Industrial Processes

• Fluids flow through pipes, valves, pumps, and

vessels.
• Importance of Flow Rate Control
• Critical for the operation of the unit.
• Essential for continuous chemical reactions to
ensure proper proportions of reactants.
• Necessary for accurate control of feed rates and
product rates for economic reasons.

Flow Measurement and Control

• Flow Measurements
• Can be taken by various types of flow meters.
• Flow Control
• Typically requires a flow transmitter to
accurately monitor and control the process flow.

Process Equipment 60 Instrumentation

 Flow Measurement
Flow Meters Using Differential Pressure

• Examples: Orifice plate meters, venturi meters.

Measurement Principle

• Flow rate is related to pressure differences inside the

pipe.
• Flow-Restrictive Devices:
• Orifice plates.
• Venturi tubes.
• Flow nozzles.

Operation

• Fluid flow encounters a restriction in the pipe.

• Pressure increases in front of the restriction.
• Fluid velocity increases through the restriction.
• Pressure drops on the other side of the restriction.

Process Equipment 61 Instrumentation

 Differential Pressure (DP) Cell
Differential Pressure (DP) Cell

• Measures the pressure difference

between the inlet and outlet sides of a
restrictive device.
• Connected to a transmitter.

Operation

• Transmitter:
• Sends a signal to a controller.
• Controller:
• Compares the signal from the field
with the flow rate set point.
• Sends signals to control valves to
open or close accordingly.

Process Equipment 62 Instrumentation

 Types of Flowmeter
Positive
Orifice Plates Venturi Tubes Flow Nozzles Displacement
Meters

Weir and Flume

Turbine Flow Magnetic Flow
Rotameter Flow-Measuring
Meter Meters
Devices

Ultrasonic Flow Vortex Flow Thermal Flow The Coriolis

Meters Meters Meters Meter

Process Equipment 63 Instrumentation

 Orifice plates.

Orifice Plates Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Meters

Rotameter

Turbine Flow Meter

Weir and Flume Flow-

Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 64 Instrumentation

 Orifice plates.

Orifice Plates Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Meters

Rotameter

Turbine Flow Meter

Weir and Flume Flow-

Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 65 Instrumentation

 Orifice plates.

Venturi Tubes Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Meters

Rotameter

Turbine Flow Meter

Weir and Flume Flow-

Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 66 Instrumentation

 Orifice plates.

Venturi Tubes Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Meters

Rotameter

Turbine Flow Meter

Weir and Flume Flow-

Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 67 Instrumentation

 Orifice plates.

Flow Nozzles Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Meters

Rotameter

Turbine Flow Meter

Weir and Flume Flow-

Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 68 Instrumentation

 Orifice plates.

Positive Displacement Meters Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Meters

Types of Positive Displacement Meters Rotameter

• Nutating disc meter.

• Oval gear meter. Turbine Flow Meter

Nutating Disc Meter Weir and Flume Flow-

Measuring Devices
• Components:
• Counter. Magnetic Flow Meters
• Nutating disc (resembles a spinning top).
• Flow inlet.
Ultrasonic Flow Meters
• Flow outlet.

Operation Vortex Flow Meters

• Measures fluid flow by counting the rotations of the

disc as fluid passes through it. Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 69 Instrumentation

 Positive Displacement Meters

Process Equipment 70 Instrumentation

 Positive
Displaceme
nt Meters

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Orifice plates.

Positive Displacement Meters Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Oval Gear Meter Meters

• Internal structure resembles that of a lobe pump. Rotameter

Operation Turbine Flow Meter

• Lobe-shaped elements rotate as fluid passes through the internal chamber. Weir and Flume Flow-
• The rotation of the gears is used to calculate the total flow rate. Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 72 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 73 Instrumentation
 Orifice plates.

