Electric Drives

Hiren C Rana
Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Technology & Engineering
The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
 Drives
• Drive : Systems employed for motion control are called drives and may employ
any of the prime movers. Electric drive becomes more popular because of its
simplicity, reliability, cleanliness, easiness, and smooth control. Both AC and DC
motors are used as electric drives; however, the AC system is preferred
because:
• It is cheaper.
• It can be easily transmitted with low-line losses.
• It can be easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises within prescribed limits.
• It is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without appreciable loss of power.
• In spite of the advantages of AC motor, sometimes DC motor is used because:
• In some processes, such as electrochemical and battery charging, DC is the only
type of power that is suitable.
• The speed control of DC motors is easy rather than AC; thus, for variable speed
applications such as lift and Ward Leonard system, the DC motors are preferred.
• DC series motor is suited for traction work because of high starting torque
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ELECTRIC DRIVE
Types of Electric Drive
• Group Drive : when one prime mover or motor is used for the number
of machine tools on common shaft then the drive is called as group
drive . it is also sometimes called as line shaft drive.
• Individual Drive : Individual machine is fitted with its own motor such that
drilling machine, lathe machine etc.
• Multi Motor Drive: In multi motor drive, separate motors are used for
operating different parts of same mechanism.
Choice of Motors
• For particular load the appropriate type of motor must be used. An
application's specifications such as voltage, current, torque, and velocity
will determine which motor is most appropriate so be sure to pay
attention to its requirements. For selecting motor following factor must be
taken into consideration
• Cost
• Electrical characteristics
• Mechanical characteristics
• Size and Vetting
• Type of drive
• Nature of supply etc…
Characteristics of DC Motor
• Torque Vs. Armature current
• Speed Vs. Armature current
• Output Vs. Armature current
• Speed Vs. Torque
Characteristics of shunt motor
• The field winding connected across the armature terminals called as shunt
motor
Torque, Speed and output Vs. Armature Current
• From the speed equation of DC shunt motor:

• For DC shunt motor, the flux per pole is considered to be constant.

Speed Vs. Torque
• During the steady-state operation of the motor, the voltage equation of the
armature circuit is given by
V = E b + I aR a
• The back emf of motor can be expressed as Eb = K φ N
Speed Vs. Torque
• Substituting in equation of speed

• Since the flux is constant

• Where K1 = Kφ
• When V and Ra are kept constant, the speed torque characteristic is a straight
line
Characteristics of DC series motor
• In series motor, the field windings are connected in series with armature
terminals as shown. The field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding, the load current (IL) is equals to the armature current (Ia) or the series
field current (Ise).
Torque Vs. Armature Current
• In DC motors, torque is directly proportional to the product of flux per pole (φ)
and armature current (Ia).
∴ T ∝ φ Ia
• Up to the saturation point, the flux is proportional to the field current and
hence the armature current:
i.e., φ ∝ Ise ∝ Ia
• Therefore, the torque is proportional to the square of the armature current.

• Torque and the armature currents are parabolas, up to saturation point. After
saturation, the flux (φ) is almost independent of the excitation current and so
the torque is proportional to the armature current, i.e., T ∝ Ia.
Speed Vs. Armature Current
• The speed equation of DC series motor, the speed is directly proportional to
the back emf and is inversely proportional to flux

• Where Eb = V − IaRse
• When the armature current increases, the voltage drop in the armature
resistance and the field resistance increases, but under the normal conditions,
the voltage drop is small and it is negligible. Hence, V = Eb and it is constant
Speed Vs. Torque
• This relation shows the variation of speed with the armature current and it will
be a rectangular hyperbola
Characteristics of DC compound wound motors
• Compound motors have both series and shunt field. If the series field excitation
aids with the shunt excitation, then the motor is said to be cumulatively
compounded. If the series field opposes the shunt field excitation, it is known
as differential compound motor. The characteristics of such motors lie in
between shunt and series motors.
• Cumulative-compound motor : The series field adds with the shunt field
winding, as load is applied to the motor i.e current will increase, the flux is
increased, and due to this reason, the motor speed slightly decreases. Such
machines are used where series characteristics are required. Due to the shunt
field, the winding speed will not become excessively high, but due to the series
field winding, it will be able to take heavy loads. Compound wound motors
have the greatest application with loads that require high starting torques or
pulsating load.
Characteristics of DC compound wound motors
• Differential Compound Motor: In this motor, the series field opposes the shunt
field and the flux is decreased, as load is applied to the motor.
• The speed-armature current and the torque–armature current characteristics
of both the cumulative and the differential compound motors are shown
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
• Three-phase induction motors are simple in design, rugged in construction with
the absence of commutator, and reliable in service
Torque equation
• If the induction motor is rotating at slip s then
• Induced emf of rotor = sE2
• Rotor resistance = R2
• Rotor reactance = sX2
𝑠𝐸2
• Rotor current /phase 𝐼2 =
𝑅ሶ 22 + 𝑠𝑥2 2
Condition for maximum torque

• where Ns is synchronous speed in rps at standstill slip S = 1; therefore, the

expression for starting torque may be obtained by putting S = 1

• The torque developed by the motor under running condition mainly depends
on slip at which motor is running. Therefore, the torque will be maximum
when:
Condition for maximum torque
• By differentiating torque w.r.t. ‘S' we get:
Condition for maximum torque
• The maximum torque corresponding to slip Sm = R2/X2 is given by:
Torque ratios
Torque–speed and Torque–slip characteristics
•A
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• When the motor rotates, the load of the system may rotate or may go
through a translational motion. In the translational motion, the position
of the body changes from point to point in space. The speed of the load
may be different from that of the motor.
• If the load has different parts, their speed may be different. Some part of
the rotor may rotate while others may go through a translational motion.
The equivalent load system of the motor is shown in the figure
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• Where J – the polar moment of inertia of motor-load system, referred to
the motor shaft, kg-m2
ωm – instantaneous angular velocity of the motor shaft, rad/sec.
T – the instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m.
T1 – the instantaneous value of load torque, referred to a motor shaft, N-
m.
• The equation shown below described the motor load equation. This
equation is applicable for variable inertia drives such as mine, winders,
reel, drives, industrial robots. In this equation, the load torque includes
friction and windage torque of the motor.

• For constant inertia drive dj/dt = 0. Therefore the equation becomes

 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• The equation shows that the load developed by the motor is counter-
balanced by a load torque T1 and a dynamic torque jdωm/dt. The torque
component j(dωm/dt) is called dynamic torque because it is present only
during transient operations.
• The acceleration or deacceleration of the drive mainly depends on
whether the load torque is greater or less than the motor torque. During
acceleration, the motor supplies the load torque along with an additional
torque component jdωm/dt to overcome the drive inertia.
• The drives which have a large inertia must increase the load torque by a
large amount for getting sufficient acceleration. The drive which requires
a fast transient response, their motor torque should be maintained at the
excessive value and motor load system should be designed with a lower
possible inertia.
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• The energy associated with dynamic torque is stored in the form of
kinetic energy and given by the equation jdω2m/dt. During the
deacceleration, the dynamic torque has a negative sign. Thus it assists the
motor developed torque T and maintains the drive motion by extracting
energy from stored kinetic energy.

