Brayton Cycle Formulas

Here’s a comprehensive breakdown of the Brayton cycle — including all the key formulas as
found in standard engineering thermodynamics textbooks such as Thermodynamics: An
Engineering Approach by Cengel & Boles — and an explanation of the cycle stages.

🔥 The Brayton Cycle Overview

The Brayton cycle is the ideal cycle for gas turbines (e.g., jet engines, power plants) using a
perfect gas (usually air) as the working fluid.

It consists of four internally reversible processes:

1. Isentropic Compression (1 → 2) — in the compressor

2. Constant Pressure Heat Addition (2 → 3) — in the combustion chamber

3. Isentropic Expansion (3 → 4) — in the turbine

4. Constant Pressure Heat Rejection (4 → 1) — to the surroundings

🌀 Brayton Cycle Processes with Formulas

Let’s define:
P2
rp =
​

P1
= pressure ratio
​

​
​

Cp
k= Cv = specific heat ratio (≈ 1.4 for air)
​

Cp = specific heat at constant pressure

​

R = gas constant
T = temperature at each state
ηth = thermal efficiency
​

1. Isentropic Compression (1 → 2)

1/31
 In the compressor, air is compressed adiabatically and reversibly (i.e., isentropically)

Formulas:
k−1
P2 k k−1
​

T2 = T1 ( ) = T1 r p k
​

P1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Wcomp = Cp (T2 − T1 ) ​ ​ ​ ​

2. Constant Pressure Heat Addition (2 → 3)

Heat is added at constant pressure (in a combustion chamber or heat exchanger)

Formulas:

qin = Cp (T3 − T2 )
​ ​ ​ ​

3. Isentropic Expansion (3 → 4)

In the turbine, the gas expands adiabatically and reversibly

Formulas:
k−1
P4 k
− k−1
​

T4 = T3 ( ) = T3 r p k
​
​

P3
​ ​ ​ ​

Wturb = Cp (T3 − T4 ) ​ ​ ​ ​

4. Constant Pressure Heat Rejection (4 → 1)

Heat is rejected to the environment at constant pressure.

Formulas:

qout = Cp (T4 − T1 )
​ ​ ​ ​

2/31
✅ Net Work Output and Thermal Efficiency
Net Work Output:

Wnet = Wturb − Wcomp = Cp [(T3 − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 )]

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Thermal Efficiency (Ideal Brayton Cycle):

qout T − T1
ηth = 1 − =1− 4
​ ​ ​

qin T3 − T2
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

For an ideal gas Brayton cycle with isentropic processes and air-standard assumptions, it
becomes:

1
ηth = 1 −
​

k−1
​

rp k
​

This shows that increasing the pressure ratio rp increases the thermal efficiency.
​

📈 Brayton Cycle on T-s and P-v Diagrams

T-s Diagram:
Vertical lines → isentropic (1→2 and 3→4)

Horizontal lines → constant pressure (2→3 and 4→1)

P-v Diagram:
Curved adiabats (isentropic)

Flat lines (constant pressure)

🔧 Real Brayton Cycle (with irreversibilities)

3/31
In real cycles:

Compression and expansion are not truly isentropic — introduce isentropic

efficiencies:

Compressor Efficiency:
T2s − T1
ηc =
​ ​

T2 − T1
​ ​

​ ​

Turbine Efficiency:
T3 − T4
ηt =
​ ​

T3 − T4s
​ ​

​ ​

Where:

T2s , T4s are the isentropic exit temperatures

​ ​

T2 , T4 are actual exit temperatures

​ ​

✅ Summary Table of Brayton Formulas

Description Formula

P2
Pressure Ratio rp =
​

P1
​

​
​

Compressor Work Wcomp = Cp (T2 − T1 ) ​ ​ ​ ​

Turbine Work Wturb = Cp (T3 − T4 ) ​ ​ ​ ​

Net Work Wnet = Wturb − Wcomp ​ ​ ​

Heat Added qin = Cp (T3 − T2 )

​ ​ ​ ​

Heat Rejected qout = Cp (T4 − T1 )

​ ​ ​ ​

1
Thermal Efficiency (Ideal) ηth = 1 − ​

k−1 ​

rp k
​

k−1
Isentropic Compression Temp T 2 = T 1 rp k
​

​ ​ ​

4/31
Description Formula

− k−1
Isentropic Expansion Temp T 4 = T 3 rp k
​

​ ​ ​

If you like, I can also solve a sample Brayton cycle question using these formulas — or create
a visual diagram of the cycle to aid understanding.