Rotameter Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Rotameter Meters

• Components: Rotameter
• Tapered tube.
• Scale. Turbine Flow Meter
• Ball or float.
• Inlet and outlet. Weir and Flume Flow-
Measuring Devices
Operation
Magnetic Flow Meters
• Flow enters the tapered tube at the bottom.
• Flow lifts the ball off its seat. Ultrasonic Flow Meters
• The ball provides a constant restriction to the
flow.
• The position of the ball corresponds to the flow Vortex Flow Meters
rate on the scale.
• Higher flow rate causes the ball to rise higher in Thermal Flow Meters
the tube.
• Fluid flows around the ball and exits at the top.
The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 74 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 75 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 76 Instrumentation
 Orifice plates.

Turbine Flow Meter Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.
Turbine Flow Meters Operation Key Concepts Characteristics
Positive Displacement
•Components: •Fluid enters the turbine •Flow Velocity: •Accurate over a wide Meters
•Section of pipe with a flow meter. •Actual speed of the range of flows.
rotor mounted inside. •Turbine blades begin to fluid. Rotameter
•Sensor on the outside rotate. •Measured as distance
of the pipe. •Speed of rotation is per unit time (e.g., feet
proportional to the per second). Turbine Flow Meter
velocity of the fluid. •Flow Rate:
•Total quantity of liquid
passing a specific
Weir and Flume Flow-
point. Measuring Devices
•Measured as volume
per unit time (e.g., Magnetic Flow Meters
gallons per minute).

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 77 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 78 Instrumentation
 Orifice plates.

Weir and Flume Flow- Venturi tubes.

Measuring Devices Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Weir (a dam) Flumes Meters
• Placed in a process stream. • Used for higher flows. Rotameter
• Creates a restriction that forces the liquid • Narrow, sloping pass that funnels flow.
level to build. • At the inlet, the water level rises.
• Level is used to calculate flow rate. • Level is measured by a level-measuring Turbine Flow Meter
• Direct correlation: Lower level equals instrument.
slower flow. • Instrument converts the level to a flow Weir and Flume Flow-
signal. Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 79 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 80 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 81 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 82 Instrumentation
 Orifice plates.

Magnetic Flow Meters Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Meters
Magnetic Flow Meters
Rotameter
• Measure flow velocity based on the voltage created by fluid
flowing through a magnetic field. Turbine Flow Meter

• Highly effective for toxic or corrosive fluids. Weir and Flume Flow-
Measuring Devices
• Fluid stream does not contact the measurement device.
Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 83 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 84 Instrumentation
 Orifice plates.

Ultrasonic Flow Meters Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Ultrasonic Flow Meters Meters

• Measure flow rate based on the Doppler effect. Rotameter

• A sound wave is transmitted to the fluid at a certain frequency.
• The frequency of the returned sound wave varies with the fluid velocity. Turbine Flow Meter
• Not suitable for clean fluids, as they require particles to reflect the sound wave.
Weir and Flume Flow-
Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 85 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 86 Instrumentation
 Orifice plates.

Vortex Flow Meters Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Vortex Flow Meters Meters

Rotameter
• Measure flow rate by creating and measuring vortices in a flow stream.
• Vortices are created by a blunt object in the flow path called a strut
Turbine Flow Meter
bar.
Weir and Flume Flow-
Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 87 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 88 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 89 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 90 Instrumentation
 Orifice plates.

Thermal Flow Meters Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Thermal Flow Meters Meters

Rotameter
• Measure flow rate based on changes in resistance due to changes in
temperature.
Turbine Flow Meter
• Thermistors are used to measure the change in resistance.
• Sensitive to the thermal conductivity of the fluid. Weir and Flume Flow-
Measuring Devices
• Usually designed for a specific flowing material.
Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 91 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 92 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 93 Instrumentation
 Orifice plates.

The Coriolis Meter Venturi tubes.

Flow nozzles.

Positive Displacement
Coriolis Meter Meters
• A true mass flow meter.
• Uses a vibrating U-tube to measure changes in momentum (mass flow rate). Rotameter
• Very effective for precise measurements of mass flow rate.
Turbine Flow Meter

Weir and Flume Flow-

Measuring Devices

Magnetic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Vortex Flow Meters

Thermal Flow Meters

The Coriolis Meter

Process Equipment 94 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 95 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 96 Instrumentation
 Flow Control Loop
Flow Control Loops

• Measurement of flow rate is taken first.

