SUMMER INTERNSHIP PROJECT

REPORT

submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the

award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

By: ADITI SAXENA

Enrollment No.: A51339923003

Under the guidance of

Dr. Vandana Dhahiya
DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
AMITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY (ASET)
AMITY UNIVERSITY HARYANA
GURUGRAM, INDIA
 DECLARATION

I, Aditi Saxena, bearing Enrolment No. A51339923003, a student of

[Link]. in Biomedical Engineering (2nd Year) at Amity University
Haryana, hereby declare that I have successfully completed a Summer
Internship at Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, Delhi, for a duration of 45 days.

This internship was undertaken as a part of my academic and professional

development, providing me with valuable exposure to biomedical equipment,
hospital operations, and clinical engineering practices.

I affirm that the information provided above is true to the best of my

knowledge.

ADITI SAXENA
A51339923003
 DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING
AMITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that the work in the internship report by
ADITI SAXENA, bearing Enroll. No. A51339923003 is a
bonafide record of internship work carried out by her under
my supervision and guidance in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Biomedical Engineering, Amity School of
Engineering and Technology, Amity University Haryana,
Gurgaon.

Neither this project nor any part of it has been submitted

for any degree or academic award elsewhere.

DATE:

SIGNATURE OF THE SUPERVISER

DR. VANDANA DHAHIYA

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I, Aditi Saxena, Enrollment No. A51339923003, pursuing

[Link]. in Biomedical Engineering (2nd Year) at Amity
University Haryana, would like to express my sincere
gratitude to the university for providing me with the
opportunity to pursue a 45-day summer internship at Sir
Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi.

I am deeply thankful to Dr. Vandana Dhahiya, under whose

valuable guidance and supervision I was able to gain
practical exposure and hands-on experience in the field of
Biomedical Engineering. During this internship, I explored
various departments, observed the functioning and
maintenance of critical biomedical equipment, and enhanced
my understanding of hospital-based biomedical operations.
 ABSTRACT

EXPERIENCE IN SIR GANGARAM HOSPITAL:

It was a great opportunity to work as a Biomedical

Engineering Intern at Sir Ganga Ram Hospital (SGRH), New
Delhi, during my 2nd year of [Link]. at Amity University
Haryana. This internship provided me with valuable
knowledge and hands-on experience across various
departments of the hospital. I had the chance to observe and
understand the functioning, management, and maintenance
of different biomedical equipment used in wards, operation
theatres (OTs), intensive care units (ICUs), and other critical
care units. This exposure significantly enhanced my
understanding of clinical environments and the real-time
application of biomedical technologies, contributing to my
academic and professional growth.
EQUIPMENTS COVERED IN THE HOSPITAL:

1. COMPONENTS IN 24. HBOT

HOSPITALS
2. BASICS OF [Link] MACHINE
ELECTRONICS:
a) TRANSFORMER
b) DIODE
c) ZENER DIODE
d) MOSFET
e) RECTIFIER
f) TRANSISTOR
3. ECG MACHINE 26. DIALYSIS
4. HISTOPATHOLOGY LAB 27. HEART LUNG MACHINE
5. CYTOGENETICS 28. ECMO MACHINE
6. PET CT SCAN 29. ACT MACHINE
7. CT SCAN 30. OPG MACHINE
8. MRI MACHINE 31. VENTILATOR
9. PATIENT MONITOR 32. DEFIBRILLATOR
[Link] OXIMETER CONCLUSION
[Link] DETAIL REFERENCE
[Link] DETAILS
[Link]
14. ULTRASOUND
15. CAUTRY MACHINE
16. EEG
17. EMG
18. BP APPARATUS
19. X RAY
20. ECHO MACHINE
21. SPECT SCAN
22. CATH LAB
23. RADIATION
EQUIPEMENTS FOR
TREATING ONCOLOGY
PATIENTS
TOPIC 1: COMPONENTS IN HOSPITALS

ICU –
PATIENT WARMER FLUID WARMER
VENTILATOR DIALYSIS MACHINE
PATIENT MONITOR SYRINGE PUMP
VOLUMETRIC PUMP DVT PUMP
BI-PAP ULTRASOUND
X RAY HFNC

WARDS –
PULSE OXIMETER DEFIBRILLATOR
PATIENT MONITOR SYRINGE PUMP
NEBULIZER ECG MACHINE
BI-PAP BP MACHINE
GLUCOMETER

OT ROOM -
OT TABLE OT LIGHTS
ENDOVISION SYSTEM CAUTERY MACHINE
PATIENT WARMER ANESTHESIA MACHINE
ULTRASOUND LASER
MAONITOR MICROSCOPE
SYRINGE PUMP
 TOPIC 2: BASICS OF ELECTRONICS

a) TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is a key electrical device used to transfer electrical

energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic
induction. It is mainly used to increase (step-up) or decrease
(step-down) voltage levels in AC (alternating current) systems.

Main Principle:

Transformers work on the principle of mutual induction —

when alternating current flows through one coil (called the
primary coil), it creates a magnetic field that induces a voltage in
another coil (called the secondary coil).

b) DIODE:
A diode is an electronic component that allows current to flow
in only one direction — like a one-way valve for electricity.

- Forward Bias (ON state):

 Anode connected to positive, cathode to negative → current

flows.