Absolutely! Here's a comprehensive explanation of the Rankine Cycle, including all

standard formulas as presented in engineering thermodynamics textbooks (like Cengel &
Boles: Thermodynamics – An Engineering Approach), with detailed descriptions of each
process and key performance metrics.

🌡️ The Rankine Cycle Overview

The Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants (e.g., steam power plants). It
uses water (steam) as the working fluid and consists of four internally reversible
processes.

🔁 Rankine Cycle Processes

1. Isentropic Compression (1 → 2) – Pump

2. Constant Pressure Heat Addition (2 → 3) – Boiler

3. Isentropic Expansion (3 → 4) – Turbine

4. Constant Pressure Heat Rejection (4 → 1) – Condenser

📉 Rankine Cycle Diagram Overview

5/31
 T-s Diagram: Straight vertical lines (isentropic) and horizontal steps (constant pressure
heat addition/rejection)

P-v Diagram: Steep compression and expansion curves with near-horizontal evaporation
and condensation lines

🧮 Formulas for Each Process

Let:

h: specific enthalpy
s: specific entropy
v : specific volume
P : pressure
W : work
Q: heat
Subscripts:

1: saturated liquid after condenser

2: compressed liquid after pump

3: superheated steam after boiler

4: low-pressure vapor after turbine

🔹 1. Isentropic Compression (1 → 2) — Pump

Water is pumped from low to high pressure. Since liquid is nearly incompressible:

Wpump = v1 (P2 − P1 )
​ ​ ​

h2 ≈ h1 + Wpump
​ ​ ​

If you use steam tables and don't assume incompressibility:

Wpump = h2 − h1
​ ​ ​

6/31
🔹 2. Constant Pressure Heat Addition (2 → 3) — Boiler
Water is heated at constant pressure to become high-pressure steam.

qin = h3 − h2
​ ​ ​

🔹 3. Isentropic Expansion (3 → 4) — Turbine

High-pressure steam expands, producing work.

Wturbine = h3 − h4 ​ ​ ​

🔹 4. Constant Pressure Heat Rejection (4 → 1) — Condenser

Steam is condensed to saturated liquid at constant pressure.

qout = h4 − h1
​ ​ ​

✅ Net Work Output and Thermal Efficiency

Net Work Output:

Wnet = Wturbine − Wpump = (h3 − h4 ) − (h2 − h1 )

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Thermal Efficiency:

Wnet (h3 − h4 ) − (h2 − h1 )

ηth = =
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

qin h3 − h2
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

🔧 Real Rankine Cycle Adjustments

In a real (non-ideal) Rankine cycle:

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Turbine Isentropic Efficiency:
h3 − h4
ηt =
​ ​

h3 − h4s
​ ​

​ ​

Pump Isentropic Efficiency:

h2s − h1
ηp =
​ ​

h2 − h1
​ ​

Where:

h4s : isentropic enthalpy at turbine exit

​

h2s : isentropic enthalpy at pump exit

​

🧾 Summary Table: Rankine Cycle Formulas

Stage Description Formula

1→2 Pump Work (Isentropic Compression) Wpump = v1 (P2 − P1 ) or h2 − h1 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2→3 Heat Added in Boiler qin = h3 − h2 ​ ​ ​

3→4 Turbine Work (Isentropic Expansion) Wturbine = h3 − h4 ​ ​ ​

4→1 Heat Rejected in Condenser qout = h4 − h1 ​ ​ ​

– Net Work Wnet = Wturbine − Wpump ​ ​ ​

Wnet
– Thermal Efficiency ηth = ​

qin ​
​

h3 −h4
– Turbine Efficiency (Real Cycle) ηt = ​

h3 −h4s
​
​ ​

​
​

h2s −h1
– Pump Efficiency (Real Cycle) ηp = ​

h2 −h1 ​
​

​
​

⚙️ Optional Enhancements
The basic Rankine cycle can be improved using:

8/31
 Superheating (increases h3 )​

Reheating (splits expansion into two turbines for better efficiency)

Regeneration (uses feedwater heaters to preheat water before boiler)

Let me know if you’d like formulas and diagrams for those enhanced Rankine cycles too.