• Flow is then interrupted or controlled downstream.
• Start at the primary element:
• Types: orifice plate, venturi tube, flow nozzle,
nutating disc, oval gear, turbine meter.
• Most common: orifice plate.
• Orifice plates create a pressure differential
measured by a DP transmitter.
• Primary elements typically used with a
transmitter.
• Increased velocity across the orifice plate
compensates for restriction.
• Transmitted signal is sent to a controller.
• Controller compares incoming signal with desired
set point.
• If change is required, controller sends signal to a
final control element.

Process Equipment 97 Instrumentation

 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Control Final Control

Summary
Measurement Loop Elements

Process Equipment 98 Instrumentation

 Level Measurement

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Level Measurement
Level Measurements in Process Control

• Fixed reference points used, typically vessel taps.

• Lowermost tap: zero level.
• Uppermost tap: 100%.
• Level readings and control are crucial for modern processing.
• Types of Level Measurements:
• Continuous Measurements:
• Levels are monitored continuously.
• Single-Point Measurements:
• Readings taken from a single point or multiple points on a
vessel.
• Used to turn equipment on/off (e.g., valves, pumps,
compressors, motors, alarms).
• Detect high and low process levels.
• Classification of Level Measurement Devices:
• Direct Measurements:
• Measure the actual level of the substance.
• Indirect Measurements:
• Measure other parameters to infer the level of the
substance.

Process Equipment 100 Instrumentation

 Lower Tap and Upper Tap

Process Equipment 101 Instrumentation

 Single Point & Continuous

Process Equipment 102 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 103 Instrumentation
 Direct Level-Measurement
Instruments
Direct Instrumentation

•Physical contact with the fluid surface.

•Calculate product surface level from a reference point.
•Types of Direct Instruments:
•Sight Glass:
•Transparent tube with graduated markings mounted on the side of
a tank.
•Float and Tape Device:
•Float rests on the fluid surface; tape moves up and down with the
level.
•Displacers:
•Buoyancy devices or weights linked to a transmitter to control flow.
•Probes:
•Conductivity Probes:
•High- and low-level alarms using electricity to complete the circuit.
•Designed to keep the level between high and low probes, typically
for nonflammable materials.
•Capacitance Probes:
•Radiation devices or load cells.

Process Equipment 104 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 105 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 106 Instrumentation
Process Equipment Instrumentation
Process Equipment Instrumentation
Process Equipment 109 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 110 Instrumentation
 Indirect Instrumentation
Indirect Instrumentation

• Utilizes pressure changes responding proportionally to

level changes.
• Types of Indirect Instruments:
• DP (Differential Pressure) Cells:
• Convert pressure differences to level indication.
• Measure hydrostatic pressure difference between two
points on a pressurized vessel.
• Continuous Level Detector Gauge:
• Pressure-sensitive instrument.
• Measures hydrostatic pressure in open vessels and
converts it to a level indication.
• Bubbler System:
• Forces air through a tube positioned in the liquid.
• The liquid’s resistance to flow registers on a pressure-
sensitive level gauge, converting the pressure to a level
indication.
• Used to measure levels in open vessels.

Process Equipment 111 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 112 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 113 Instrumentation
Process Equipment 114 Instrumentation
Process Equipment Instrumentation
Process Equipment 116 Instrumentation
 Level Control Loop
Level Control System Components: Figure:

•Primary Element Sensing Device: •Uses a DP cell to detect level changes.

•Can be direct (floats, displacers) or indirect (differential pressure •The primary element or sensor is within the transmitter.
transmitters). •These devices work together to send a signal to the level controller.
•Level Transmitter (LT): •The transducer converts the signal to operate the control valve.
•Detects level changes.
•In systems using a DP cell, the primary element or sensor is inside
the transmitter.
•Controller:
•Receives signals from the level transmitter.
•Transducer:
•Converts the signal from the controller.
•Opens or closes the control valve based on the signal.
•Control Valve:
•Adjusts flow based on the converted signal to maintain desired level.