Power
Function Quadrant Speed Torque
Output
Forward I + + +
Motoring
Forward II + - -
Braking
Reverse III - - +
Motoring
Reverse IV - + -
Braking
 Four Quadrant Operation of Motor
• Four Quadrant Operation of any drives or Motor means that the
machine operates in four quadrants. They are Forward Braking, Forward
motoring, Reverse motoring and Reverse braking. A motor operates in
two modes – Motoring and Braking. A motor drive capable of operating
in both directions of rotation and of producing both motoring and
regeneration is called a Four Quadrant variable speed drive.
• In motoring mode, the machine works as a motor and converts the
electrical energy into mechanical energy, supporting its motion.
In braking mode, the machine works as a generator and converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy and as a result, it opposes the
motion. The Motor can work in both, forward and reverse directions, i.e.,
in motoring and braking operations.
 Four Quadrant Operation of Motor
• The product of angular speed and torque is equal to the power
developed by a motor. For the multi-quadrant operation of drives, the
following conventions about the signs of torque and speed are used.
When the motor is rotated in the forward direction the speed of the
motor is considered positive. The drives which operate only in one
direction, forward speed will be their normal speed.
• In loads involving up and down motions, the speed of the motor which
causes upward motion is considered to be in forward motion. For
reversible drives, forward speed is chosen arbitrarily. The rotation in the
opposite direction gives reverse speed which is denoted by a negative
sign.
• The rate of change of speed positively in the forward direction or the
torque which provides acceleration is known as Positive motor torque.
In the case of retardation, the motor torque is considered negative. Load
torque is opposite to the positive motor torque in the direction.
 Four Quadrant Operation of Motor
• The figure below shows the four-quadrant operation of drives:
 Four Quadrant Operation of Motor
• In the I quadrant power developed is positive and the machine is
working as a motor supplying mechanical energy. The I (first) quadrant
operation is called Forward Motoring. II (second) quadrant operation
is known as Braking. In this quadrant, the direction of rotation is positive,
and the torque is negative, and thus, the machine operates as a
generator developing a negative torque, which opposes the motion.
• The kinetic energy of the rotating parts is available as electrical energy
which may be supplied back to the mains. In dynamic braking, the energy
is dissipated in the resistance. The III (third) quadrant operation is
known as the reverse motoring. The motor works, in the reverse
direction. Both the speed and the torque have negative values while the
power is positive.
• In the IV (fourth) quadrant, the torque is positive, and the speed is
negative. This quadrant corresponds to the braking in the reverse
motoring mode.
 Four Quadrant Operation of Motor
• Applications of Four Quadrant Operation
• Compressor, pump and fan type load requires operation in the I
quadrant only. As their operation is unidirectional, they are called one
quadrant drive systems.
• Transportation drives require operation in both directions.
• If regeneration is necessary, application in all four quadrants may be
required. If not, then the operation is restricted to quadrants I and III,
and thus dynamic braking or mechanical braking may be required.
• In hoist drives, a four-quadrant operation
is needed.
• The four-quadrant operation and its relationship to speed, torque and
power output are summarized.
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
•.
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• The stiction however disappears at a finite speed and then windage and
viscous friction dominate. Because of large stiction and need for
accelerating a heavy mass, the motor torque required for starting a train
is much larger than what is required to run it at full speed. Torque in a
coiler drive is also a function of speed. It is approximately hyperbolic in
nature as shown in Fig. The developed power is nearly constant at all
speeds.
• Fig. c shows the traction load torque to be function of only speed,
because we have assumed a levelled ground. In actual practice the train
has to negotiate upward and downward slopes. Consequently, a torque
due to gravity, which varies with position is also present. Furthermore,
when a train takes a turn the frictional force on wheels changes
substantially. Thus, traction is an example where the load torque also
depends on position or path followed.
• Classification of Load Torques can be broadly classified into two
categories-
[Link] and
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• Components of Load Torques: Tl can be further divided into following
components
• (i) Friction torque TF :
• Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the load.
TF is equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor shaft.
• (ii) Windage torque, Tw :
• When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion. This is
known as windage torque.
• (iii) Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, TL:
• Nature of this Components of Load Torques depends on particular application.
It may be constant and independent of speed; it may be some function of
speed; it may depend on the position or path followed by load; it may be time
invariant or time-variant; it may vary cyclically and its nature may also change
with the load’s mode of operation.
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• Variation of friction torque with speed is shown in Fig. a. Its value at
standstill is much higher than its value slightly above zero speed. Friction
at zero speed is called stiction or static friction. In order for drive to start,
the motor torque should at least exceed stiction. Friction torque can be
resolved into three components (see Fig. b). Component Tv which varies
linearly with speed is called viscous friction and is given by
• where B is the viscous friction
coefficient.
• Another component Tc, which is
independent of speed, is known
as Coulomb friction. Third
component Ts accounts for
additional torque present at
standstill. Since Ts is present only
at standstill it is not taken into
account in the dynamic analysis.
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• Windage torque Tw, which is proportional to speed squared, is given by
• where C is a constant.
• From the above discussion, for finite speeds,
• In many applications (Tc + Cω2m) is very small compared to Bωm and
negligible compared to TL. In order to simplify the analysis, term (Tc +
Cω2m) is approximately accounted by updating the value of viscous
friction coefficient, B. With this approximation, from previous basic Eq.
• If there is a torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the motor, an
additional Components of Load Torques, known as Coupling Torque,
will be present. Coupling torque (Te) is given by
• where θe is the torsion angle of coupling (radians) and Ke the rotational
stiffness of the shaft (Nm/rad).
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• In most applications, shaft can be assumed to be perfectly stiff and
coupling torque Te can be neglected. Its presence in appreciable
magnitude has adverse effects on motor. There is potential energy
associated with coupling torque and kinetic energy with the dynamic
torque. Exchange of energy between these two energy storage’s tends
to produce oscillations which are damped by viscous friction torque Bωm.
When B is small, oscillations occur producing noise. Further, shaft may
also break when the drive is started.
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• A low-speed hoist is an example of a load where the torque is constant
and independent of the speed
• At low speeds, windage torque is negligible. Therefore, net torque is
mainly due to gravity which is constant and independent of speed. There
are drives where coulomb friction dominates over other torque
components. Consequently, torque is independent of speed, e.g. paper
mill drive.
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• Fans, compressors, aeroplanes, centrifugal pumps, ship-propellors,
coilers, high speed hoists, traction etc. are example of the case where
load torque is a function of speed. In fans, compressors and aeroplanes,
the windage dominates, consequently, load torque is proportional to
speed squared Fig. a.
• Windage is the opposition offered by air to the motion. Similar nature of
Classification of Load Torques can be expected when the motion is
opposed by any other fluid, e.g. by water in centrifugal pumps and ship-
propellors, giving the same characteristic as shown in Fig. a. In a high
speed hoist, viscous friction and windage also have appreciable
magnitude, in addition to gravity, thus giving the speed-torque curve of
Fig. b. Nature of speed-torque characteristic of a traction load when
moving on a levelled ground is shown in Fig. c. Because of its heavy
mass, the stiction is large. Near zero speed, net torque is mainly due to
stiction.
LOAD EQUALIZATION
• The load fluctuations take place in many of the industrial drives such as rolling
mills, planning machines presses, and reciprocating pumps, where the load on
the motor varies widely within a span of few seconds. The sudden and peak load
requires very large current from the supply results high voltage drop in the
system or alternately would require very large size of cables. It is very essential
to smooth out fluctuating load is known as ‘load equalization’. The load
equalization involves the storage of energy during the off-peak period and gives
out during the peak load period.
• Load equalization process is commonly achieved by means of a flywheel. A
flywheel is nothing but a big wheel that is mounted on the same shaft of motor,
if the speed of the motor is not to be reversed or a heavy rotating body that acts
as a reservoir for absorbing and redistributing stored energy is also known as
flywheel.
• To operate the flywheel efficiently, the driving motor should have drooping
speed characteristics.
LOAD EQUALIZATION
• Function of flywheel : The various models of flywheel are shown. During the
light load, the acceleration of the flywheel is increased, and it stores the kinetic
energy and at the time of peak load, the flywheel slows down, and the stored
kinetic energy is given out to the load; so that, the demand of the load from the
motor or supply is reduced. The flywheel is not used with motors having
constant speed for example synchronous motor. The torque developed by the
motor and the load torque required as well as the speed variations with time are
shown.
LOAD EQUALIZATION
• Flywheel calculations : Let us consider a flywheel is attached to a variable
speed motor to achieve load equalization.
• Let TL be the load torque (assumed constant during particular interval) in N-m.
TM is the motor torque in N-m, TF is the flywheel torque in N-m, T0 is the no-load
torque in N-m, ω0 is the motor speed on no-load in rad/sec, ω is the motor
speed at any instant in rad/sec, and J is the moment of inertia of flywheel in kg-
m2.
S = (ω0 − ω) = motor slip
• We will take here two different cases (i) load on the motor is increasing and
case (ii) load on the motor is decreasing

• Case (i): Let us consider that the load on the motor is increasing; during this
period, the flywheel will decelerate and impart its stored kinetic energy to the
load. The torque required to be supplied by the motor:
TM = T L − TF
LOAD EQUALIZATION
• The kinetic energy given by the flywheel when its speed reduced from ω0 to ω
is:

• Then, Equation becomes KE = JωS

• The power given out by the flywheel = the rate of change of the energy given
up by the flywheel.
LOAD EQUALIZATION

• Substituting value TF in TM

• if the slip i.e drop in speed limited to 10%,

the slip is proportional to motor torque:
i.e., S ∝ TM S = KTM Integrating equation
LOAD EQUALIZATION
• A where C is proportionality constant At time t = 0, the motor torque will be
equals to the no-load torque i.e., at t = 0, TM = T0 The value of ‘C’ can be
determined by using the initial conditions. Substituting condition

∴ C = −loge (TL − T0).