-Reverse Bias (OFF state):

 Anode connected to negative, cathode to positive → current

blocked.
c) ZENER DIODE:
A Zener diode is a special type of diode that allows current to
flow in reverse — but only after a certain voltage (called Zener
voltage) is reached.

Zener Breakdown:

A controlled process where the Zener diode allows reverse

current to keep voltage constant across a load.

d) MOSFET:

MOSFET stands for Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect

Transistor.

It’s an electronic switch or amplifier that controls the flow of

electricity in circuits using voltage.

A MOSFET has three terminals:

1. Gate (G) – Controls the transistor

2. Drain (D) – Where current flows out
3. Source (S) – Where current enters

e) RECTIFIER:
A rectifier is an electronic device that converts AC (Alternating
Current) to DC (Direct Current).

Types of Rectifiers

1. Half-Wave Rectifier

 Uses 1 diode
 Converts only one half of the AC cycle (positive or negative)
 Simple, but inefficient

Output: Pulsating DC with gaps

2. Full-Wave Rectifier

 Uses 2 or 4 diodes
 Converts both halves of the AC cycle
 More efficient

Output: Smoother DC (still pulsating)

f) TRANSISTOR:
A transistor is a small electronic device used to amplify
signals or switch electronic signals ON or OFF.

There are 3 terminals:

1. Base (B) – The control terminal

2. Collector (C) – Where current comes in
3. Emitter (E) – Where current goes out
 TOPIC 3: ECG MACHINE

An ECG (Electrocardiogram) machine is a medical device used

to record the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time.
It's one of the most commonly used diagnostic tools in
cardiology.

Working Principle of ECG Machine:

The heart produces tiny electrical signals as it contracts and
relaxes. ECG electrodes placed on the body detect these signals,
and the machine amplifies and records them on a paper or
screen.

Component Function
Sensors placed on the skin to
Electrodes detect electrical signals from the
heart.
Connect electrodes to the machine.
Lead Wires
Usually color-coded.
Boosts the tiny electrical signals
Amplifier
from the heart.
Analog-to-Digital Converts signals into digital form
Converter (ADC) if it's a digital ECG.
Shows the ECG waveform in real-
Display/Monitor
time.
Provides a hardcopy output of the
Printer
ECG waveform.
Allows settings like speed, gain,
Control Panel
and lead selection.
Battery/Power Supply For portable use or backup.
 Biomedical Engineering Aspect

 Signal acquisition: Noise filtering and signal amplification are

key.
 Calibration: Must be regularly calibrated for accurate
measurements.
 Safety: Patient leakage current should be minimal to avoid
electric shock.
 Connectivity: Many ECGs are now networked to share data
digitally (EMR/EHR systems).
 TOPIC 4: HISTOPATHOLOGY LAB

Definition:
Histopathology is the microscopic examination of tissue
samples to study the manifestations of disease. It involves
analysing the structure, architecture, and cellular composition of
tissues.

HISTOPATHOLOGY

BIOPSY: AUTOPSY PURIFICACTION AUTOLYSIS

Removal of some Removal of large Distribution of tissues Self-destruction of

tissues from the living tissues or organs from due to environment, the tissues or cells by
beings the dead body bacteria and its own enzymes
microorganisms

Steps Involved:
1. Collection: Tissue is collected via biopsy or surgery.
2. Fixation: Usually in 10% formalin to preserve structure.
3. Processing: Dehydration, clearing, and embedding in paraffin
wax.
4. Sectioning: Thin sections are cut (3–5 microns) with a
microtome.
5. Staining:
o H&E stain (Hematoxylin & Eosin): Most common.
o Special stains (PAS, Ziehl-Neelsen, Masson’s trichrome).
6. Microscopy: Pathologist studies cell morphology, tissue
architecture, necrosis, mitotic activity, etc.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN THE HISTOPATHOLOGY LAB:
1. Grossing Station
2. Tissue Processor
3. Embedding Station
4. Microtome
5. Water Bath
6. Slide Dryer or Warming Plate
7. Staining Setup
8. Light Microscope
 TOPIC 5: CYTOGENETICS

Cytogenetics is the study of chromosomes, which are thread-like

structures in our cells th
at carry genetic information (DNA). It helps doctors and scientists find
changes in chromosomes that can cause diseases, like Down
syndrome, cancer, or infertility.

CYTOGENETIC LAB EQUIPMENTS:

1. Microscope (Fluorescence & Bright Field)
2. CO₂ Incubator
3. Centrifuge
4. Laminar Air Flow Cabinet / Biosafety Cabinet
5. Water Bath
6. Autoclave
7. Microtome (for tissue-based cytogenetics)
8. Chromosome Harvester
9. PCR Machine (Thermal Cycler)
 TOPIC 6: PET-CT SCAN

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) is a nuclear imaging technique

that creates 3D images of functional processes in the body. It detects
metabolic activity by using a radioactive tracer and helps visualize
how tissues and organs are functioning, especially in cancer, brain,
and heart diseases.

Principle of PET Scan:

The PET scan works on the principle of detecting gamma rays that
are emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer)
introduced into the body.
Procedure of PET Scan
1. Patient fasts for 4–6 hours (especially for FDG PET).
2. Tracer is injected intravenously.
3. Patient rests quietly for 30–60 minutes (uptake time).
4. Patient lies on the scanner table.
5. Scanner detects signals and acquires images.
6. Images are reconstructed and analyzed by radiologists.