Process Equipment 117 Instrumentation

 Measurements

Process Equipment 118 Instrumentation

 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Final Control

Summary
Measurement Control Loop Elements

Process Equipment 119 Instrumentation

 Basic Control Loop

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Basic Control Loop

Automatic Control System:

•Control Loop:
•A group of instruments that work together to control a process.
•Components:
•Transmitter:
•Coupled with a sensing device or primary element.
•Controller:
•Receives and processes signals from the transmitter.
•Transducer:
•Converts signals from the controller into actionable outputs.
•Control Valve:
•Adjusts the flow or other parameters based on the transducer's signals.
•Applications:
•Used to maintain pressure, temperature, flow, level, and composition in process plants.

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Basic Elements of a Control
Loop
Basic Elements of a Control Loop:

•Measurement Device:
•Primary Elements and Sensors: Used to measure variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, and level.
•Transmitter:
•Converts a measurement into a signal for transmission to another instrument.
•Controller:
•Compares the signal with a set point and transmits a signal to a final control element.
•Transducer:
•Converts signals between different types (e.g., air to electric, electric to pneumatic).
•Also known as I to P (current to pressure) converters or simply converters.
•Final Control Element:
•Makes changes to the process based on signals from the controller.
•Examples include control valves, dampers, and governors for speed control.
•Governed by the controller.

122
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 0M 4 mA 3 psi

Transmitter 12 mA 9 psi
5M
0% 4 mA
50 % 12 mA
10 M 20 mA 15 psi
100 % 20 mA
4 to 20 mA
3 to 15 psi
Transmitter Converter Controller

Sensor
Higher Value 10 M
Converter

Tank Example

Final Control
Element
Lower Value 0M
Process Equipment 123 Instrumentation
 Transmitter
DP Cell Transmitters:

•Designs:
•Pneumatic
•Electronic
•Controller Placement:
•Typically mounted 400 (closed loop) to 1,000 (open loop) feet from
the transmitter.
•Electronic Transmitter Signals:
•Proportional to the pressure difference between high-pressure and
low-pressure legs.
•Standard output signals:
•4 to 20 mA (milliamps)
•10 to 50 mA
•1 to 5 V (volts)
•10 to 50 mA transmitter:
•Preferred for higher tolerance to outside interference compared to
the 4 to 20 mA transmitter.
•Pneumatic Transmitters:
•Require a 20 to 30 psig air supply.
•Standard 3 to 15 psig output.

Process Equipment 124 Instrumentation

 Transmitter
DP Cells:

•Function:
•High- and low-pressure taps connected to each side of an
internal twin diaphragm capsule.
•Pressure changes cause the diaphragms to move, adjusting
the signal to the controller.

Smart Transmitters:

•Reliability:
•Do not need constant attention.
•Equipped with internal diagnostics that warn the operator
of potential issues.
•Versatility:
•Used in liquid or gas service to control pressure, viscosity,
temperature, flow, and level.
•Features:
•Speed
•Reliability
•Internal diagnostics
•Strong digital signal
•Remote calibration capabilities

Process Equipment 125 Instrumentation

 Controllers and Controller
Modes

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Controllers and Controller Modes

Controller:

• Primary Purpose:
• Receives a signal from a
transmitter.
• Compares this signal with a
set point.
• Adjusts the process (final
control element) to stay
within the range of the set
point.

Process Equipment 127 Instrumentation

 Controllers and Controller
Modes

Digital Controllers and

Three Basic Designs: Historical Context: Pneumatic Controllers: Electronic Controllers: Distributed Control
Systems (DCS):
•Pneumatic •Electronic controllers •Require a clean air •Attractive features: •Widespread use of PCs
•Electronic introduced in the early supply pressure of 20 •Reduction of lag time led to several
•Digital 1960s. to 30 psig. in process changes. applications for
•Before the 1960s, only •Low installation controller use.
pneumatic controllers expense. •DCS software in
were available. •Ease of installation. computers replaced
pneumatic and
electronic controllers.
•Benefits of DCS:
•Ease of installation.
•Relatively few wires
required.