• Substituting value of C

• Applying exponentials on both sides

LOAD EQUALIZATION
• Case (ii): Now consider that the load is totally removed or decreasing, the
motor starts accelerating and so the KE is stored by the flywheel. Hence, the
flywheel regains its normal speed; therefore, the slip decreases, i.e., is
negative
• Now, motor torque will be substituting

• We know that S ∝ TM:

Integrating on both sides

LOAD EQUALIZATION
• Where ‘C2’ is integration constant. The value of constant can be obtained by
substituting the initial conditions

• By substituting ‘C2’

Applying exponentials on both sides

LOAD EQUALIZATION
• Example: A 15-HP, three-phase, eight-pole, and 50-Hz induction motor
provided with a flywheel has to supply a load torque of 600 N-m for 10 s
followed by a no-load during which the flywheel regains the full speed. The full-
load slip of the motor is 4% and the torque−speed curve may be assumed linear
over the working range. Find the moment of inertia of the flywheel if the motor
torque is not to exceed twice the full-load torque.
3 Point Starter
• 3 Point Starter is a device whose main function is starting and maintaining
the speed of the DC shunt motor. The 3 point starter connects the resistance
in series with the circuit which reduces the high starting current and hence
protects the machines from damage. Mainly there are three main points or
terminals in 3 point starter of the DC motor. They are as follows
• L is known as the Line terminal, which is connected to the positive supply.
• A is known as the armature terminal and is connected to the armature windings.
• F is known as the field terminal and is connected to the field terminal windings.
• The 3 Point DC Shunt Motor starter is shown in the figure.
• It consists of a graded resistance R to limit the starting current. The handle H is
kept in the OFF position by a spring S. The handle H is manually moved, for
starting the motor and when it makes contact with resistance stud one, the
motor is said to be in the START position. In this initial start position, the field
winding of the motor receives the full supply voltage, and the armature
current is limited to a certain safe value by the resistance (R = R1 + R2 + R3 +
R4).
3 Point Starter
• The starter handle is now moved from stud to stud, and this builds up
the speed of the motor until it reaches the RUN position. The studs are
the contact point of the resistance. In the RUN position, three main
points are considered. They are as follows
• The motor attains the full speed.
• The supply is direct across both the windings
of the motor.
• The resistance R is completely cut out
• The handle H is held in RUN position by
an electromagnet energized by a no-volt
trip coil (NVC). This no-volt trip coil is
connected in series with the field winding
of the motor.
3 Point Starter
• In the event of switching OFF, or when the supply voltage falls below a
predetermined value, or the complete failure of supply while the motor is
running, NVC is de-energized.
• The handle is released and pulled back to the OFF position by the action
of the spring. The current to the motor is cut off, and the motor is not
restarted without a resistance R in the armature circuit. The no voltage
coil also provides protection against an open circuit in the field windings.
• The No Voltage Coil (NVC) is called NO-
VOLT or UNDERVOLTAGE protection of the motor. Without this
protection, the supply voltage might be restored with the handle in the
RUN position. The full line voltage is directly applied to the armature. As
a result, a large amount of current is generated.
3 Point Starter
• The other protective device incorporated in the starter is overload
protection. The Over Load Trip Coil (OLC) and the No Voltage Coil
(NVC) provide the overload protection of the motor. The overload coil is
made up of a small electromagnet, which carries the armature current.
The magnetic pull of the Overload trip coil is insufficient to attract the
strip P, for the normal values of the armature current
• When the motor is overloaded, that is the armature current exceeds the
normal rated value, P is attracted by the electromagnet of the OLC and
closes the contact aa thus, the No Voltage Coil is short-circuited, shown
in the figure of 3 Point Starter. As a result, the handle H is released, which
returns to the OFF position, and the motor supply is cut off.
• To stop the motor, the starter handle should never be pulled back as this
would result in burning the starter contacts. Thus, to stop the motor, the
main switch of the motor should be opened.
3 Point Starter
• The following drawbacks of a 3 point starter are as follows:-
• The 3 point starter suffers from a serious drawback for motors with a large
variation of speed by adjustment of the field rheostat.
• To increase the speed of the motor, the field resistance should be increased.
Therefore, the current through the shunt field is reduced.
• The field current may become very low because of the addition of high resistance
to obtain a high speed.
• A very low field current will make the holding electromagnet too weak to
overcome the force exerted by the spring.
• The holding magnet may release the arm of the starter during the normal
operation of the motor and thus, disconnect the motor from the line. This is not a
desirable action.
• Hence, to overcome this difficulty, the 4 Point Starter is used.
4 Point Starter
• A 4 Point Starter is almost similar in functional characteristics to 3 Point
Starter. In the absence of back EMF, the 4 Point Starter acts as a current
limiting device while the starting of the DC motor. 4 Point Starter also
acts as a protecting device.
• The basic difference in 4 Point Starter as compared to 3 Point Starter is
that in this a holding coil is removed from the shunt field circuit. This coil
after removing is connected across the line in series with a current
limiting resistance R. The studs are the contact points of the resistance
represented by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in the figure. The schematic connection
diagram of a 4 Point Starter is shown:
4 Point Starter
4 Point Starter
• The above arrangement forms three parallel circuits. They are as follows:-
• Armature, starting the resistance and the shunt field winding.
• Variable resistance and the shunt field winding.
• Holding coil and the current limiting resistance.
• With the above three arrangements of the circuit, there will be no effect on the
current through the holding coil if there is any variation in the speed of the
motor or any change in field current of the motor. This is because the two
circuits are independent of each other.
• The only limitation or drawback of the 4 point starter is that it cannot limit or
control the speed of the motor. If the field winding of the motor gets opened
under the running condition, the field current automatically reduces to zero.
But as some of the residual flux is still present in the motor, and we know that
the flux is inversly proportional to the speed of the motor. Therefore, the
speed of the motor increases drastically, which is dangerous, and thus
protection is not possible. This sudden increase in the speed of the motor is
known as High-Speed Action of the Motor.
4 Point Starter
• Nowadays automatic push-button starters are also used. In the
automatic starters, the ON push button is pressed to connect the current
limiting starting resistors in series with the armature circuit. As soon as
the full line voltage is available to the armature circuit, this resistor is
gradually disconnected by an automatic controlling arrangement.
• The circuit is disconnected when the OFF button is pressed. Automatic
starter circuits have been developed using electromagnetic contactors
and time delay relays. The main advantage of the automatic starter is
that it enables even the inexperienced operator to start and stop the
motor without any difficulty.
Star Delta Starter
• The Star Delta Starter is a very common type of starter and is used
extensively as compared to the other type of starting methods of the
induction motor. A star delta is used for a cage motor designed to run
normally on the delta-connected stator winding. The connection of a
three-phase induction motor with a star-delta starter is shown in the
figure below
Squirrel
cage rotor
Star Delta Starter
• When switch S is in the START position, the stator
windings are connected in the star as shown
• When the motor picks up the speed, about 80 percent
of its rated speed, the switch S is immediately put into
the RUN position. As a result, a stator winding which
was in star connection is changed
into DELTA connection now. The delta connection of
the stator winding is shown in the figure
• Firstly, the stator winding is connected in star and then
in Delta so that the starting line voltage of the motor is
reduced to one-third as compared to the starting
voltage with the windings connected in delta. At the
starting of an induction motor when the windings of
the stator are star-connected, each stator phase gets a
voltage VL/√3. Here VL is the line voltage.
Star Delta Starter
• Since the developed torque is proportional to the square of the voltage
applied to an induction motor. Star delta starter reduces the starting
torque to one-third that is obtained by direct delta starting.
• At the starting of the induction motor, stator windings are connected in
star and, therefore, the voltage across each phase winding is equal
to 1/√3 times the line voltage.
• VL is the line voltage,
• Istyp is the starting current per phase with the stator windings connected in star,
• Istyl is the starting line current with the stator winding in the star.
• For star connection, the line current is equal to the phase current.
Therefore
Star Delta Starter
• If,
• V1 is the phase voltage,
• VL is the line voltage,
• IstΔp is the starting current per phase by direct switching with the stator windings
connected in delta,
• IstΔl is the starting line current by direct switching with the stator windings in delta,
• IscΔp is the short circuit phase current by direct switching with the stator windings
in delta,
• Ze10 is the standstill equivalent impedance per phase of the motor, referred to as
stator.
Star Delta Starter
• For Delta connection, the line current is equal to the root three times the
phase current. Therefore, Ip = VL / Z

• Thus, with star delta starter, the starting current from the main supply is
one-third to that of direct switching in the delta. Now, Torque
proportional to V2
Star Delta Starter
• Hence, with star delta starting, the starting torque is reduced to one-
third of the starting torque obtained with the direct switching in the
delta.