Steps in Principle:
1. Radioactive tracer (e.g., fluorodeoxyglucose or FDG) is injected
into the patient.
2. The tracer emits positrons (anti-electrons) inside the body.
3. Each positron collides with an electron → both are annihilated.
4. This annihilation produces two gamma photons (511 keV each)
that fly in opposite directions (180° apart).
5. The PET scanner detects these photons simultaneously.
 6. A computer reconstructs the data into a 3D image showing
tracer concentration — indicating areas of high or low metabolic
activity.

Main Parts of a PET Machine:

Part What it Does

Tracer Injector Injects the radioactive material

Gantry (Big Ring) The circular scanner that detects signals

Sense the gamma rays from inside the

Detectors
body

Scintillator Crystals Convert gamma rays to light

Photodetectors
Convert light to electrical signals
(PMT/SiPM)

Computer Builds the final image

Monitor Shows the scan image to doctors

Where the patient lies and moves into the

Patient Bed
scanner
 TOPIC 7: CT-SCAN

A CT (Computed Tomography) scan is a diagnostic imaging tool that

uses X-rays and computer processing to create detailed cross-sectional
images (slices) of the body, including bones, blood vessels, and soft
tissues.
Principle of CT-Scan
CT works on the principle of X-ray attenuation:
1. An X-ray beam passes through the body from many angles.
2. Different tissues (bone, muscle, fat, etc.) absorb X-rays
differently.
3. The detectors measure the amount of X-rays that pass through.
4. A computer reconstructs these readings into 2D or 3D images of
internal organs.

Main Components of a CT Scanner:

Component Function

X-ray Tube Produces X-rays that rotate around the body

Circular frame holding the X-ray tube and

Gantry
detectors

Detectors Measure the X-rays passing through the body

Patient Table Moves the patient into the gantry

Control Console Controls scan settings and operation

Computer
Processes signals to create images
System

Monitor/Display Shows images for diagnosis

 TOPIC 8: MRI MACHINE

MAGNET RESONANCE IMAGING

MRI works on the principle of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) —
using a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed
images of the internal structures of the body.

How MRI Works:

[Link] Field:
 The MRI machine produces a strong magnetic field (usually 1.5
to 3 Tesla).
 This aligns the hydrogen protons (present in water and fat) in
the body in one direction.
2. Magnetic Field:
 The MRI machine produces a strong magnetic field (usually 1.5
to 3 Tesla).
 This aligns the hydrogen protons (present in water and fat) in
the body in one direction.
3. Relaxation:
 When the RF pulse stops, protons return to their original
position (this is called relaxation).
 While relaxing, they emit energy.
4. Signal Detection:
o The energy emitted is picked up by receiver coils in the
machine.
o These signals are converted into images by a computer.
Main Components of MRI Instrument:

[Link] Magnet
 Function: Creates a strong, stable magnetic field.
 Type: Usually, superconducting magnet cooled by liquid
helium.
 Strength: Typically, 1.5 Tesla or 3 Tesla in hospitals.
 Purpose: Aligns hydrogen protons in the body.

2. Radiofrequency (RF) Coils

 Function: Send and receive radio waves.
 Types:
o Transmit coil – sends RF pulses.
o Receive coil – detects signals from the body.
o Can be head coil, knee coil, spine coil, etc. (based on body
part).
 Purpose: Detects the signal emitted from the body after RF
excitation.

3. Patient Table / Bed

 Function: Slides the patient into the bore (center) of the magnet.
 Motorized movement for correct positioning.
 Sometimes includes padding and fixation for comfort and
stability.

[Link] System
 Controls the machine.
 Processes the raw data (RF signals) into images.
 Stores and displays 2D/3D images.
5. Cooling System
 Superconducting magnets need to be extremely cold.
 Uses liquid helium or cryogenic cooling systems.
 Maintains the low temperature (~ -269°C) for superconductivity.

6. Optional Add-Ons
 Contrast Injector System – for contrast MRI (using Gadolinium).
 MRI-compatible monitors – for patients under observation.
 Intercom system – allows communication between patient and
technologist.
 TOPIC 9: PATIENT MONITOR

A patient monitoring machine is a medical device used to

continuously observe a patient's vital signs and physiological
parameters in real-time. These machines are commonly used in
intensive care units (ICUs), operating rooms, emergency
departments, and during recovery after surgery.

Key Components and Features:

1. Display Screen:
o Shows graphical waveforms and numerical values of vital
signs.
o Usually color-coded for clarity.
2. Sensors and Electrodes:
o Connected to the patient to measure different parameters
like ECG leads, pulse oximeter, blood pressure cuff, and
temperature probe.
3. Alarm System:
o Alerts medical staff if any parameter goes beyond the
normal range.
o Alarms can be visual, auditory, or both.
4. Data Storage:
o Stores historical data for review and analysis.
o May include trend graphs and reports.
5. Connectivity:
o Can connect with hospital networks or electronic health
records (EHR).
o Some models allow remote monitoring.
 Common Parameters Monitored

ECG SPO₂ NIBP/IBP HEART RATE RESPIRATORY BODY End-tidal CO₂

(ELECTROCAR (OXYGEN (HR) RATE (RR) TEMPERATUR (EtCO₂)
DIOGRAM): SATURATION) Measures
E
blood Measures
Monitors Measures the pressure Measured exhaled carbon
heart activity oxygen level in Beats per Number of
manually using skin or dioxide; useful
and detect the blood minute (from breaths per
(NIBP) or with core in anaesthesia
arrhythmias. using a pulse ECG or SpO₂). minute.
an arterial line temperature and critical care.
oximeter. (IBP). probes.

