Human Reproduction

Gametogenesis:

a) Spermatogenesis
b) Oogenesis
Spermatogenesis:
• Begins at the onset of puberty.
• Site : Seminiferous Tubule.
• Inner lining of the tubule consists of Male germ cells and Sertoli cells( provide nutrients to
the growing spermatogonia)
• Male germ cells also called Spermatogonia undergo mitosis and differentiation to form
Primary Spermatocyte.
• Primary Spermatocytes undergo 1st meiotic division to form two Secondary Spermatocytes.
• Both the secondary spermatocytes undergo 2nd Meiotic division to form four spermatids.
• Spermatids undergo differentiation to form Spermatozoa. This process is called
Spermiogenesis.
• The sperms are then released from the seminiferous tubules in the accessory duct by a process
called Spermiation.

Role of Hormones:

Hypothalamic hormone: Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone ( GnRH). Stimulates anterior pituitary

to synthesise LH and FSH.
Pitutary Hormones : LH and FSH secreted by anterior pituitary.
• LH- Leutinising Hormone. Acts on Leydig cells to synthesise Androgens ( steroid
hormones responsible for male characteristics) like Testosterone.
• FSH- Follicle Stimulating Hormone. It acts on Sertoli cells to stimulate secretion of some
factors which help in Spermiogenesis.

Testicular Hormone : Testosterone.

• Testosterone stimulates the process of Spermatogenesis.

Structure of Sperm:
• A sperm is composed of a plasma membrane that encloses
o a head: The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus. The anterior portion
is covered by a cap like structure , acrosome. The acrosome contain enzymes that
help in fertilisation of the ovum.
o Neck connects the head with the middle piece.
o a middle piece: It contain a lot of mitochondria which provide energy for the
movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilisation.
o a tail: It is responsible for motility of sperm and hence fertilisation.
• Path of sperms:

Seminiferous tubules ----------Rete Testes------------- Vasa efferentia------------

Epididymis ----------- Vasa deferens --------------- ejaculatory duct ----------- Urethral meatus.

Seminal Plasma
• Seminal Plasma: Consists of secretions of seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral
gland. It contains fructose, calcium, certain enzymes. It provide nutrients to the sperm and
secretion of bulbourethral gland help in lubrication of penis.
• Semen: Seminal Plasma + Sperms.

Oogenesis:
• Begins in the fetal stage
• Site: Ovary
• In the fetal ovary, Oogonia undergo mitosis and differentiation to form Primary Oocytes.
• Primary Oocyte undergo Meiosis I. Meiosis I begins in the fetal ovary and is arrested at
Prophase I stage (diplotene).
• No more oogonia are added after birth.

• At the onset of puberty Meiosis I is completed and Secondary oocyte is formed.

• Meiosis I is an unequal division and first polar body is formed along with the Secondary
oocyte.
• The polar body is small in size and gets degenerated. Secondary Oocyte retains most of the
cytoplasm.
• Secondary Oocyte undergo meiosis II. It gets arrested at Metaphase II.
• When the sperm enters the Secondary Oocyte Meiosis II is completed, and second polar body
and ootid is formed.
• Ootid then forms ovum
 • Thus a single ovum is formed from one primary Oocyte.

Menstrual Cycle:
The cyclical changes that take place in the activities of ovaries and accessory ducts as well as
hormones during the reproductive phase in primates is called as Menstrual Cycle.

1. Cyclical changes in ovary:

Maturation of follicles ------------------- oogenesis ------------------- ovulation----------------------
formation of corpus luteum.
2. Cyclical changes in hormones:
a. Pitutary hormone: FSH and LH
b. Ovarian hormones : Estrogen and Progestrone.
At the onset of puberty hypothalamus releases GnRH which stimulates anterior pituitary to release
hormones FSH and LH.

FSH ------------- acts on ovary----------- cause maturation of follicles ( primary follicle --------
secondary follicle --------------- tertiary follicle ----------- Graafian follicle)------------ as the follicles
mature granulose cells are added. ------------------Granulosa cells secrete hormone estrogen-------------
--- estrogen level increases during maturation of follicles ( 1 to 14 day).

LH---------- At 14th day LH surge is observed ------------ LH causes rupturing of Graafian follicle (
Ovulation)--------------- secondary oocyte is released from the ovary and the remaining cells of the
follicle forms Corpus Luteum----------------- Corpus Luteum synthesise hormone progesterone --------
---- After 14th day level of progesterone increases ------------------ if fertilisation doesn’t occur----------
Corpus luteum degenerates and Progestrone level decreases.

Highlighted portion is for understanding.

Answer to be written in Exam.

Q. 1 Explain the events that take place during Menstrual Cycle

Ans: The major events that take place during menstrual cycle can be divided into following phases;
a) Bleeding Phase or menstrual phase:
• During this phase menstrual flow occurs.
• It lasts for 3-5 days
• The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus and
blood vessels which forms liquid that comes out through vagina.
• Level of Pitutary( FSH and LH) and ovarian hormones (estrogen and progesterone) is
low.
• It occurs only when the released ovum is not fertilised.
b) Follicular Phase or Proliferative phase:
Lasts from 5- 14th day
Ovarian Changes
• During this phase the primary follicles in the ovary matures to become fully mature
Graafian follicle.
• Meiosis I is completed in Primary oocyte and secondary oocyte is formed. Meiosis II
begins in the secondary oocyte and is arrested at metaphase II stage.

Hormonal Changes
• Estrogen level increases as the follicles mature and is at the peak at 14th day.
• Pitutary hormones FSH increases gradually and is maximum at 14th day.
• At around 14th day there is an abrupt increase in LH leading to rupturing of Graafian
follicle hence ovulation.
• Level of progesterone is less.

Uterine Changes
• Simultaneously endometrial lining of uterus regenerates through proliferation.

c) Luteal Phase:
 Lasts from 14th to 29th day
Ovarian Changes:
• After ovulation the remaining part of Graafian follicle transforms as the corpus
luteum.
• In the absence of fertilisation corpus luteum degenerates.
Hormonal Changes:
• Corpus luteum synthesises progesterone and hence the level of hormone progesterone
increases.
• The hormone LH , FSH and estrogen level decreases.

Uterine Changes:
• The endometrial lining is maintained by the hormone progesterone.
• This endometrial lining is essential for implantation of the fertilised egg.
• In the absence of fertilisation corpus luteum degenerates and endometrial lining
disintegrates leading to menstruation.

Fertilisation and implantation

• After ovulation the secondary oocyte ( arrested at metaphase II stage) is released from the
ovary.
• This oocyte is captured by the fimbriae and reaches the ampulla isthmus region.
• Simultaneously if coitus take place the sperms are released in the reproductive tract of the
female.
• The sperms reach ampulla isthmus region via vagina , cervix and uterus.
• Thus both the gametes come in contact with each other.

Events that take place during fertilisation

• The sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer of the ovum and induces changes in
the membrane that block the entry of additional sperms (prevent polyspermy).
• The secretions of acrosome ( head of sperm) help the sperm to enter into the cytoplasm of the
ovum through zona pellucida and the plasma membrane.
• Meiosis II is completed and second polar body along with haploid ovum is formed.
• The polar body degenerates and the ovum fuses with the sperm to form zygote.

POST FERTILISATION EVENTS

Embryogenesis
• Zygote formed after fertilisation undergo mitosis division as it starts moving towards the
uterus.
• The mitotic division result into formation of 2,4,8,16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
• The embryo with 8to 16 blastomeres is called morula.
• Morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst as it continues to move into the
uterus.
• The blastomeres arrange into an outer layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells
attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.

Implantation
• The trophoblast layer gets attached to the endometrium and the inner cell mass gets
differentiated as the embryo.
 • The blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. This is called
implantation and it leads to pregnancy.

Pregnancy and embryonic development

• After implantation, finger like projections appear on the trophoblast called chorionic villi.
• Choronic villi are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.
• The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and forms
structural and functional unit between the developing foetus and maternal body called
placenta.

Role of placenta
• Facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also removal of carbon di
oxide and excretory/ waste material produced by the embryo.
• Placenta is connected through an umbilical cord which helps in the transport of substances to
and from the embryo.
• Placenta acts as an endocrine gland- It secrete hormones like Human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc.

Hormones synthesised only during pregnancy

• hCG, hPL, relaxin ( secreted by ovary during the later phase of pregnancy).
• Levels of hormones estrogen, progesterone, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine etc increases in the
maternal blood. This is required for supporting fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother
and maintenance of pregnancy.
Changes in the embryo after implantation
• Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass differentiates to form germ layers-
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
• Inner cell mass contain certain cells called stem cells which are totipotent and can give rise to
all the tissues and organs.
 • The germ layers give rise to all tissues ( organs) in adults.

Embryonic development at various months of pregnancy.

• Gestation period- 9 months ( 3 trimesters)
• 1st Trimester-
o After 1 month- Heart is formed
o End of 2nd month- limbs and digits
o End of 3rd month- most of the major organ systems are formed ( limbs, external
genital organs )
o During 5th month- first movement of foetus and appearance of hair on the head.
o End of 6th month – Body is covered with fine hair, eyelids separate and eyelashes are
formed.
o End of 9 months- Foetus is fully developed.
o
Parturition and Lactation
• Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes expulsion/ delivery of the
foetus. This process of delivery of the foetus is called parturition.
• It is induced by neuroendocrine mechanism.
• The signals of parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta which
induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex.
• This triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
• Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscles and causes stronger contractions, which in turn
stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
• The contractions become stronger leading to expulsion of the foetus out of the uterus through
the birth canal- parturition.
• After parturition, placenta is expelled out of the uterus.

Lactation:
• Mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during pregnancy and starts producing
milk towards the end of pregnancy by the process called lactation.
• The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which contains
several antibodies absolutely essential to develop resistance for the new born babies.