Would you like a solved sample question, PDF version, or annotated diagram for the
Rankine cycle?

Great question! Let's walk through the components of both the Brayton and Rankine cycles
and explain how each one contributes to the four major processes.

🔄 1. Rankine Cycle Components &

Contributions
The Rankine cycle is used in steam power plants, and it consists of the following key
components:

Process Component Function

1 → 2 (Isentropic Pump Increases the pressure of the working fluid (water) from low
Compression) condenser pressure to high boiler pressure with minimal
temperature change. This prepares it to absorb heat
efficiently in the boiler.

2 → 3 (Constant Boiler (Steam Adds heat to the pressurized liquid water at constant
Pressure Heat Generator) pressure. The water turns into saturated or superheated
Addition) steam. This is the main energy input into the cycle.

3 → 4 (Isentropic Steam Turbine The high-pressure steam expands in the turbine, converting
Expansion) thermal energy into mechanical work (rotational energy
used to generate electricity). The steam's pressure and
temperature drop.

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Process Component Function

4 → 1 (Constant Condenser Rejects heat from the steam at constant pressure to the
Pressure Heat cooling water or air. The steam condenses into saturated
Rejection) liquid to complete the cycle.

🔧 Summary of Rankine Cycle Component Roles:

Component Main Role

Pump Adds pressure to the fluid (low to high pressure)

Boiler Adds thermal energy (turns water into steam)

Turbine Converts steam energy into work (expansion)

Condenser Removes heat, condenses steam back to water

🔁 2. Brayton Cycle Components &

Contributions
The Brayton cycle is used in gas turbines and jet engines, and it consists of the following
key components:

Process Component Function

1 → 2 (Isentropic Compressor Compresses the incoming air, raising its pressure and
Compression) temperature before combustion. This allows more energy
to be extracted during expansion.

2 → 3 (Constant Combustion Adds thermal energy by burning fuel with compressed air
Pressure Heat Chamber at constant pressure. This increases the air temperature
Addition) significantly.

3 → 4 (Isentropic Turbine Expands the high-temperature, high-pressure gas to

Expansion) produce mechanical work. Part of this work powers the
compressor; the rest can be used to produce thrust or
electricity.

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Process Component Function

4 → 1 (Constant Exhaust or Heat In an open cycle, hot gases are exhausted to the
Pressure Heat Exchanger atmosphere. In a closed cycle, a heat exchanger rejects
Rejection) heat at constant pressure to the surroundings.

🔧 Summary of Brayton Cycle Component Roles:

Component Main Role

Compressor Increases air pressure (prepares for combustion)

Combustion Chamber Adds heat by burning fuel (increases temperature)

Turbine Extracts energy from hot gases (powers compressor and load)

Exhaust/Heat Exchanger Removes residual heat (completes cycle or ejects gases)

🔄 Comparison: Component Contributions

Compression Work Output Heat Rejection
Cycle Device Heat Source Device Device

Rankine Pump (liquid) Boiler (external heat) Steam Turbine Condenser (cooling
water)

Brayton Compressor Combustion Chamber Gas Turbine Exhaust / Heat

(air/gas) (fuel) Exchanger

💡 Visual Summary (Processes vs Components)

🔷 Rankine Cycle
scss

PUMP → BOILER → TURBINE → CONDENSER → (cycle restarts)

11/31
 PUMP: Pressure ↑

BOILER: Temperature ↑, Phase change (liquid → steam)

TURBINE: Pressure ↓, Work out

CONDENSER: Heat out, Phase change (steam → liquid)

🔷 Brayton Cycle
scss

COMPRESSOR → COMBUSTION → TURBINE → EXHAUST → (cycle restarts)

COMPRESSOR: Pressure ↑

COMBUSTION CHAMBER: Temperature ↑

TURBINE: Pressure ↓, Work out

EXHAUST: Heat out (air/gas flows out)

Would you like a diagram for both cycles showing these components, or a PDF version of
this explanation?