Types of Patient Monitors:

1. Bedside Monitors:
o Standard in ICUs and emergency care.
o Offer continuous, multi-parameter monitoring.
2. Portable Monitors:
o Battery-operated, used during transport.
o Smaller, monitor fewer parameters.
3. Wearable Monitors:
o Used for remote/home monitoring.
o Often connect to mobile apps or cloud systems.
4. Central Monitoring Systems:
o Integrate multiple patient monitors to a central station for
observation by healthcare staff.
 TOPIC 10: PULSE OXIMETER

What is a Pulse Oximeter?

A pulse oximeter is a non-invasive medical device that
measures:
 SpO₂: The percentage of oxygen-saturated haemoglobin in the
blood.
 Pulse rate: The number of heart beats per minute.
It is commonly clipped onto a finger, toe, or earlobe.

Principle of Operation:
The pulse oximeter works on the principle of light absorption
and photoplethysmography.

Main Parts of a Pulse Oximeter:

Part Function

Emit specific wavelengths of

LEDs (Red & Infrared)
light through the tissue

Photodiode/Photodetector Detects the transmitted light

Analyzes data to calculate

Microprocessor
SpO₂ and pulse

Shows numerical values and

Display Screen
waveform (pleth graph)

Usually battery-operated (in

Power Source
portable types)

Attaches to finger, toe, or

Sensor Clip
earlobe
 Types of Pulse Oximeters:
1. Fingertip Pulse Oximeter
o Small, portable, for home use
o Clips onto finger
2. Handheld Pulse Oximeter
o Used in hospitals
o Sensor connected via cable; more accurate
3. Tabletop (Bedside) Pulse Oximeter
o Used in ICUs
o Continuous monitoring
4. Wrist-Worn / Wearable Oximeters
o Used for long-term or sleep studies
5. Smartwatch-integrated Oximeters
o Built into fitness or health watches (less accurate)
 TOPIC 11: PMS DETAIL
PMS (Preventive Maintenance Schedule)

Definition:
PMS refers to regular, scheduled maintenance activities done to
prevent equipment failure and extend its lifespan.
Purpose:
 Prevent breakdowns or faults
 Ensure smooth operation
 Replace worn parts, clean, lubricate, etc.
Includes:
 Cleaning
 Lubricating moving parts
 Replacing filters or worn-out components
 Checking battery condition, sensors, etc.
Frequency:
 Monthly, quarterly, or yearly (depending on equipment)
 TOPIC 12: CALIBRATION

Definition:
Calibration means adjusting and verifying the accuracy of a device by
comparing it with a standard reference.
Purpose:
 Ensure readings are accurate and reliable
 Match measurements to a known standard
Includes:
 Adjusting measurement values
 Comparing instrument output with reference equipment
 Generating calibration certificates (often required for audits)
Frequency:
 As per manufacturer’s recommendation or regulations (e.g., 6
months or 1 year)
 TOPIC 13: LITHOTRIPSY

Lithotripsy is a non-surgical medical procedure used to break kidney

stones or gallbladder stones into smaller pieces so they can pass out of
the body easily through urine.
Lithotripsy means "stone crushing." It uses shock waves or laser
energy to break the stones into small fragments without making cuts
in the body.

Types of Lithotripsy:
1. Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESWL):
o Most common
o Uses high-energy shock waves from outside the body
o Waves are focused on the stone using X-ray or ultrasound
o Stone breaks into pieces and is passed out in urine
2. Laser Lithotripsy:
o Done using a ureteroscope (a thin tube passed through the
urethra and bladder)
o A laser fibre breaks the stone directly
o Common for ureter or bladder stones
3. Percutaneous Lithotripsy:
o For very large stones
o A small incision is made in the back
o A scope and instruments are inserted to remove the stone

Available lithotripsy was ESWL in the hospital

Steps in ESWL (most common type):

1. Patient lies on a special table
2. Gel or water is applied to the skin
3. Shock waves are delivered through the body to the stone
4. The process may take 30–60 minutes
5. Stone fragments pass over a few days

Equipment Purpose

Lithotripter Breaks the stone using shock or laser

X-ray / Ultrasound Locates and targets the stone

Positions the patient for accurate

Patient Table
treatment

ECG/Patient Monitor Tracks vital signs

Destroys stones during laser

Laser Generator
lithotripsy

Endoscope
Delivers the laser to the stone site
(Ureteroscope)

Anaesthesia System Provides sedation if required

 TOPIC 14: ULTRASOUND MACHINE

Definition:
Ultrasound, also called sonography, is a diagnostic imaging technique
that uses high-frequency sound waves (typically 1–15 MHz) to
produce real-time images of organs, tissues, and blood flow inside the
body.