128
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Controllers and Controller Modes

Modern Plants:

• Combination of pneumatic,
electronic, and digital
systems.
• Control loop diagrams identify
the type of controller used.
• Example:
• Diagonal lines between the
transducer and the valve
signify pneumatic control.

Process Equipment 129 Instrumentation

 Controller Operation Modes
Manual Control:

• Used during plant startup until the process

is stabilized.
• Controller sends output to the final control
element as set by the operator.

Automatic Control:

• Activated once the process is stable.

• Controller supervises the control loop
function, opening and closing the control
valve to maintain the set point.

Cascaded (Remote) Control:

• A second controller resets the primary

controller’s set point to achieve a desired
outcome.

Process Equipment 130 Instrumentation

 Manual
Control

Process Equipment 131 Instrumentation

 Remote Manual Control

Process Equipment 132 Instrumentation

 Manual Control

Process Equipment 133 Instrumentation

 Remote Manual Control

Manual Automatic Cascade

SP

PV

Process Equipment 134 Instrumentation

 Set Point and Process Value

Upper Limit

Process Value

Tank Safe Operating Limit

Set Point

Lower Limit

Process Equipment 135 Instrumentation

 Automatic Control

Process Equipment 136 Instrumentation

 Cascade
Control

Process Equipment 137 Instrumentation

 Tc T1 = 60𝑜 T2 = 90𝑜

Input 1 dT = 30𝑜 SP
Fc Input 2 F1 = 100 𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛 PV
𝑙
Logic Rate = 2 /1𝑜
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Output F2 = 160 𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛

T1 = 60𝑜 T2 = 90𝑜
dT = 30𝑜

F1 = 100 𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛 T1 = 60𝑜

𝑙
Rate = 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛 /1𝑜

F2 = 160 𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛 T2 = 90𝑜

Process Equipment 138 Instrumentation

 Proportional Band
Proportional Band on a Controller:

• Describes the scaling factor used to adjust the

controller from 0% to 100% output.
• Example: If set at 50% and the final control element
(globe valve) has 4 inches of lift, the control valve will
open 2 inches.

Range:

• The portion of the process controlled by the controller.

• Example: A controller might have a temperature range
limited to 80 to 140°F.

Span:

• The difference (Δ) between the upper and lower range

limits.
• Recorded as a single number.
• Example: The span between 80 and 140 is 60.

Process Equipment 139 Instrumentation

 Set Point and Process Value

Upper Limit

Process Value

Tank Safe Operating Limit

Set Point

Lower Limit

Process Equipment 140 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 141 Instrumentation
 PV = 8 L Proportional = (SP – PV) / SP %

SP = 8 L Proportional = 0 %

PV = 5 L Proportional = (SP – PV) / SP % PV = 0 L Proportional = (SP – PV) / SP %

SP = 8 L Proportional = 37.5 % SP = 8 L Proportional = 100 %

Process Equipment 142 Instrumentation

 Set Point and Process Value

Upper Limit

Process Value

Tank Safe Operating Limit

Set Point

Lower Limit

Process Equipment 143 Instrumentation

 Controller Modes

Gain
Reset (Integral)
Rate (Derivative)

144
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Gain “Proportional”
Gain:

• Used as a tuning constant in modern

controllers.
• Defined as the ratio of the output signal
from the controller to the error signal
(difference between the process variable
and set point).
• Reciprocal of the proportional band (PB).
• Example: If PB is 100%, gain = 1.0. If PB is
200%, gain = 0.5 (1/2).
• Gain is rarely used alone, as it only
provides a ratio response to a process
change.