• Where, IflΔp is the full load phase current with the winding in the Delta
but
Star Delta Starter

• Hence, equation (4) shown above gives the starting torque of an induction
motor in the star delta starting method.
Direct On Line Starter (DOL)
• Direct On Line Starter method is a common method of starting of Cage
Induction Motor. The motor is connected through a starter across the full supply
voltage. The Direct On Line Starter Method figure is shown below
Direct On Line Starter (DOL)
• It consists a coil operated contactor C controlled by start and stop push button
• The buttons which may be installed in a convenient place away from the
starter. The start button is held open by a spring. On pressing
the START pushbutton S1, the contactor C is energised from two line
conductors L1 and L2.
• The three main contacts M and the auxiliary contact A are closed. The
terminals a and b are short-circuited. The motor is then connected to the
supply mains. The S1 button moves back under the spring action as soon as
the pressure is released. The coil C remains energised through ab.
• Thus, the main contact M remains closed, and the motor continues to get
supplies. Therefore, contact A is known as Hold-On-Contact. The stop button
S2 is normally held closed by the spring. If the S2 button is pressed
to STOP the motor, the supply through the contactor coil C is disconnected.
As the coil C is de-energized, the main contacts M and the auxiliary contact A
are opened. The supply to the motor is disconnected, and the motor is
stopped.
Direct On Line Starter (DOL)
• Undervoltage Protection: When the voltage falls below a certain
value or when the supply fails or disrupted during the operation of the
motor, the coil C is de-energized. Hence, the motor is disconnected from
the supply Overload Protection
• The motor is overloaded, one or all the overload coils (O.L.C) are
energised. The normally closed contact D is opened, and the contactor
coil C is de-energized to disconnect the supply from the motor. Fuses are
provided in the circuit for short circuit protection.
• In direct on line starting the starting current may be as large as ten times
the full load current, and the starting torque is equal to full load torque.
Such a large starting current produces an excessive voltage drop in the
line which supplies power to the motor.
Direct On Line Starter (DOL)
• Let,
• Ist be the starting current drawn from the supply mains per phase.
• Ifl is the full load current drawn from the supply mains per phase.
• Ʈest is the starting torque.
• Sfl is the slip at full load.
• As we know that the rotor copper loss = s x rotor input

• At starting, s = 1, I2 = I2st, Ʈe = Ʈest

• Therefore,
Direct On Line Starter (DOL)
• At full load slip is s = sfl, I2 = I2fl, Ʈe = Ʈefl

• If the no load current is neglected

Direct On Line Starter (DOL)
• Equating the above equation (6) and (7), we get
• From the equation (5) and (8) we get

• If V1 is the stator voltage per phase equivalent

• Ze10 is the standstill impedance per phase of the motor referred to the
stator then the current at the starting is given by the equation shown
below
•
• The starting current is equal to the short circuit current. Combining
equation (9) and (10) we get
Autotransformer Starter
• An Autotransformer Starter is suitable for both star and delta
connected motors. In this method, the starting current is limited by using
a three-phase autotransformer to reduce the initial stator applied
voltage. The figure below shows the motor with the autotransformer
starter:
Autotransformer Starter
• It is provided with a number of tappings. The starter is connected to one
particular tapping to obtain the most suitable starting voltage. A double-
throw switch S is used to connect the autotransformer in the circuit for
starting. When the handle H of the switch S is in the START position, the
primary of the autotransformer is connected to the supply line, and the
motor is connected to the secondary of the autotransformer.
• When the motor picks up the speed of about 80 percent of its rated
value, the handle H is quickly moved to the RUN position. Thus, the
autotransformer is disconnected from the circuit, and the motor is
directly connected to the line and achieves its full rated voltage. The
handle is held in the RUN position by the under voltage relay.
• If the supply voltage fails or falls below a certain value, the handle is
released and returns to the OFF position. Thermal overload relays
provide overload protection whenever required.
Autotransformer Starter
• Figure (a) shown below represents the condition when the motor is
directly switched on to lines and figure (b) shows when the motor is
started with the help of an autotransformer.
Autotransformer Starter
• Let,
• Ze10 is the equivalent standstill impedance per phase of the motor referred to the
stator side
• V1 is the supply voltage per phase.
• When the full voltage V1 per phase is applied to the direct switching, the
starting current drawn from the supply is given by the equation shown
below

• With auto transformer starting, if tapping of the transformer ratio x is

used, then the voltage per phase across the motor is xV1. Therefore, at
the starting, the motor current is given by the equation:
Autotransformer Starter
• In a transformer, the ratio of currents is inversely proportional to the
voltage ratio provided that the no-load current is neglected. i.e.,

• If I’stl is the current taken from the supply

by the autotransformer. Then,
• Substituting the value of Istm from the equation (2) in equation (3) we get
Autotransformer Starter
• Therefore,

• Since the torque developed is proportional to the square of the applied

voltage, the starting torque with the direct switching is given as:

• Similarly, starting torque with autotransformer starter

• Therefore,
Autotransformer Starter
• With the autotransformer, at the starting, the motor current is given by
the equation shown below:

• From the equation (3) and (9) we can conclude that,

• From the above equation (5) we get,

Autotransformer Starter
• Here equation (5) and equation (8) show that with an autotransformer,
the starting current I’stl from the main supply and the starting torque is
reduced to the x2 times to the corresponding values with the direct
online starting. Now, comparing equation (4) and equation (11) we get,

• Thus, the star delta starter is equivalent to an autotransformer starter of

the ratio x = 0.58. A Star Delta starter is much cheaper than an
autotransformer starter and is commonly used for both small and the
medium size motors.
• Direct on line starter method is the cheapest and the simplest method of
the starting of the induction motor.
Examples
• Example: A 3-φ induction motor has a ratio of maximum torque to full-load
torque as 2:1. Determine the ratio of actual starting torque to full-load torque
for Y - ∆ starting. Given R2 = 0.2Ω and X2 = 2Ω.
• Example: The supply voltage to a cage rotor motor is 70% instead of 100%.
Determine the reduction in starting torque and starting current.
• Example: Determine the ratio of actual starting torque to full-load torque for
star-delta starting. If a 3-φ induction motor has a ratio of maximum torque to
full-load torque as 3:1 and the resistance and the reactance are 0.4 Ω and 5 Ω,
respectively
• Example: Determine the new value of stator current if a 3-φ, 440-V and 1,200-
rpm slip ring induction motor is operating with 3% slip and taking a stator
current of 50-A speed of the motor is reduced at constant torque to 600 rpm
using stator voltage control.
Examples
• Example: A 9.5-kW, 240-V, three-phase, star-connected, 50-Hz, and four-pole
squirrel cage induction has its full-load internal torque at a slip of 0.05. The
parameters of the motor are R1 = 0.4Ω/phase, R2 = 0.3Ω/phase,X1 = X2 =
0.5Ω/phase and Xm = 16Ω/phase. Assume that the shunt branch is connected
across the supply terminals. Determine (a) maximum internal torque at rated
voltage and frequency, (b) slip at maximum torque, and (c) internal starting
torque at rated, voltage, and frequency.
• Example: A 30-HP, six-pole, 50-Hz, and three-phase induction motor has
stator/rotor phase voltage ratio of 7/5. The stator and rotor impedances per
phase are (0.35 + j0.65) Ω and (0.15 + j0.65) Ω, respectively. Find the starting
torque exerted by the motor when an external resistance of 1.5 Ω is inserted in
each phase; the motor being started directly on the 440-V supply system.
Assume Y/Y connection.
Examples
• Example: For a three-phase induction motor, maximum torque is thrice the
full-load torque and starting torque is 1.9 times the full-load torque. In order
to get a full-load slip of 6%, calculate the percentage reduction in rotor circuit
resistance neglect stator impedance.
• Example: The rotor of a three-phase induction motor has 0.05-Ω resistance
per phase and 0.3- standstill reactance per phase. What external resistance is
required in the rotor circuit in order to get half of the maximum torque at
starting? Neglect stator impedance by what percentage will this external
resistance change the current and power factor at starting?
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS
• Requirement of different industrial drives
• Some drives require a continuously variable speed over the range from zero to full
speed, such drives are known as variable-speed drives.
• Some drives require only two to three fixed speeds over a region, such drives are
known as multi-speed drives.
• In some cases, speed is needed for adjusting or setting up the work on driven
machine only for a few revolutions per minute. Such a speed is known as creeping
speed.
• However, most of the drives, a control of speed within ±25% of the normal
speed is required.
𝑣−𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑁∝ 𝑇 ∝ 𝜙𝐼𝑎
𝜙
Mainly three different method of speed control are Field control or flux control
method, Armature control method and Applied voltage control.
SPEED CONTROL OF DC Shunt MOTORS
• Different types of field control methods are
• Field rheostatic control method.
• Reluctance control method.
• Field voltage control.
SPEED CONTROL OF DC Shunt MOTORS
• Different types of armature control methods are
• Armature rheostatic control method.
• Armature diverter method or potential divider method
SPEED CONTROL OF DC Shunt MOTORS
• Example: A DC shunt motor rated at 220 V, 10 kW, and 1,500 rpm has a load
efficiency of 90%. Its field and armature resistances are 110 Ω and 0.25 Ω, respectively.
Determine the value of the resistance to be inserted in series with the armature and
the power lost in the armature circuit to reduce the speed to 1,000 rpm when: (i) The
load torque is independent of the speed (ii)The load torque is directly proportional to
the speed. (iii)The load torque is directly proportional to the square of the speed.
• Example: The armature and the field resistances of a 200-V DC shunt motor 0.25 Ω
and 160 Ω, respectively. When driving a load of constant torque at 500 rpm, the
armature current is 20 A. If it is desired to raise the speed from 500 to 1,000 rpm, what
resistance should be inserted in the field circuit? Assume that the magnetic circuit is
unsaturated.
• Example: A 220-V DC shunt motor, having an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω, draws
from the main current of 30 A on half-full load. The speed is to be increased to twice
half-full-load speed. If the torque of the motor is of constant magnitude, determine
the percentage change in flux required.
• Example: A 200-V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω it takes a current
of 16 A on full load and runs at 600 rpm. If a resistance of 0.5 Ω is placed in the
armature circuit, find the ratio of the stalling torque to the full-load torque.
SPEED CONTROL OF DC Series MOTORS
• Mainly two different method of speed control are Field control or flux control
method, Armature control method
• Different types of field control methods are
• Field diverter method
• Armature diverter method
• Tapped field method
• Series parallel connection of field coils
SPEED CONTROL OF DC Series MOTORS