Certainly! Here's a complete breakdown of the Combined Power Cycle, including all relevant
formulas and an explanation of each part, based on standard thermodynamics references
like Cengel & Boles – Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach.

⚡ COMBINED POWER CYCLE:

FORMULAS & EXPLANATION
✅ What is a Combined Power Cycle?
12/31
A Combined Power Cycle (also called a Combined Gas–Steam Cycle) merges two
thermodynamic cycles:

Brayton Cycle (Gas Turbine) – Top cycle

Rankine Cycle (Steam Turbine) – Bottom cycle

This combination increases the overall thermal efficiency by recovering waste heat from the
Brayton cycle’s exhaust and using it to run a steam Rankine cycle.

🔄 Basic Flow
1. Air enters the gas turbine system → undergoes Brayton cycle

2. Hot exhaust gases from gas turbine → go to a Heat Recovery Steam Generator
(HRSG)

3. HRSG uses this heat to generate steam → enters Rankine cycle

🔧 Components Involved
Brayton Cycle Rankine Cycle

Compressor Pump

Combustion chamber Boiler (HRSG)

Gas turbine Steam turbine

Exhaust gases (to HRSG) Condenser

🧮 Formulas for Combined Cycle

Let’s define:

hi : Enthalpy at state i
​

13/31
 q : Heat
W : Work
Subscripts:

GT = Gas Turbine (Brayton)

ST = Steam Turbine (Rankine)

🔷 1. Brayton (Gas Turbine) Cycle Formulas

Compressor Work:

Wcomp = h2 − h1 ​ ​ ​

Heat Added (Combustion Chamber):

qin,GT = h3 − h2
​ ​ ​

Turbine Work:

Wturb,GT = h3 − h4 ​ ​ ​

Net Work from Gas Cycle:

Wnet,GT = Wturb,GT − Wcomp

​ ​ ​

Exhaust Heat to HRSG (available to steam cycle):

qexhaust = h4 − h5
​ ​ ​ (if expanded to lower temp)

🔷 2. Rankine (Steam Turbine) Cycle Formulas

Pump Work:

Wpump = h7 − h6 ≈ v6 (P7 − P6 )
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Heat Added in HRSG (boiler):

qin,ST = h8 − h7
​ ​ ​

Steam Turbine Work:

Wturb,ST = h8 − h9 ​ ​ ​

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 Heat Rejected in Condenser:

qout,ST = h9 − h6 ​ ​ ​

Net Work from Steam Cycle:

Wnet,ST = Wturb,ST − Wpump

​ ​ ​

✅ Combined Net Work Output

Wnet,total = Wnet,GT + Wnet,ST
​ ​ ​

✅ Combined Cycle Heat Input

qin,total = qin,GT​ ​

(Only the fuel input to the gas turbine is considered external heat input. Steam cycle uses
recovered heat, so it doesn’t count as additional input.)

✅ Thermal Efficiency of Combined Cycle

Wnet,GT + Wnet,ST
ηth,combined =
​

qin,GT
​

Or:

ηth,combined = ηGT + ηST

​
∗
(1 − ηGT )​ ​ ​

Where:
Wnet,GT
ηGT =
​

qin,GT​
​

Wnet,ST
ηST
∗
​= qavailable
→ effectiveness of bottoming cycle
​
​

🔁 Cycle Diagram (T-s Conceptual)

15/31
The diagram shows:

Brayton: 1–2–3–4 (compressor → combustion → turbine → exhaust)

Rankine: 6–7–8–9–6 (pump → HRSG → steam turbine → condenser)

⚡ Why Use a Combined Cycle?

The Brayton cycle has high-temperature exhaust, but much of it is wasted in a simple
cycle.

A Rankine cycle uses this waste heat efficiently.

Combined cycle thermal efficiencies can reach 55–65%, while simple gas or steam
cycles alone only reach 30–40%.