Basic Principle:
 Ultrasound waves are transmitted from a probe (transducer)
into the body.
 These waves bounce off internal structures (echoes) and return
to the transducer.
 The machine processes the echoes to form an image on the
screen.
This is based on the echo principle (similar to sonar used by bats or
submarines).

Components of an Ultrasound Machine:

1. Transducer/Probe: Sends and receives sound waves.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Processes echo signals to form
images.
3. Display Screen: Shows the real-time image.
4. Control Panel: Allows settings to be adjusted.
5. Printer/Storage: To save or print images.

Types of Ultrasounds:
1. 2D Ultrasound: Flat, two-dimensional images (most common).
2. 3D Ultrasound: Volume-based, more detailed.
3. 4D Ultrasound: Real-time 3D (adds motion).
4. Doppler Ultrasound: Measures blood flow and velocity.
 TOPIC 15: CAUTERY MACHINE

A cautery machine, commonly referred to as an electrocautery unit or

electrosurgical unit (ESU), is a biomedical device used in surgical
procedures to cut tissue or control bleeding (hemostasis) by using
heat generated from electricity.

The cautery machine works by passing high-frequency electrical

current (typically 300 kHz to 3 MHz) through a metal electrode,
which generates heat at the tip. This heat is used to:
 Cut through tissues (electrosection)
 Coagulate blood vessels (electrocoagulation)
 Desiccate or destroy tissue (electrodesiccation)

Parts of a Cautery Machine:

1. Generator Unit – Produces high-frequency electrical current.
2. Active Electrode – The surgical instrument used (knife, ball,
needle tip).
3. Patient Return Electrode (Pad) – For monopolar mode, it safely
completes the circuit.
4. Footswitch/Hand Control – Activates the desired mode
(cut/coagulate).
5. Display and Controls – Adjust power settings and monitor use.
 TOPIC 16: EEG MACHINE

EEG (Electroencephalogram) is a non-invasive test used to measure

the electrical activity of the brain.
What is EEG?
EEG records brain waves using small electrodes placed on the scalp. It
detects electrical signals produced by neurons (nerve cells) in the
brain.
How it works:
 Electrodes are attached to the scalp using a cap or glue.
 These detect tiny electrical impulses.
 Signals are amplified and shown as wave patterns on a screen or
paper.
 Different wave patterns represent different brain states (awake,
asleep, seizure, etc.).

Types of Brain Waves:

Wave Type Frequency State Detected

Delta 0.5–4 Hz Deep sleep

Theta 4–8 Hz Drowsiness, light sleep

Alpha 8–13 Hz Relaxed, awake state

Beta 13–30 Hz Alert, active thinking

Gamma >30 Hz High-level brain activity

Equipment Used in EEG:

1. Electrodes
2. Electrode Cap or Head Cap
3. Conductive Gel/Paste
4. EEG Amplifier
5. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
6. Filters (Hardware or Software)
7. Video Camera (For Video EEG)
8. Power Supply / Battery Backup
9. Portable EEG Machine
 TOPIC 17: EMG

EMG (Electromyography) is a diagnostic procedure that records the

electrical activity of muscles and the nerves controlling them. It helps
in detecting neuromuscular disorders.

How EMG Works:

1. Electrodes (either surface or needle) are placed on or inside the
muscle.
2. The machine detects electrical signals when muscles contract or
are at rest.
3. These signals are shown as waveforms on a monitor and can be
printed.
4. The data helps doctors determine nerve or muscle damage.

Parts of an EMG Machine:

 Electrodes (needle or surface)
 Amplifier
 Signal processor
 Display unit (screen or printer)
 Speaker (to hear the signals)
 TOPIC 18: BP APPARATUS

A BP apparatus, or sphygmomanometer, is a medical device used to

measure blood pressure, i.e., the pressure exerted by circulating blood
on the walls of the arteries.
It measures two values:
1. Systolic Pressure – Pressure during heart contraction (normal:
~120 mmHg)
2. Diastolic Pressure – Pressure during heart relaxation (normal:
~80 mmHg)
Types of BP Apparatus:
1. Manual BP Apparatus
Mercury Sphygmomanometer (Traditional)
 Gold standard for accuracy
 Contains mercury column that rises/falls with pressure
2. Digital BP Apparatus
 Electronic and automatic
 Easy to use at home
 Measures pressure via sensors
 May be upper arm, wrist, or finger-based

Main Parts of a Manual BP Instrument:

Part Function
Cuff Inflatable band wrapped around the arm to occlude artery
Rubber Bulb (Pump) Inflates the cuff manually
Air Release Valve Controls the deflation of the cuff
Manometer Measures the pressure (mercury or aneroid dial)
Stethoscope Used to listen to Korotkoff sounds (only in manual method)
Normal Blood Pressure Range:

Category Systolic Diastolic

Normal <120 <80

Elevated 120–129 <80

Hypertension Stage 1 130–139 80–89

Hypertension Stage 2 ≥140 ≥90

 TOPIC 19: X-RAYS

An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation (like light but with

higher energy) that can pass through the body and create images of
internal structures, especially bones.
It is commonly used in medical imaging to detect:
 Bone fractures
 Infections
 Tumours
 Dental issues

Principle of X-ray
X-rays are produced when high-speed electrons strike a metal
target. This sudden deceleration produces X-rays.