• Armature control methods

SPEED CONTROL OF DC Series MOTORS
• Example: A 400-V series motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 Ω and a series field
resistance of 0.5 Ω. It takes a current of 160 A at a speed of 800 rpm. Find the speed
of the motor if a diverter of resistance 0.4 Ω is connected across the field, the load
torque being kept constant. Neglect armature reaction and assume that flux is
proportional to the current.
• Example: A 220-V and 10-HP (metric) shunt motor has field and armature resistances
as of 120 Ω and 0.25 Ω respectively. Calculate the resistance to be inserted in the
armature circuit to reduce the speed to 700 rpm from 950 rpm, if the full-load
efficiency is 80% and the torque varied as the square of the speed.
• Example: A DC series motor drives a load, the torque of which varies as the square of
the speed. The motor takes a current of 30 A, when the speed is 600 rpm. Determine
the speed and current when the field winding is shunted by a diverter; the resistance
of diverter is 1.5 times that of the field winding. The losses may be neglected.
• Example: A 500-V DC series motor runs at 500 rpm and takes 60 A; the resistances of
the field and the armature are 0.3 and 0.2 Ω, respectively. Calculate the value of the
resistance to be shunted with series field winding in order that the speed may be
increased to, 600 rpm, if the torque were to remain constant. Saturation may be
neglected.
Ward–Leonard method of speed control
• The speed control of DC motor accomplished by means of an adjustable voltage
generator is called the Ward−Leonard system.
Ward–Leonard method of speed control

•.
 Ward–Leonard method of speed control
• In the above system, M is the main DC motor whose speed is to be controlled, and G
is a separately excited DC generator. The generator G is driven by a 3 phase driving
motor which may be an induction motor or a synchronous motor.
• The combination of an AC driving motor and the DC generator is called the Motor-
Generator (M-G) set.
• The voltage of the generator is changed by changing the generator field current. This
voltage when directly applied to the armature of the main DC motor, the speed of the
motor M changes. The motor field current Ifm is kept constant so that the motor field
flux ϕm also remains constant. While the speed of the motor is controlled, the motor
armature current Ia is kept equal to its rated value.
• The generated field current Ifg is varied such that the armature voltage Vt changes
from zero to its rated value. The speed will change from zero to the base speed. Since
the speed control is carried out with the rated current Ia and with the constant motor
field flux, a constant torque is directly proportional to the armature current, and field
flux up to rated speed is obtained. The product of torque and speed is known as
power, and it is proportional to speed.
• Thus, with the increase in power, speed increases automatically.
SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
• It is difficult to achieve the smooth speed control of the induction motor
because the performance of the induction motor in terms of its power factor,
efficiency, etc. gets adversely effected.
• The speed of motor N = Ns (1−S)
s𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇∝ 2
𝑅2 + 𝑠𝑥2 2
• The speed of the induction motor can be changed either by changing its
synchronous speed (Ns) or by changing the slip and also the parameters R2 and
E2 are changed then to keep torque constant for constant load condition, slip
will change, then its speed gets effected.
• Mainly three different method for controlling speed of three phase induction
motor is from stator side, rotor side and controlling the number of stator poles.
SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
• Method of speed control from stator sides are
• Supply frequency control
• Supply voltage control
• Supply frequency method is impractical for most applications because the
frequency of the supply system must remain fixed. It can be used in isolation by
controlling frequency as shown
SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
• Supply voltage control method with constant frequency. We know that
s𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇∝ 2
𝑅2 + 𝑠𝑥2 2
• But, at standstill, rotor induced emf depends on supply voltage so
𝐸2 ∝ V
• In the operating region of an induction motor or for low-slip region (SX2) << R2
𝑠𝐸22
𝑇=
𝑅2
• Rotor resistance is constant therefore
𝑇 ∝ 𝑠𝐸22 ∝ 𝑠𝑉 2
SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
• Pole-changing method or Controlling the number of stator poles
SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
• The frequency of the rotor current is ‘S’ times of supply frequency. fr = Sf
• Let, fr1 be the frequency of the rotor current of the main motor and the
frequency of the rotor current of the auxiliary motor is fr2 then
• The speed of main motor

• The speed of the auxiliary motor

• As fr1 is so small, so fr2 will be very small; so that, it can be neglected

SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
• Since, the two motors are coupled together:

• fr1 from above equation

SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
• Method of speed control from Control on rotor side are
• Cascade control: Here two motors are to be mechanically coupled together, one
of the machines must be phase-wound motor while the other can be a squirrel-
cage motor.
SPEED CONTROL OF Induction MOTORS
• Example: A six-pole and 50-Hz slip ring induction motor with a rotor resistance per
phase of 0.2 Ω and a stand-still reactance of 1.0 Ω per phase runs at 960 rpm at full
load. Calculate the resistance to be inserted in the rotor circuit to reduce the speed to
800 rpm, if the torque remains unaltered.
• Example: The rotor resistance and the reactance at stand-still condition of a 3-φ, six-
pole, and 440-V induction motor are. 0.2 Ω and 1.0 Ω, respectively, per phase.
Calculate the starting current, and when the speed is 960 rpm, the frequency of the
supply is 50 Hz.
• Example: The open circuit voltage across the slip rings of a 100-HP induction motor is
280 volts at standstill. What resistance in rotor circuit will reduce its full-load speed by
20%. The full-load slip is 3% with no additional rotor resistance. Assume rotor to be
star-connected. And full-load sip S1 = 0.03.
• Example: A eight-pole, 50-Hz, and 3-φ induction motor is running at 4% slip when
delivering full-load torque. It has a standstill rotor resistance of 0.3 Ω and a reactance
of 0.8 Ω per phase. Calculate the speed of the motor if an additional resistance of 0.3
Ω per phase is inserted in the rotor circuit. The full-load torque remains constant.
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• Braking, while stopping, may be used for any one of the following objectives;
 Reducing the time taken to stop.
 Stopping exactly at specified points, for example in lifts; sometimes such precise stop is
necessary for reasons of safety.
 Feeding back, at least a portion of the power, to the supply system.

• Braking, while lowering loads, may be employed for any of the following
purposes
 Controlling the speed at which the load comes down and limiting it to a safe value.
 Feeding power back to the supply system.