🧾 Summary Table
Quantity Formula

Gas Turbine Work Output Wnet,GT = (h3 − h4 ) − (h2 − h1 )

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Steam Turbine Work Output Wnet,ST = (h8 − h9 ) − (h7 − h6 )

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Total Net Work Wnet,total = Wnet,GT + Wnet,ST

​ ​ ​

Wnet,total
Combined Thermal Efficiency ηth =
​

qin,GT
​ ​

Heat Input (Gas Turbine only) qin,GT = h3 − h2

​ ​ ​

Would you like a solved example, T-s diagram, or a PDF handout version of this combined
cycle content?

16/31
Certainly! Here's a complete breakdown of the Refrigeration Cycle, including all key
formulas and a clear explanation of the cycle processes, based on engineering
thermodynamics books such as Cengel & Boles – Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach.

❄️ Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle (Standard Cycle)
This is the most common refrigeration cycle used in:

Refrigerators

Air conditioners

Heat pumps

It uses a working fluid called a refrigerant (e.g., R-134a, R-22, R-410A) which evaporates and
condenses at useful temperatures.

🔁 Four Basic Processes of the Cycle

Process Component Description

1→2 Compressor Isentropic compression of vapor

2→3 Condenser Constant pressure heat rejection (vapor → liquid)

3→4 Expansion valve Throttling (irreversible) process: pressure drops

4→1 Evaporator Constant pressure heat absorption (liquid → vapor)

🔧 Key Assumptions (Ideal Cycle)

Working fluid: refrigerant

Steady flow, negligible KE and PE

17/31
 Isentropic compression

Constant-pressure heat exchange

Throttling in expansion valve (irreversible)

🧮 Formulas for Ideal Refrigeration Cycle

Let:

hi : enthalpy at state point i

​

q : heat
w: work
COP: coefficient of performance

🔹 1 → 2: Isentropic Compression
Work Input (compressor):

win = h2 − h1
​ ​ ​

🔹 2 → 3: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection

Heat Rejected (in condenser):

qout = h2 − h3
​ ​ ​

🔹 3 → 4: Throttling (Expansion Valve)

Isenthalpic Process:

h3 = h4 ​ ​

No work or heat transfer; pressure drops suddenly.

18/31
🔹 4 → 1: Constant Pressure Heat Absorption
Refrigeration Effect / Heat Absorbed:

qin = h1 − h4 ​ ​ ​

✅ Net Work Input

wnet = win = h2 − h1
​ ​ ​ ​

(Since throttling does no work, only the compressor consumes power.)

✅ Coefficient of Performance (COP)

For Refrigerators:

qin h1 − h4
COPR = =
​ ​ ​

wnet h2 − h1
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

For Heat Pumps:

qout h2 − h3
COPHP = =
​ ​ ​

wnet h2 − h1
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

Note:

COPHP = COPR + 1 ​ ​

📊 Summary Table of Formulas

Quantity Formula

Compressor work input win = h2 − h1

​ ​ ​

Heat rejected in condenser qout = h2 − h3

​ ​ ​

19/31
Quantity Formula

Heat absorbed in evaporator qin = h1 − h4

​ ​ ​

Expansion process h3 = h4
​ ​

Net work input wnet = h2 − h1

​ ​ ​

h1 −h4
COP (Refrigerator) COPR = ​
​

h2 −h1
​
​

​
​

h2 −h3
COP (Heat Pump) COPHP = ​

h2 −h1
​

​
​

🧱 Roles of Each Component

Component Function

Compressor Increases pressure and temperature of the refrigerant vapor

Condenser Removes heat at high pressure → refrigerant condenses

Expansion Valve Drops pressure rapidly; partially vaporizes refrigerant

Evaporator Absorbs heat at low pressure; refrigerant evaporates

🔁 Cycle Diagram Summary

🔹 T-s Diagram:
Vertical (1→2): isentropic compression

Horizontal (2→3): constant pressure heat rejection

Vertical (3→4): throttling (isenthalpic, entropy ↑)

Horizontal (4→1): constant pressure heat absorption

🔹 P-h Diagram:

20/31
 Slope up: 1→2 (compression)

Drop: 2→3 (condensation)

Vertical drop: 3→4 (expansion valve)

Slope right: 4→1 (evaporation)

📈 Performance Notes
Higher COP is desirable (more cooling per unit of work).

Use of superheating and subcooling can improve system performance and protect
components.