Components of an X-ray Machine

Component Function
Main part where X-rays are generated.
1. X-ray Tube
Contains cathode and anode.
Produces and focuses electrons using a
2. Cathode
heated filament.
Rotating or stationary metal (usually
3. Anode
tungsten) that emits X-rays when hit
(Target)
by electrons.
Protects and insulates the tube; often
4. Tube Housing
lead-lined to block stray radiation.
Controls the size and shape of the X-
5. Collimator
ray beam using adjustable shutters.
6. High Voltage Supplies the high voltage (30kV–
Generator 150kV) needed to accelerate electrons.
Allows the technician to set parameters
7. Control Panel like exposure time, voltage, and
current.
Captures the X-ray image. Types
8. Image include:
Receptor • Film (older systems)
• Digital Detectors (DR/CR systems)
Component Function
Reduces scatter radiation and improves
9. Bucky/Grid image contrast (placed between patient
and detector).
Movable table to position the patient
10. Patient Table
properly for imaging.
11. Cooling Removes heat generated from the
System anode during X-ray production.
 TOPIC 20: ECHO MACHINE
An Echo machine is a non-invasive diagnostic device that uses
ultrasound waves to create real-time images of the heart. It helps
assess the structure and function of the heart, such as chambers,
valves, walls, and blood flow.

Principle of Echocardiography
 Ultrasound Principle:
High-frequency sound waves (1–10 MHz) are emitted by a
probe (transducer). These waves:
1. Penetrate the body.
2. Reflect back from heart structures.
3. Are captured by the transducer again.
4. Signals are converted into live 2D/3D moving images on a
screen.
 Doppler Effect is used to assess blood flow and velocity.

Type Description

1. Transthoracic Echo
Most common, probe placed on chest.
(TTE)

2. Transoesophageal Probe inserted into oesophagus for

Echo (TEE) clearer images, especially of valves.

Echo performed during exercise or

3. Stress Echo after medication to test heart under
stress.

Measures speed and direction of blood

4. Doppler Echo
flow using Doppler effect.
 TOPIC 21: SPECT SCAN
SPECT-CT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography –
Computed Tomography) is a hybrid imaging technique that combines:
 SPECT: A nuclear medicine scan that shows functional activity
in the body using radioactive tracers.
 CT: A conventional X-ray-based scan that gives detailed
anatomical images.
Components of SPECT-CT Machine:

Component Function

Gamma Camera Detects gamma rays from the radiotracer

Ensures gamma rays reach the detector in a

Collimator
specific direction

Detector Crystal (e.g.,

Converts gamma rays to light
NaI)

Photomultiplier Tubes Converts light to electrical signal

Rotating Gantry Allows 360° movement around the patient

X-ray Tube (CT) Emits X-rays for CT imaging

CT Detectors Captures transmitted X-rays to create images

Computer System Processes and fuses SPECT + CT images

Patient Table Moves through both SPECT and CT gantries

 TOPIC 22: CATH LAB

A Cath Lab** is a special hospital room where doctors use imaging

(like X-rays) to see inside your heart and blood vessels. It’s used for
diagnosis and treatment of heart conditions without doing open
surgery.

The Siemens ARTIS Pheno is a highly advanced robotic imaging

system used primarily in interventional radiology, cardiology, and
hybrid ORs (Operating Rooms).
The Siemens ARTIS Pheno is a robotic C-arm X-ray machine that
gives 3D, high-quality, real-time images of the inside of a patient
during surgeries or catheter-based procedures. It helps doctors
perform precise, image-guided operations, especially on the heart,
blood vessels, brain, and spine.

Feature Description

The C-arm moves smoothly around the patient to

Robotic C-arm
take images from multiple angles.

Provides CT-like 3D imaging during surgery

3D Imaging
(DynaCT).

High Delivers sharp, real-time images, helping in accurate

Resolution navigation.

No ceiling mount needed – saves space and allows

Floor-mounted
better mobility.

Easy to clean, suitable for strict hygiene in the

Sterile Design
operating room.

Flexible Covers a large area, can tilt, rotate, and move in

Movement complex ways.
TOPIC 23: RADIATION EQUIPEMENTS FOR
TREATING ONCOLOGY PATIENTS

Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) uses high-energy

radiation to kill or damage cancer cells. Specialized machines are
used to deliver radiation precisely to tumours while sparing healthy
tissues.

External Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT) Machines

Radiation is delivered from outside the body, focusing on the tumor.
LINEAR ACCELERATOR (LINAC)
 Most commonly used machine for external beam therapy.
 Produces high-energy X-rays or electrons.
 Can rotate around the patient to target from multiple angles.
MR Linac (MRI-guided LINAC)
 Combines MRI and LINAC for precise targeting with real-time
imaging.
 Useful for soft-tissue tumors.
 TOPIC 24: HBOT
(Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy)

HBOT is a treatment where a patient breathes 100% pure oxygen

inside a high-pressure chamber. This helps the blood carry more
oxygen, which speeds up healing, especially for wounds, infections,
and certain medical conditions.
It’s like putting the body in an oxygen-rich, high-pressure
environment to boost recovery.

Components of HBOT System

Component Function

Pressure Chamber Enclosed space that maintains high pressure

Oxygen Supply
Provides pure oxygen to the chamber
System

Used by technicians to control pressure and

Control Panel
oxygen levels

Checks patient vitals and chamber

Monitoring System
environment

Communication Allows communication with patient inside the

System chamber

Fire Suppression
Essential due to high oxygen content
System

Ventilation & Cooling Maintains comfort and safety inside chamber

 Biomedical Focus: Maintenance, oxygen safety, pressure

calibration
 TOPIC 25: ABG MACHINE
(Arterial Blood Gas Analyzer)
An ABG machine** is used to analyze a blood sample taken from an
artery. It measures important values like oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide
(CO₂), and blood pH to check how well a person’s lungs and kidneys
are working. It is commonly used in ICU, emergency, and critical
care settings.

OXYGEN LEVELS (PaO₂)

PH

CARBON DIOXIDE
levels (PaCO₂) ABG BICARBONATE
(HCO₃⁻)

OXYGEN
SATURATION (SaO₂)

PRINCIPLE:
Electrodes in the machine measure each parameter:
 pH electrode: Glass membrane detects hydrogen ion
concentration
 PaO₂ electrode
 PaCO₂ electrode
The machine analyses the electrical signals and displays the result.
 TOPIC 26: DIALYSIS
Dialysis is a medical process that removes waste products, extra
fluids, and toxins from the blood when the kidneys are not working
properly (kidney failure or chronic kidney disease).

TYPES OF DIALYSIS:
1. Haemodialysis:

 Blood is taken from the body and cleaned using a dialyzer (artificial kidney).

 The cleaned blood is then returned to the body.

 Usually done 3 times a week, each session lasting about 3–5 hours.

 Performed in a hospital or dialysis center, or sometimes at home.

2. Peritoneal Dialysis:

Uses the lining of the abdomen (peritoneum) as a natural filter.

 A special fluid (dialysate) is inserted into the abdomen through a catheter.

Waste products pass from the blood vessels in the peritoneum into the fluid.

The fluid is then drained and replaced.

Equipment Name Function

Dialysis Machine Filters blood using dialysate

Dialyzer Filters waste from blood

RO Water Treatment Provides pure water

Blood Tubing Set Connects patient to machine

Heparin Pump Prevents clotting

Pressure & Air Sensors Monitor patient safety

Dialysate Mixer Mixes acid & bicarbonate with water

Disinfection Unit Cleans machine post-use

 TOPIC 27: HEART LUNG MACHINE

HLM in hospital stands for Heart-Lung Machine. It is a life-

saving device used primarily during open-heart surgeries.

A Heart-Lung Machine (HLM) is a medical device that takes

over the function of the heart and lungs during surgery. It
pumps blood and adds oxygen to it, keeping the patient alive
while the surgeon operates on the heart.

Main Components:

1. Pump – Works like the heart by pushing blood through the

body.
2. Oxygenator – Replaces the lungs by adding oxygen and
removing carbon dioxide from the blood.
3. Heat Exchanger – Controls the temperature of the blood to
maintain body temperature.
4. Filters – Remove bubbles or particles from the blood.
5. Tubes (Cannulas) – Carry blood from the patient to the machine
and back.

Components of a Heart-Lung Machine (Simple):

Component Function

Venous reservoir Collects blood from the body.

Oxygenator Adds oxygen and removes CO₂ (acts like lungs).

Heat exchanger Warms or cools blood to control body temp.

Pump Moves blood around the body (acts like heart).

Arterial filter Removes air bubbles/clots before sending blood back.

Cannulas Tubes to take blood out and send it back in.

 TOPIC 28: ECMO MACHINE
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation.

It is a life-support machine used in critical care when a person’s heart

and/or lungs are not working properly and need help to rest and heal.

Purpose of ECMO:

It temporarily takes over the function of the heart and lungs by:

 Removing carbon dioxide from the blood

 Adding oxygen to the blood
 Pumping the blood back into the body

This gives the heart and lungs time to recover.

Working of ECMO Machine:

1. Blood is drained from a large vein using a tube (cannula).

2. It goes into the ECMO machine.
3. The machine has a membrane oxygenator (acts like artificial
lungs):
o It removes CO₂
o It adds oxygen
4. The oxygen-rich blood is then warmed and pumped back into
the body.

Main Components of ECMO Machine:

1. Cannulas – Tubes to carry blood in and out

2. Pump – Pushes the blood through the machine
3. Oxygenator (Membrane Lung) – Adds oxygen, removes CO₂
4. Heat exchanger – Keeps the blood warm
5. Tubing circuit – Connects everything
6. Monitoring system – Tracks pressures, oxygen levels,
temperature
 TOPIC 29: ACT MACHINE
Activated Clotting Time Machine

What is an ACT Machine?

An ACT machine measures how long it takes your blood to clot. It is

mainly used during surgeries like open-heart surgery, ECMO, or
dialysis, where heparin (a blood thinner) is used to prevent clotting.
The machine checks if the blood is too thin or too thick by timing the
clotting process.

Components of an ACT Machine

1. Sample Holder/Cartridge Slot – Where the blood sample

cartridge is inserted.
2. Heating Block – Keeps the blood at body temperature (~37°C)
for accurate clotting.
3. Detection System – Uses optical or mechanical methods to
detect clot formation.
4. Display Screen – Shows the ACT result in seconds.
5. Printer (optional) – Prints results for records.
6. Control Panel – Buttons or touch interface for operation.

Working Principle (Step-by-Step)

1. Blood sample is taken in a special ACT cartridge or tube.

2. Activator (e.g., celite or kaolin) is added to start the clotting
process.
3. The sample is inserted into the machine.
4. The machine keeps the sample warm and detects when clotting
happens.
5. The time taken is displayed as the ACT value.
 TOPIC 30: OPG MACHINE
Orthopantomogram

An OPG machine is a type of X-ray machine used to take a panoramic

image of the entire mouth – including the teeth, jaws, and
surrounding bones – in one single image.

Captures a two-dimensional wide view of the upper and lower jaw,

including:
 Teeth
 Temporomandibular joints (TMJ)
 Sinuses
 Jawbones

Main Components of an OPG Machine:

Component Function

X-ray Tube Head Emits X-rays

Image
Captures the image (digital or film-based)
Receptor/Detector

Moves the tube and detector around the

Rotating Arm
patient

Used by the technician to set parameters

Control Panel
(kVp, mA, time)

Head Rest & Bite

Stabilizes the head and positions the teeth
Block
 TOPIC 31: VENTILATOR MACHINE

A ventilator is a life-support machine that helps a patient breathe

when they are unable to breathe adequately on their own. It is
commonly used in critical care, surgery, and during emergencies.

Main Functions
 Deliver oxygen (O₂) to the lungs
 Remove carbon dioxide (CO₂)
 Support or fully take over the breathing process

Types of Ventilators:

Type Description
Air delivered through a tube inserted into trachea
Invasive Ventilator
(via mouth or tracheostomy).
Non-Invasive Air delivered using a face mask or nasal mask
Ventilator (NIV) (e.g., BiPAP, CPAP).
Portable Ventilator Used during transport or in home settings.

Parts of a Ventilator Machine:

1. Control Panel/Display Screen: Shows settings like respiratory
rate, tidal volume, etc.
2. Air Source: Supplies oxygen and air (from a wall source or
cylinder).
3. Tubing Circuit: Carries air to and from the patient.
4. Humidifier: Moistens air to prevent drying of airways.
5. Alarms: Alert for issues like low oxygen, high pressure, or
disconnection.
6. Filters: Prevent bacteria/virus from entering the lungs.

Modes of Ventilation:
 Assist-Control (AC): Full support; machine delivers every
breath.
 SIMV (Synchronized Intermittent Mandatory Ventilation):
Partial support; allows spontaneous breaths.
 CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure): Keeps airways
open in patients who can breathe.
 BiPAP: Provides two levels of pressure (for inhale and exhale).
 TOPIC 32: DEFIBRILLATOR
Defibrillation is the process of delivering a therapeutic dose of
electrical energy to the heart to depolarize the heart muscles and allow
the normal rhythm to be re-established by the natural pacemaker of
the heart (the SA node).

TYPES OF DEFIBRILLATORS:
a. Automated External Defibrillator (AED)
 Used by: Laypersons and first responders
 Function: Analyses heart rhythm automatically and gives voice
prompts
 Shock: Only delivered if needed
 Use: Public places (airports, malls, etc.)
b. Manual External Defibrillator
 Used by: Medical professionals
 Function: Requires ECG interpretation
 Shock: Manual control of energy level and timing
c. Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD)
 Implanted surgically inside the body
 Monitors rhythm continuously
 Automatically delivers a shock if needed
d. Wearable Cardioverter Defibrillator (WCD)
 Worn like a vest
 Used temporarily when ICD is not yet implanted
 Monitors and delivers shock automatically
Working Principle:
1. Electrodes (pads or paddles) are placed on the chest.
2. Rhythm is analysed (in AEDs, it's automatic; in manual, via
ECG).
3. If needed, a shock is delivered to stop abnormal rhythm.
4. The heart stops briefly, then ideally restarts in a normal rhythm.

Key Components
 Electrodes/Pads – to deliver shock
 Capacitor – stores electrical energy
 Battery – powers the device
 Control unit – processes rhythm and controls shock delivery
 ECG monitor (in manual types) – displays heart rhythm
Energy Levels
 Typically, 150–360 joules depending on the device and protocol
 Biphasic defibrillators (modern) use less energy than
monophasic
 CONCLUSION

It was a truly enriching experience working as a Biomedical Intern at

Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, Delhi for a period of 45 days. This
internship provided me with valuable exposure to various biomedical
equipment, hospital departments, and real-time clinical applications,
enhancing both my technical knowledge and practical understanding.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Ruby, under whose

guidance we were effectively mentored and supported throughout the
internship. I am also deeply thankful to Mrs. Shobha Yadav and Mr.
Lovelish, Biomedical Engineers at the hospital, for their constant
assistance, knowledge-sharing, and encouragement during our
learning process.

This internship has been a significant step in my journey as a

biomedical engineering student, and I am grateful for the opportunity
to be a part of such a reputed institution.
 REFERENCE

[Link] Ganga Ram Hospital, Delhi – Internship observations and hands-

on experience in various departments including ICU, OT, Radiology,
and Biomedical Engineering Department (May–July 2025).

[Link] Notes and Departmental Materials provided by Mrs. Shobha

Yadav and Mr. Lovelish, Biomedical Engineers at Sir Ganga Ram
Hospital.

[Link]. ChatGPT. July 2025 version, [Link]

Accessed 25 July 2025.