• The main features of satisfactory brake are that

 The braking should be quick and reliable in action,
 The braking torque must be controllable,
 Some suitable means must be provided for dissipation of kinetic energy of the moving
parts of the motor and its driven machines and
• Failure of any part of the gracing system must result in application of brakes.
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• Three types of electric braking is classified as follow
• Regenerative braking
• Plugging
• Rheostatic braking
• Regenerative Braking : the power or energy of the driven machinery which is
in kinetic form is returned back to the power supply mains. This type of
braking is possible when the driven load or machinery forces the motor to run
at a speed higher than the no-load speed with a constant excitation.
• Under this condition, the back emf Eb of the motor is greater than the supply
voltage V, which reverses the direction of motor armature current. The
machine now begins to operate as a generator and the energy generated is
supplied to the source.
• Regenerative braking can also be performed at very low speeds if the motor is
connected as a separately excited generator. The excitation of the motor is
increased as the speed is reduced so that the two equations are satisfied.
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• The motor does not enter into saturation on increasing excitation.
• Regenerative braking is possible with the shunt and separately excited motors.
In compound motors, braking is possible only with weak series compounding
• Applications of Regenerative Braking
• Regenerative braking is used especially where frequent braking and slowing of drives is
required.
• It is most useful in holding a descending load of high potential energy at a constant
speed.
• Regenerative braking is used to control the speed of motors driving loads such as in
electric locomotives, elevators, cranes and hoists.
• Regenerative braking cannot be used for stopping the motor. It is used for controlling the
speed above the no-load speed of the motor driving.
• The necessary condition for regeneration is that the back EMF Eb should be
greater than the supply voltage so that the armature current is reversed and
the mode of operation changes from motoring to generating.
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• Regenerative Braking in DC Shunt Motors: Under normal operating
conditions the armature current is given by the equation shown
• When the load is lowered by a crane, hoist or lift causes the motor speed to be
greater than the no-load speed, the back EMF becomes greater than the supply
voltage. Consequently, armature current Ia becomes negative. The machines now
begins to operate as a generator.
• Regenerative Braking in DC Series Motors: In the case of DC Series Motor an increase
in speed is followed by a decrease in the armature current and field flux. The back
EMF Eb cannot be greater than the supply voltage. Regeneration is possible in DC
Series Motor since the field current cannot be made greater than the armature
current. For example – In an electro-locomotive moving down the gradient, a
constant speed may be necessary. In hoist drives, the speed is to be limited
whenever it becomes dangerously high.
• One commonly used method of regenerative braking of DC Series Motor is to
connect it as a shunt motor. Since the resistance of the field winding is low, a series
resistance is connected in the field circuit to limit the current within the safe value.
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• Plugging or Reverse Current Braking: the armature terminals or the supply
polarity of a separately excited or shunt motor when running are reversed.
Therefore, in plugging the supply voltage V and the induced voltage Eb which is
also called back EMF will act in the same direction. Thus, during plugging the
effective voltage across the armature will be (V + Eb) which is almost twice the
supply voltage. The armature current is reversed, and high braking torque is
produced. An external current limiting resistor is connected in series with the
armature to limit the armature current to a safe value.
• The connection diagram of DC separately excited motor and its characteristics
is shown
• Where,
• V is the supply voltage
• Rb is the external resistance
• Ia is the armature current
• If is the field current.
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• For braking, a series motor either the armature terminals or field terminals are
reversed. But both armature and field terminals are not reversed together. Reversing
of both the terminals will give only normal working operation.
• At the zero speed, the braking torque is not zero. The motor must be disconnected
from the supply at or near zero speed when the motor is used for stopping a load. If
the motor is not disconnected from the supply mains, the motor will speed up in the
reverse direction. For disconnecting the supply, centrifugal switches are used.
• The method of braking, known as Plugging or Reverse Current Braking is a highly
insufficient method because, in addition to the power supplied by the load, power
supplied by the source is also wasted in resistance.
• Applications of Plugging
• In controlling elevators
• Rolling Mills
• Printing Presses
• Machine tools, etc.
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• Dynamic Braking or Rheostatic Braking of DC Motor : a braking resistor Rb is
connected across the armature as soon as the DC motor is disconnected from
the supply mains. The motor now works as a generator, producing the braking
torque. For the braking operation in Dynamic Braking, the motor is connected
in two ways.
• Firstly the separately excited or shunt motor can be connected either as a separately
excited generator, where the flux is kept constant.
• The second way is that it can be connected to a self-excited shunt generator, with the
field winding in parallel with the armature. The connection diagram of Dynamic
Braking of separately excited DC motor is shown in figure
• 1st machine work as motor
• 2nd brake with separate
excitation is done
• 3rd brake with separate
excitation is performed
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• This method is also known as Rheostatic Braking because an external braking
resistance Rb is connected across the armature terminals for electric braking.
During electric braking, the kinetic energy stored in the rotating parts of the
machine and the connected load is converted into electric energy, when the
motor is working as a generator. The energy is dissipated as heat in the braking
resistance Rb and armature circuit resistance Ra.
• The connection diagram of the Dynamic Braking of DC Shunt Motor is shown
• When the machine is working in the motoring mode
ELECTRIC BRAKING
• For Dynamic Braking, the series motor is disconnected from the supply. A variable
resistance Rb as shown in the figure below is connected in series, and the connections of
the field windings are reversed.
• The field connections are reversed so that the current through the field winding flows in the
same direction as before i.e. from S1 to S2 so that the back EMF produces the residual flux.
The machine now starts working as a self-excited series generator.
• In self-excitation, the braking operation is slow. Hence, when quick braking is required, the
machine is connected in self-excitation mode. A suitable resistance is connected in series
with the field to limit the current to a safe value.
• The Dynamic or Rheostatic Braking is an insufficient method of braking because all the
energy which is generated is dissipated in the form of heat in the resistance.
• 1st motoring
• 2nd Braking with self excitation
HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• The selection of motor for particular drive application based on the size and rating
of motor, it depends upon the following two factors:
• Maximum temperature raise for a given load.
• Maximum torque required.

• The increase in temperature is mainly dependent on the following two factors:

• Amount of heat developed internally at uniform rate.
• The amount of heat dissipated from the surface of the motor.
• A heating calculations very complex and practically impossible unless certain
assumptions are made as:
• Heat developed, i.e., losses remains constant during temperature raise.
• The heat dissipation is directly proportional to the difference in the temperature of motor and
cooling medium, i.e., Newton's law of cooling hold's good.
• The temperature of cooling medium remains unchanged.
• The motor is assumed to be a homogeneous mass having the same and uniform temperature in
all parts. It implies high thermal conductivity.
HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• For the determination of an expression for the temperature raise of an
electrical machine after time ‘t’ seconds from the instance of switching it on
• Let P is the electrical power converted into heat (W or J/sec), M is the mass of active
parts of motor (kg), S is the specific heat of material (J/kg/°C), θ is the temperature raise
above the cooling medium or ambient temperature (°C), A is the surface area of cooling
(m2), θf is the final temperature raise with constant load (°C), and λ is the coefficient of
cooling or the rate of heat dissipation (W/m2/°C raise).
• Now, let us assume that the machine attains a temperature raise of θ°C above
ambient temperature after ‘t’ seconds of switching on the machine and further
raise of temperature by dθ in very small time ‘dt’ seconds.
• The rate at which the loss takes place or the heat is absorbed by the motor

• The rate at which heat is dissipated = Aθλ J/sec

HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• The rate at which the electrical power converted into heat = the rate at which
the heat is absorbed + the rate at which the heat dissipated by the motor

• where K is the integration constant. Initially, at time t = 0 sec, temperature raise

θ = 0°C.
• By substituting t = 0 and θ = 0
HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

• By applying exponential on both side, we get

HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• When ‘t’ is infinity, ‘θ’ approaches to its final steady-state temperature ‘θf ’. So,
by substituting t = ∞ and θ = θf in

• Substituting is known as heating time constant of motor

• The above relation is the equation of

temperature rise with time. The
temperature raise time curve or
heating curve is exponential in nature
HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• Cooling of motor: if the supply to the motor is switched off, after attaining the
final steady temperature raise of ‘θf ”, the motor starts cooling. When the
machine is switched off, no heat is produced, therefore
• Heat absorbed + heat dissipated = 0 (P=0)

• where λ’ = heat dissipation during cooling of motor.

• Integrating the equation

• where Kl is the integration constant

HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• The value of Kl is obtained
by using the initial
conditions, when t = 0
and θ = θf, we get:

• Applying exponentials on both side

HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• Where is know as cooling time constant. The cooling curve is
exponentially decaying in nature

• We have θ = θf (e−1) so, we have θ = 0.368θf. The cooling time constant is

defined as the time required cooling the machine down to 36.8% of the initial
temperature raise above the ambient temperature.
•Figure (a) and (b) shows the heating and cooling curves of a motor for short-
time and intermittent loads.
HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
• Example: An induction motor has a final steady-state temperature raise of 50°C
when running at its rated output. Calculate its half-hour rating for the same
temperature raise if the copper losses at the rated output are 1.5 times its constant
losses. The heating time constant is 60 min.
• Example: A 10-kW motor has a heating time constant and cooling time constant of 45
and 70 min, respectively. The final temperature attained is 60°C. Find the temperature
of motor after 45 min full-load run and then switched of for 30 min.
• Example: The heating time constant of a 80-kW motor is 60 min. The temperature
raise is 65°C when runs continuously on full load. Find the half-hour rating of motor for
the same temperature raise. Assume that the losses are proportional to the square of
the load and the motor cools to ambient temperature between each load cycle.
• Example: The heating time constant of a 80-kW motor is 60 min. The temperature
raise is 65°C when runs continuously on full load. Find the half-hour rating of motor for
the same temperature raise. Assume that the losses are proportional to the square of
the load and the motor cools to ambient temperature between each load cycle.
TYPES OF LOADS
• The various types of loads that occur in industrial practice can be classified
depending upon their variation with time and duty cycle, which can be specified
by the load diagram.
• The load and torque verses time variation is periodic and repetitive, such one
cycle of variation of load with time is known as load or duty cycle.
TYPES OF LOADS
• Classification of loads with respect to time:
• Continuous and constant loads: The loads on the motor operate for a long time under the
same conditions. Ex: fan, compressors, conveyors, centrifugal pumps, etc.
• Continuous and variable loads: The load on the motor operates repetitively for a longer
duration but varies continuously over a period Ex: metal cutting lathes, hoist winches,
conveyors, etc.
• Pulsating loads: The load on the motor which can be viewed as constant torque
superimposed by pulsations. Ex: tile looms, reciprocating pumps, certain type of loads
with crankshaft, frame saws, etc.
• Impact loads: The load on the motor having regular and repetitive load peaks or pulses,
i.e., load increases to a maximum level suddenly. Ex: rolling mills, shearing machines, etc.
• Short-time intermittent loads: The load on the motor occurs periodically in identically
duty cycle, each duty cycle having a period of application of load and rest. Ex: Roller trains,
cranes, hoisting mechanisms, etc.
• Short-time loads: The load on the motor occurs periodically remains constant for short
time and then remains idle or off for longer time. Ex: servomotors, motor–generator sets,
used for charging batteries, drilling machines, etc.
TYPES OF LOADS
• Classification of loads with respect to duty cycle: There are three basic
classifications of duty cycle of an electric motor
• Continuous duty cycle.
• Short-time duty cycle.
• Intermittent duty cycle.
• Continuous duty cycle: when the on-period is so long that the motor attains a
steady-state temperature raise. The motor so selected should be able to
withstand momentary overload capacity. This type of motors will have high
efficiency because they will be operating almost at its full load and also have
good power factor. There are mainly two types of continuous duty cycle
• Continuous duty at constant load cycle.
• Continuous duty at variable load cycle.
TYPES OF LOADS
• Continuous duty at constant load cycle: the load torque remains constant for a
sufficiently longer period. Ex: Conveyors, compressors, fan, etc.