Irreversibilities (real systems) reduce COP due to:

Non-isentropic compression

Pressure drops

Heat transfer losses

Would you like a solved example, a T-s diagram, or a PDF version of this refrigerant cycle
breakdown?

Certainly! Let’s go through the Energy Analysis of a Closed System — this is a fundamental
topic in thermodynamics, typically covered in Chapter 4 of “Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach” by Cengel & Boles.

🔒 ENERGY ANALYSIS OF A CLOSED

SYSTEM
A closed system (or control mass) is a fixed amount of mass with no mass crossing the
boundary, though energy (heat/work) can cross the boundary.

21/31
✅ First Law of Thermodynamics (Closed System)
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
It can change form (heat ↔ work ↔ internal energy).

🔷 General form:
ΔEsystem = Ein − Eout
​ ​ ​

Where:

E = total energy
Ein , Eout = energy transferred in/out as heat Q or work W
​ ​

🧮 Energy Components in a Closed System

E = U + KE + PE

Where:

U = Internal energy
KE = 12 mV 2 = Kinetic energy
​

PE = mgz = Potential energy

📌 Complete Energy Balance Equation

(Qin − Qout ) − (Win − Wout ) = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE
​ ​ ​ ​

For most thermodynamic problems:

If KE and PE changes are negligible:

Q − W = ΔU

Where:

Q = net heat added to the system

22/31
 W = net work done by the system

🔧 Specific Form (Per Unit Mass)

q − w = Δu

Where:
Q
q= m
​

W
w= m
​

Δu = u2 − u1 ​ ​

🔨 Types of Work in a Closed System

1. Boundary (PdV) Work – expansion/compression of gases

2. Shaft Work – rotating devices (e.g., stirrer, paddle wheel)

3. Electrical Work – current flows through resistance

🔷 1. Boundary Work (Quasi-equilibrium Process)

V2 ​

Wb = ∫ ​ ​ P dV
V1 ​

Special cases:

Isobaric (constant P):

Wb = P (V2 − V1 )
​ ​

Polytropic Process: P V n = const

P 2 V2 − P 1 V1
Wb = (n 
= 1)
​ ​ ​ ​

1−n
​ ​

(r1−n − 1) V2
W b = P 1 V1 where r =
​

1−n V1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

23/31
 Isothermal (ideal gas): P V = const

V2
Wb = nRT ln ( )
​

V1
​ ​

🔷 2. Internal Energy Change (Ideal Gas)

ΔU = mcv (T2 − T1 ) ​ ​ ​

Where:

cv = specific heat at constant volume

​

For real substances, use steam or refrigerant tables:

ΔU = u2 − u1 ​ ​

🔷 3. Heat Transfer
If not given directly, heat can be found from:

Q = ΔU + W

📊 Summary Table of Key Formulas

Concept Formula

First Law (General) Q − W = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE

Neglecting KE, PE Q − W = ΔU

Per unit mass q − w = Δu

Internal energy change (IG) ΔU = mcv (T2 − T1 )

​ ​ ​

P2 V2 −P1 V1
Boundary work (Polytropic) Wb =
​
​ ​

1−n
​ ​

Boundary work (Isobaric) Wb = P (V2 − V1 )

​ ​ ​

24/31
Concept Formula

Boundary work (Isothermal IG) W = nRT ln ( VV21 )

​

​
​

Total energy in system E = U + 12 mV 2 + mgz

​

📌 Important Notes
Closed system does not exchange mass, only heat and work.

Energy changes result from changes in state properties: U , KE, PE

Always ensure units are consistent (kJ, kg, m/s, etc.)

Use steam/refrigerant tables for real substances, not formulas.

🔁 Real Examples of Closed Systems:

Application Description

Piston-cylinder Gas compression or expansion with moving boundary

Rigid tank No boundary work (volume constant), but may have heat transfer

Bomb calorimeter Isolated system (no heat/work out); energy changes internally

Would you like a solved example with numbers or a diagram showing this energy balance in
action?

Certainly! Here's a complete breakdown of the Energy Analysis of an Open System (Control
Volume), including all key formulas and explanations, just like in the standard textbooks
such as Cengel & Boles – Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach.

25/31
🌬️ ENERGY ANALYSIS OF AN OPEN
SYSTEM (CONTROL VOLUME)
An open system or control volume allows both:

Energy transfer (heat & work)

Mass transfer (inlet & outlet flows)

Typical examples:

Nozzles

Turbines

Compressors

Pumps

Heat exchangers

✅ First Law for Open Systems (Steady Flow Energy

Equation – SFEE)
V22 − V12
Q̇ − Ẇ = ṁ [(h2 − h1 ) + + g(z2 − z1 )]
​ ​

2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Where:

Q̇: heat added to control volume

​

Ẇ : work done by the system (shaft or electrical)

ṁ: mass flow rate
h: specific enthalpy
V : velocity
z : elevation
g : gravitational acceleration

26/31
🔧 Assumptions (for steady-flow):
Properties at inlet/outlet don't change with time

No accumulation of mass or energy

Control volume is fixed in size and shape

🧮 Key Components and Their SFEE Simplifications

Let’s look at specific devices commonly analyzed as open systems.

🔹 1. Turbine (Produces Work)

Heat loss is often small

Work output is significant

Neglect KE and PE changes (unless specified)

Ẇturb = ṁ(h1 − h2 )
​ ​ ​

🔹 2. Compressor / Pump (Consumes Work)

Heat loss often negligible

KE and PE changes often neglected

Ẇcomp = ṁ(h2 − h1 )
​ ​ ​

🔹 3. Nozzle / Diffuser
No work or heat

Focus on KE change

Assume ΔPE ≈0

2 2

27/31
 V22 − V12
= h1 − h2
​ ​

2
​ ​ ​

or

V2 =
​ V12 + 2(h1 − h2 )
​ ​ ​ ​

🔹 4. Throttling Valve
No heat, no work

No KE or PE changes

Constant enthalpy:

h1 = h2
​ ​

Used in refrigeration/AC systems to drop pressure.

🔹 5. Heat Exchanger
No shaft work

No mass accumulation

Heat transfer between two streams

Each stream:

q = hout − hin ​ ​

🔄 General SFEE (Steady Flow)

ΔV 2
Q̇ − Ẇ = ṁ [Δh + + gΔz ]
2
​ ​

Or per unit mass:

ΔV 2
q − w = Δh + + gΔz
2
​

28/31
🔧 Transient Flow Energy Equation (Unsteady)
Used for filling or emptying tanks, etc.

dEcv V2 V2
= ∑ ṁin (h + + gz ) − ∑ ṁout (h + + gz ) + Q̇ − Ẇ
​

dt 2 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Where:

Ecv = total energy in control volume

​

Applies when properties change with time

📊 Summary Table of Formulas for Common Open System

Devices
Device Formula (Simplified SFEE)

Turbine Ẇ = ṁ(h1 − h2 ) ​ ​

Compressor Ẇ = ṁ(h2 − h1 ) ​ ​

Nozzle V2 =
​ V12 + 2(h1 − h2 )
​ ​ ​ ​

Diffuser V1 =
​ V22 + 2(h2 − h1 )
​ ​ ​ ​

Throttling Valve h1 = h2
​ ​

Heat Exchanger hout − hin = Δh (for each stream)

​ ​

🧱 Interpretation of Energy Terms

Term Meaning

h Internal energy + flow energy (pressure energy)

V2
2
​ Kinetic energy per unit mass

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Term Meaning

gz Potential energy per unit mass

Q̇ ​ Heat added to the control volume

Ẇ Work done by the control volume (shaft work, not flow work)

🔁 Example of Open System Devices

System Description

Gas Turbine High-energy gas expands → does work

Air Compressor Uses work to compress air

Steam Nozzle Converts pressure energy to velocity

Throttling Valve Drops pressure, constant enthalpy

Heat Exchanger Transfers heat without mass mixing

⚠️ Important Notes
Use enthalpy h instead of internal energy u in open systems (includes flow energy).

Mass flow rate ṁ = ρV A (density × velocity × area) is critical.

Always check units (kJ/kg, m/s, etc.)

Use property tables or software for h, u, s etc. for real fluids.

Would you like a solved example of a gas turbine or compressor using this energy analysis,
or a T-s or flow diagram showing open system behavior?

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