Process Equipment 145 Instrumentation

 Reset “Integral”
Reset:

• A control mode that calculates a slope,

in repeats per minute, back toward the
set point in response to a process
change.
• Designed to reduce the difference
between the set point and process
variable.
• Adjusts the controller's output
continuously until the offset is
eliminated.
• Responds proportionally to the size of
the error, the length of time it lasts, and
the reset gain setting.

Process Equipment 146 Instrumentation

 Rate “Derivative”
Rate Mode:

• Enhances controller output by

increasing the output in relation
to the changing process variable.
• Provides a braking action as the
process variable approaches the
set point, preventing
overshooting.
• Responds aggressively to rapid
changes and passively to smaller
changes in the process variable.

Process Equipment 147 Instrumentation

 Proportional Integral Derivative

Process Equipment 148 Instrumentation

Process Equipment Instrumentation
Process Equipment 150 Instrumentation
 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Control Final Control

Summary
Measurement Loop Elements

Process Equipment 151 Instrumentation

 Final Control Elements

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Final Control Elements
Final Control Elements:

• Typically, automatic valves, but can also be

motors or other electric devices.
• Last link in the control loop; they make the
actual changes in the process.
• Automatic valves regulate the process by
opening or closing.
• Invaluable in modern processing due to
remote control capabilities.
• Actuator:
• Device that automates a valve.
• Controls the position of the flow control
element by moving and controlling the
valve stem.

Process Equipment 153 Instrumentation

Automatic Valves

Process Equipment 154 Valves

 Automatic Valves
Control Loop Components:

•Control loops consist of several components:

•Sensing device
•Transmitter
•Controller
•Transducer
•Automatic valve

Role of Automatic Valves:

•Automatic valves play a crucial role in automated instrument

systems by allowing control from remote locations.
•They are essential in processing industries due to their ability
to regulate fluid flow.

Common Type of Automated Valve:

•The most common type of automated valve is the globe valve.

•Globe valves are preferred for their versatile capability to
handle on/off or throttling functions.

Functionality:

•Control loops utilize on/off or throttling type valves to

regulate fluid flow in and out of a system.
•Automatic valves can control various parameters such as
pressure, temperature, flow, or level in industrial processes.

Process Equipment 155 Valves

 Process Control

Process Equipment 156 Valves

 Automatic Valves
Categories of Types of Control Spring- or Weight-
Automatic Valves: Valves: operated Valves:
• Automatic valves are classified • Control valves can be operated • These valves hold the flow-
into two main categories: by: control element in place until the
• Control valves • Air pressure from under the disc
• Spring- or weight-operated • Electricity becomes strong enough to lift
the element from the seat.
valves • Hydraulics
• Check valves fall into this
category.

Process Equipment 157 Valves

 Automating Valves

Automating Valves:

• Any valve discussed in this chapter can

be automated by installing an actuator.
• The actuator controls the position of
the flow-control element by moving and
controlling the position of the valve
stem.

Types of Actuators:

• Pneumatically (air) operated

• Electrically operated
• Hydraulically operated

Process Equipment 158 Valves

 Pneumatic Actuators

Process Equipment 159 Valves

 Pneumatic Actuators
Most common type of actuator.

Three designs:

•Diaphragm
•Piston
•Vane

Diaphragm Actuator:

•Dome-shaped device with a flexible diaphragm running through the center.

•Typically mounted on the top of the valve.
•Valve position (on or off) is held by a powerful spring.
•Air enters the dome on one side of the flexible diaphragm, controlling the
valve.

Piston Actuator:

•Uses an airtight cylinder and piston to move or position the stem.

•Commonly used with automated gate valves or slide valves.
•Used where a lot of stem travel is needed.

Vane Actuators:

•Direct air against paddles or vanes.

•Frequently used on quarter-turn valves.

Process Equipment 160 Valves

 Diaphragm Actuator

Process Equipment 161 Valves

 Diaphragm Actuator

Process Equipment 162 Valves

 Piston Actuator

Process Equipment 163 Valves

 Piston Actuator

Process Equipment 164 Valves

 Piston Actuator

Process Equipment 165 Valves

 Piston Actuator

Process Equipment 166 Valves

 Vane Actuators

Process Equipment 167 Valves

 Vane Actuators

Process Equipment 168 Valves

 Vane Actuators

Process Equipment 169 Valves

Process Equipment 170 Valves
 Common Terms for Pneumatic
Actuators
Air to Open; Spring to Close:

• Valve fails in the closed position if the

air system goes down.
• Air line typically located on the bottom
of the dome.

Air to Close; Spring to Open:

• Valve fails in the open position if the air

system goes down.
• Air line typically located on the top of
the dome.

Double-Acting, No Spring:

• Air lines are located on both sides of the

dome.

Process Equipment 171 Valves

 Electric Actuators
Solenoid Valve: Motor-Driven Actuator:

• Designed for on/off service. • Attached to the valve stem by a set of

• Wire coil surrounds the upper spring and gears.
stem. • Gear movement controls the position of
• When the wire coil is energized, a the stem.
magnetic field causes the armature to lift • Mechanical devices limit the movement of
and compress the spring. the stem by stopping the motor when the
• Armature is held in place until the current valve is open or closed.
stops.

Process Equipment 172 Valves

 Solenoid Actuators

Process Equipment 173 Valves

 Solenoid Actuators

Process Equipment 174 Valves

 Electric Motor Actuators

Process Equipment 175 Valves

 Electric Motor Actuators

Process Equipment 176 Valves

 Electric Motor Actuators

Process Equipment 177 Valves

 Hydraulic Actuators
Strength: Very strong, capable of
handling high force requirements.

Mechanism: Convert liquid

pressure to mechanical energy.

Components: Utilize a liquid-tight

cylinder and piston to move or
position the valve stem.

Common Applications:
• Automated gate valves.
• Slide valves.

Process Equipment 178 Valves

Process Equipment 179 Valves
 Interlocks and Permissive

Interlocks:

• Purpose:
• Designed to prevent damage to equipment and personnel.
• Stop or prevent the start of certain equipment if preset conditions are not met.
• Types:
• Softwire Interlocks:
• Contained within the logic of a programmable computer.
• Hardwire Interlocks:
• Physical arrangement involving electrical relays.
• Operate independently of the control computer.
• Usually run side by side with computer softwire interlocks.
• Cannot be bypassed and must be satisfied before the associated process can proceed.

180
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Interlocks and Permissive

Permissives:

• Purpose:
• Control a set of conditions that must be satisfied before a piece of equipment can be started.
• Deal with startup items.
• Difference from Hardwire Interlocks:
• Hardwire interlocks deal with shutdown items.
• Characteristics:
• Controlled by the DCS (Distributed Control System).
• Do not necessarily shut down the equipment if conditions are not met.
• Prevent the equipment from starting up if conditions are not satisfied.

181
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Manual and Automatic
Control

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Manual and Automatic Control

Startup Procedure:

• Manual Control:
• Console operators use manual control to establish a steady state flow initially.
• Helps reduce process variations.
• Control Loop Adjustment:
• New processes will cause control loops to swing high and low as they attempt to match the set point.
• Experienced technicians understand the operating valve percentage for steady-state operation.
• Switch to Automatic Control:
• Once the system is stable, the console technician will set the set point on the controller and place it
in AUTO.
• This procedure helps achieve steady-state operation faster and ensures high-quality product output.

183
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Manual and Automatic Control

Automatic Control:

•Utilizes all five elements of the control loop in a dynamic system.

•Measurement device
•Transmitter
•Controller
•Transducer
•Final control element
•Functions:
•Measures, compares, and attempts to control specific processes.
•Control Loops:
•Process units may have hundreds of control loops.
•Controls various aspects like level, pressure, temperature, flow, and analytical processes.
•Benefits:
•Enables process technicians to manage larger and more complex process systems.

184
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Cascaded Control

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Cascaded Control
Cascade Control:

• Uses elements from two separate control

loops.
• Primary controller (Master)
• Secondary controller (Slave)
• Function:
• The primary controller regulates the
overall process.
• The secondary controller manages a
specific part of the process under the
primary controller's supervision.
• Communication:
• Controllers in a cascade system
communicate exclusively with each other.

Process Equipment 186 Instrumentation

Process Equipment 187 Instrumentation
Cascaded Control

Process Systems:

• Can achieve multiple similar objectives simultaneously.

• Example: Distillation System:
• Reflux used to control temperature and improve
product purity.
• Flow control loop ensures steady flow.
• Temperature control is the most crucial factor.
• Temperature Control in Distillation:
• Temperature element placed on the top tray.
• Connected to a transmitter, controller, transducer,
and control valve on the reflux line.
• Conflict Resolution:
• Flow control valve and temperature control valve
may conflict.
• By selecting temperature as the primary controller,
both flow and temperature control can work
together to achieve operational objectives.

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Analytical Control

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Analytical Control

Analytical Control Loop:

• Used to control process variables

like pH, PPM (parts per million), and
product concentrations.
• Example: Cooling Towers:
• Require close control of pH and
PPM.
• Shifts in these variables can cause
serious problems.
• Control systems are used to
manage these analytical variables.

Process Equipment 190 Instrumentation

 Definition:

• Analytical control involves monitoring and

controlling specific chemical compositions,
properties, or other analytical parameters of
a process stream. It ensures that the desired
product quality and process efficiency are
maintained.

Analytical Key Aspects:

Control • Measurement:
• Uses analytical instruments to measure
chemical or physical properties such as pH,
conductivity, concentration of specific
components, moisture content, etc.
• Control:
• Adjusts the process parameters (like flow
rates, temperatures, pressures) based on
the analytical measurements to maintain the
desired conditions.

191
Process Equipment Instrumentation
 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Control Final Control

Summary
Measurement Loop Elements

Process Equipment 192 Instrumentation

 Summary

Process Equipment Instrumentation

 Automation in Process Control:
Pressure Measurement: Flow Measurement Devices:
• Enhances operators' ability to manage large and complex
networks.
• Basic instruments include:
•Most common type: bourdon tube. •Flow transmitter
• Gauges (pressure, level, temperature, flow) •Common pressure scales: •Nutating disc meter
• Differential pressure (DP) cells
• Transmitters (pressure, level, temperature, flow)
•Gauge scale (psig) •Oval gear meter
• Controllers (pneumatic, electronic) •Absolute scale (psia) •Rotameter
• Transducers
• Control valves
•Vacuum scale (Hg) •Turbine flow meter
• Primary elements and sensors (displacer, buoyancy •Weir
float, thermocouples, orifice plates, etc.)
• Computers •Flume

Level Measurements: Control Loop: Controller:

•Identified by a fixed reference point •Group of instruments working together to •Receives a signal from a transmitter,
control a process.
(zero) above or below a product. compares it with a set point, and
•Typically includes:
•Devices classified as direct or adjusts the final control element to
•Transmitter coupled with a sensing device
indirect: or primary element maintain the set point.
•Direct: Physical contact with fluid •Controller •Designs: pneumatic, electronic,
surface. •Transducer digital.
•Indirect: Pressure changes •Control valve
proportional to level changes.

Final Control Elements: Interlocks: Permissive:

•Typically, automated valves but can •Designed to prevent damage by stopping •Special interlocks that control
or preventing equipment start-up if
include motors or other electrical conditions aren't met. conditions required for equipment
devices. •Types: startup.
•Last link in the control loop, making •Hardwire: physical arrangements, can't be •Deal with startup items, while
the actual process change. bypassed. hardwire interlocks deal with
•Softwire: contained within programmable shutdown items.
logic.

Process Equipment 194 Instrumentation

 Table of Contents

Basic Temperature Pressure Flow

Instruments Measurement Measurement Measurement

Level Basic Control Final Control

Summary
Measurement Loop Elements

Process Equipment 195 Instrumentation

 Thank You

Process Equipment Instrumentation