• Continuous duty at variable load cycle: the load on the motor is not constant, but it
has several phases in one cycle. The selection of motor for this type of duty involves
thermal calculation, which is a difficult task. The motors operating for such type of
duties will have poor efficiency and also poor power factor. The selection of motor for
this type of duty may be based on average power or average current method.
TYPES OF LOADS
• Short-time duty: the load occurs on the motor during a small interval and the
remains idle for long time to re-establish the equality of temperature with the
cooling medium. Ex. Short time duty occurs in bridges, lock gates, and some
other household appliances (mixer etc.)

• Intermittent duty: The duty in which load on the motor varies periodically in a
sequence of identical cycles. motor is loaded for sometimes ‘ton’ and shut off
for a period of ‘toff ’. Motor heats during ‘on’ period ‘ton’ and cools down during
‘off’ period ‘toff ’. The ratio of ‘ton’ to (ton + toff) is known as duty ratio.
TYPES OF LOADS
• Maximum temperature attained with intermittent loading can be obtained by
using the temperature raise and cooling equations of motor,
• Let θh, θh1, θh2, …θ hn–1 be the temperature raise and be the fall
in temperature for ‘n’ times intermittency.
• Let t1 be the duration of heating in second, t2 be the duration of cooling in
second, τn be the heating time constant in second, τC be the cooling time
constant in second, and θf be the maximum permissible temperature raise of
motor.

• We get θC = θf (1 − ex)ey
TYPES OF LOADS
• Similarly, for the next intermittent loading
TYPES OF LOADS
• Similarly, for the next ‘on’ and ‘off’ periods
TYPES OF LOADS
• Similarly, for ‘n’ times intermittency

• As n → ∞ both enx and eny will be zero, as x and y are negative. If ‘θm’ be the
maximum temperature with intermittent loading, then

• By substituting x and y values in the above equations

TYPES OF LOADS
• Where the load fluctuates over a given cycle, as in rolling mills, etc., the raise of
temperature in motor is determined accurately by finding the heating and cooling
curves of motor, when working on given cycle. There are three different methods
• Equivalent current method.
• Equivalent torque method.
• Equivalent power method.
• Equivalent current method: the actual current may be replaced by an equivalent
current method (Ieq), which produces the same losses in the motor as the actual
current.

• where I1, I2, I3, …, In be the load currents within

short intervals of t1, t2, …, tn over a period of
time ‘T ’ seconds
TYPES OF LOADS
• Equivalent power method: if the load cycle is given in
HP or kW verses time, then the motor rating can
be directly found as follows

• The motor rating is given by

• If the power, load, or torque changes uniformly,

then ∫ P2dt has to be taken for that period.
TYPES OF LOADS
•If the load curve consisting of negative power, i.e., power returned to the
source, as shown, the motor rating can be directly determined as follows.
•
TYPES OF LOADS
• Equivalent torque method: This method is used to compute the motor heating
rating effect, for short time and intermittent loads
• T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 be the load torques develop during the periods t1, t2, t3, t4,
and t5 seconds now the equivalent torque can be calculated by considering
time for one complete cycle and RMS value of load torques at different times
TYPES OF LOADS
• Example: A motor operates continuously on the following load cycle as 20 kW
for 10 sec, 10 kW for 15 sec, 30 kW for 5 sec, 50 kW for 20 sec,40 kW for 10 sec,
and idle for 5 sec. Draw the load diagram and find the size of the motor
required.
• Example: The load cycle of a motor in driving some equipment is as 0−3 min 40
kW, 3−7 min No-load, 7−12 min 30 kW, 12−15 min 20 kW, 15−18 min 50 kW. The
load repeated indefinitely. Draw the load cycle and suggest suitable continuous
rating of the motor.
• Example: A motor has to perform the following load cycle: Load raising
uniformly from 0 to 100 kW in 10 s Constant load 300 kW for 5 sec. Constant
load 200 kW for 15 sec. Regenerative braking power returned falling uniform
from 50 to 0 kW in 5 s. Decking period 4 s, motor stationary. Draw the load cycle
and suggest a suitable continuous rated motor.
 Topic
• Win
 Transient Analysis of Induction Motor:
• Usefulness of analysis of transient operating conditions of a drive, e.g.
starting, braking, load changing, speed changing, etc. is already
explained. A rigorous analysis of transient operation of an induction
motor drive, can be done only by the d-q axis model involving long
calculations. A simple method of analysis, with satisfactory accuracy for
most applications is obtained by using steady-state torque relations.
Such an analysis is based on the assumption that electrical time
constants can be neglected, as they are very small compared to
mechanical time constant. Thus, we can write following equation for
Transient Analysis of Induction Motor drive:

• Equation (6.44) [Link] evaluated graphically to obtain ωm vs t curve, and

energy losses in motor and external rotor resistance using the method
already explained. This approach is general and can be employed for
any Transient Analysis of Induction Motor as long as steady-state speed-
torque curves of motor [T(ωm)] and load [T1(ωm)] are known. Approximate
analytical methods are presented as follow
 Transient Analysis of Induction Motor:
• Starting and Plugging: For starting and plugging operation of machine,
torque is given by Eq. (6.15). Substituting from Eq. (6.15) into (6.44)
yields

• In some cases, Eq. (6.45) will be in integrable form, and therefore, can
be solved analytically. It is useful to examine the transients for starting
and plugging operations when operating on no load. Thus, from Eq.
(6.45) for no load operation

• Differentiating Eq. (6.3) gives

• Substituting from Eq. (6.47) into (6.46) and rearranging the terms
•
 Transient Analysis of Induction Motor:
• τm is the mechanical time constant of motor. It is defined as the time
taken by motor to reach its synchronous speed from standstill under
constant accelerating torque equal to the maximum torque of the motor.
• From Eq. (6.48), time required to start an induction motor on no load is

• When operating on no load, steady-state is reached when s = 0. Thus

during starting slip changes from 1 to 0. However, if (6.50) is integrated
for s = 1 to s = 0 an infinite value is obtained for starting time. As
explained, when final speed is the steady-state equilibrium speed,
transients are considered to be over when 95% range of speed is
covered. Therefore, in Eq. (6.50) integration is done from s = 1 to s =
0.05. Solving (6.50) gives
 Transient Analysis of Induction Motor:
• Thus starting time is a function of sm. Starting time has a minimum value of
1.22τm at sm = 0.4. From Eq. (6.12), when Rs is negligible, rotor resistance
required to start the motor in minimum time is

• From Eq. (6.48), time required for stopping by plugging, when initially running
at synchronous speed, can be expressed as

• Stopping time is again a function of sm. It has a minimum value of 1.027τm at

sm = 1.47. Corresponding value of rotor resistance is

• Similarly, from Eq. (6.48), time required for speed reversal by plugging when
running on no load is given by
 Transient Analysis of Induction Motor:
• Minimum time for reversal is thus 2.88τm and corresponding value of
sm is 0.52. Rotor resistance required for speed reversal by plugging in
minimum time is

• Calculation of Energy Losses:

• Let us next obtain expressions for energy loss in motor windings for
starting and plugging operations. The rotor winding loss for starting can
be written as

• Substituting from Eqs. (6.5) and (6.11) gives

• As the machine is operating under no load

• Substituting from Eq. (6.47)
 Transient Analysis of Induction Motor:
• Substituting in (6.58) gives

• It is interesting to note that rotor winding energy loss is equal to the

kinetic energy stored in moving parts at completion of the starting
process, and it is independent of the starting time or rotor resistance.
However, if an external resistance is connected in rotor circuit only a part
of this loss is used to heat the motor. Energy loss in stator winding,
neglecting magnetizing current is

• Hence, total winding loss during starting under no load is

 Transient Analysis of Induction Motor:
• Proceeding s milady, rotor winding loss during stopping by plugging
under no load can be written as

• Equation (6.59) suggests that rotor winding loss can be reduced when
started by using methods based on the variation of synchronous speed.
As an example let us consider a motor with an arrangement for doubling
the pole number. Let it be started with higher pole number for which the
synchronous speed is ωms/2. Then, from (6.59) rotor copper loss for
change of speed from 0 to ωms/2 will be Jω2ms/8. Now the pole number is
lowered. Consequently, rotor copper loss for speed range ωms/2 to
ωms will be

• Thus, total rotor winding loss is Jω2ms/4, which is one-half of the copper
loss when there is no provision for doubling the pole number.
 Time and Energy Loss in Transient Operations
• Starting, braking, speed change and speed reversal are transient
operations. Time and Energy Loss in Transient Operations can be
evaluated by solving Eq. (2.19) along with motor circuit equations.

• When T and TL are constants or proportionals to speed, Eq. (2.19) will be

a first order linear differential equation. Then it can be solved analytically.
When T or TL is neither constant nor proportional to speed, (2.19) will be
a non-linear differential equation. It could then be solved numerically
by Runga-Kutta method.
• For any of the above mentioned transients, final speed is an equilibrium
speed. Theoretically, transients are over in infinite time, which is not so in
practice. In order to resolve this anomaly, Time and Energy Loss in
Transient Operations is considered to be over when 95% change in
speed has taken place. For example, when speed changes from ωm1 to
equilibrium speed ωme, time taken for the speed to change from ωm1 to
[ωm1 + 0.95(ωme – ωm1)] is considered to be equal to the transient time.
 Time and Energy Loss in Transient Operations
• Transient time and energy loss can also be computed with satisfactory
accuracy using steady-state speed-torque and speed-current curves of
motor and speed-torque curve of load. This is because mechanical time
constant of a drive is usually very large compared to electrical time
constant of motor. Consequently, electrical transients die down very fast
and motor operation can be considered to take place along the steady-
state speed-torque and speed-current curves.
• From Eq. (2.2)
• where T(ωm) and Tl(ωm) indicate that the motor and load torques are
functions of drive speed ωm. Time taken for drive speed to change from
ωm1 to ωm2 is obtained by integrating Eq. (2.21)

• Equation (2.22) can be integrated only if functions T(ωm) and Tl(ωm) are
known and are of integral form. Otherwise the integral is evaluated
 Time and Energy Loss in Transient Operations
• Expression on the right of Eq. (2.22) is the area between the reciprocal
of the acceleration { J/[T(ωm) – Tl(ωm)]} VS ωm curve and ωm axis (Fig.
2.8). The transient time can be evaluated by measuring this area.
• When ωm2 is an equilibrium speed
ωme, then the reciprocal of acceleration will
become infinite at ωme. Consequently, time
evaluated this way will be infinite.
Therefore, in this case transient time is
computed by measuring the area between
speeds ωm1 and ωm1 + 0.95(ωm2 – ωm1).
• Energy dissipated in a motor winding during
a transient operation is given by

• where R is the motor winding resistance

and i is the current flowing through it.
 Time and Energy Loss in Transient Operations
• In many applications, by making use, of speed-torque expressions for
motor and load, it is possible to arrange Eq. (2.23) in integrable form.
However, this is not possible in applications where nonlinear impedance
is present in the motor circuit. Then Eq. (2.23) is evaluated graphically
using steady-state speed-torque and speed-current curves, as:
• By graphical solution of Eq. (2.22), ωm vs t curve is obtained. From this
curve and steady-state speed-current curve, i2 vs t curve is obtained.
Area enclosed between this curve and time axis multiplied by R gives the
energy dissipated in motor winding. This approach can also handle
nonlinear resistance R, which varies as a function of i. Here i2R vs time
curve is plotted. Area between this curve and the time axis gives the
energy dissipated.
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Starting, braking, reversing speed changing and load changing are the
Transient Analysis of DC Motor which commonly occur in an industrial
drive. One is interested in knowing how current, torque and speed of the
driving motor change with time when under these transient operations.
One is also interested in knowing energy losses, particularly those
responsible for heating of the motor, and time taken for the completion of
the Transient Analysis of DC Motor. This information is needed by the
designer for selecting suitable rating of the motor, nature and type of its
control equipment and its operation schedule, and types of protective
devices and their settings.
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Dynamic equivalent circuits of dc motors are shown in Fig. 5.12. Source
voltage v, motor armature current ia and back emf e are denoted by lower
case letters to emphasize that these are instantaneous values of time
varying quantities. B and J are respectively the coefficient of viscous
friction in Nm/rad/sec and polar moment of inertia in kg-m2 of the motor
load system referred to the motor shaft.
• Voltage equation of the armature circuit under transient is given by

• From the dynamics of motor load system

• Further
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• The above Transient Analysis of DC Motor are valid for any dc motor. In
case of a separately excited motor when field current is maintained
constant, flux remains constant, and (5.16) and (5.17) are linear
differential equations. In case of a series motor, due to saturation of the
magnetic circuit, flux is a nonlinear function of the armature current, and
therefore, (5.16) and (5.17) are nonlinear differential equations. Even if
magnetic circuit is assumed linear by neglecting saturation, (5.16) and
(5.17) are nonlinear differential equations due to e being proportional to
the product of ia and ωm, and T being proportional to i2a. Thus, for a
series motor these equations can only be solved numerically using 4th
order Rungekutta method or predictor corrector method.
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Transient Analysis of Separately Excited Motor with Armature
Control:
• When field current is kept constant, flux remains constant. Replacing
KeΦ by a constant K in Eqs. (5.16) to (5.18), yields

• Differentiating Eq. (5.19) & (5.20) gives

• Substituting in Eq. (5.19) for dia/dt from (5.21) and rearranging terms
gives
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Substituting in Eq. (5.20) for dωm/dt from Eq. (5.23) and rearranging the
terms yields

• Where

• Equations (5.22) and (5.24) are second order linear differential equations
and can be solved if the appropriate initial conditions are known. Once
ia vs t relation is obtained from Eq. (5.24), T vs t relation can be
calculated.
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Transient Analysis of Starting of Separately Excited Motor with
Armature Control:
• Transient analysis of starting process will be considered here to
demonstrate how the above derived equations are utilized. It will be
assumed that the motor is started with a constant voltage V impressed
across its terminals against a constant load torque TL and with a fixed
resistance Ra in its armature circuit.
• It is customary to assume that the motor starts only after its developed
torque exceeds load torque. For this motor current should reach the
value IL given by

• When motor is connected to the supply, initial value of current is zero and
due to armature circuit inductance it takes some time to reach the value
IL. During whole of this period, which will be termed as first interval of the
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Motor behaves like a simple Ra – La load. Hence its current is given by

• Second interval of transient response starts after current reaches the

value IL. Since V and TL are constants, dv/dt and dTL/dt will be zero.
Substituting these values in Eqs. (5.22) and (5.24) gives

• Where

• K1 and K2 represent the steady state values of speed and current

receptively with load torque equal to TL.
• Initial conditions needed for the solution of Eqs. (5.30) and (5.31) are
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Since at the beginning of this interval, motor torque is equal to load
torque, from Eq. (5.17)

• Further from Eq. (5.16)

• Solutions of Eqs. (5.30) and (5.31) with the initial conditions given by
(5.33) to (5.35), will have the form:

• where α1 and α2 are roots of characteristic equation and are given by

•
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Note that the above equations have been derived by measuring time
from the beginning of the second interval.
• For motors less than 1000 kW, roots α1 and α2 are usually real. For
larger and also for small and medium size motors with an external
inductance connected in the armature circuit, as in the case of some
chopper and rectifier fed Transient Analysis of DC Motor, roots can be
complex. The nature of ωm vs t and ia vs t curves for starting transients,
when roots are real, are shown in Fig. 5.13(a).
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• In small size motors, τa is very small due to a large armature winding
resistance. It can, therefore, be neglected. Substituting τa = 0 in Eqs.
(5.30) and (5.31) gives

• Since τa = 0, current jumps to the value V/Ra in zero time. Thus, initial
conditions are
• Solutions of Eqs. (5.39) and (5.40) yield

• Nature of ωm versus t and ia versus t curves based on these equations

are shown in Fig. 5.13(6).
 Transient Analysis of DC Motor
• Transient Analysis of Dynamic Braking of Separately Excited Motor: